MyHistoryNotes O Levelz

Why was the partition of Bengal reversed in 1911?

Harris Masood

[Protests and Violence] The partition of Bengal created a Muslim-majority province, the East Bengal. The elite Hindus of West Bengal, who were collecting taxes from Muslim peasants in east Bengal, would now lose their influence in the new province. They, therefore, rejected the decision and launched a series of violent protests and demonstrations against the partition. The tide of anger rapidly spread to other parts of India. The reaction was so strong that it gave birth to the development of extremism. A number of small extremist groups came into existence that launched attacks on the British officials. They succeeded in killing a few ones. Lord Minto, the future viceroy, escaped an assassination attempt. Many extremists were imprisoned for long time, but the situation was alarming to the British. Finally, they had to bow down before the Hindu agitation and thus revoked the Bengal partition.

[Economic Reasons] The British reversed the partition of Bengal due to economic reasons also. The Hindus of West Bengal started Swadeshi Movement, which also spread to other parts of India. It was a massive campaign for boycotting the British goods and using home-made products. The Hindus responded to the movement enthusiastically. The use of local products became a matter of pride. Foreign clothes were thrown on bonfires. By 1908, imports from Britain had fallen off significantly and sales of British goods in Indian markets dropped drastically. So the British had to reverse the decision.

[British Measures Failed] The British took several measures to bring the situation under control but political unrest kept on growing. Restrictions were imposed on newspapers and public gatherings. Editors were imprisoned. The prisons were filled with revolutionary activists. Tilak was also arrested in June 1908 and put behind the bars for 6 years. Apart from repressive measures, the British turned to reconciliation also by introducing Morley-Minto reforms in 1909 to win support of the Hindus, but the reforms also could not pacify them. The situation was becoming difficult for peaceful administration and ultimately the British had to move towards annulment of the partition.

Explain why the Lucknow Pact of 1916 was made.

[Muslims New Strategy] When Bengal was partitioned in 1905, Hindus reacted against the decision and they went on violent protests and boycotts of British goods. On the other hand, the Muslims remained loyal to the British rule. The British could not sustain the pressure of demonstrations and reversed the decision of partition in 1911. This was a betrayal to the Muslims loyalty. They realized the British rulers could no longer be trusted. Now they had to devise a new strategy for achieving their goals. They wanted to turn towards the demand of self-rule but they needed constitutional protection separate electorate and provincial autonomy from Hindus after the British would leave India. Muslim League, therefore, signed the Lucknow Pact in 1916 in which Congress agreed on granting the Muslims 1/3 reserved seats in the central legislative council.

[Jinnahs Role] At the time of the pact, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an idealist who believed that Hindus and Muslims could work together. He wanted that all religious groups should live together in harmony. He was a strong supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity. He believed that joint demands would put more pressure on the British. Therefore he persuaded the Congress and the Muslim League for the Lucknow Pact in 1916. He believed that this pact would lead to united Indian nation.

(Note: Mr. Jinnah became realist after Nehru Report in 1929 who then believed in the two-nation theory).

[Joint Demand] Congress was keen to gain the support of Muslim League for its demand of self-rule in India. It hoped that it would be difficult for the British to reject the joint demand of self-rule for longer time. Therefore, it was ready to give concessions to Muslim League for its own objective of home-rule. That is why Congress went into Lucknow Pact with Muslim League in 1916.

Why was the Simla Deputation an important turning point for the Muslims?
The Simla Deputation of 1906 marks a turning point for Muslims because the viceroy, Lord Minto, accepted their demand for separate electorate due to which they came in a position to select their own candidates in the future Legislative Councils. Muslims got true recognition for the first time after 1857 by getting better relations with the British. The success of Simla Deputation encouraged the Muslims to establish a political organization of their own, the Muslim League. Now they could encounter the growing influence of Congress.

What was the Rowlett Act 1918?

The Rowlett Act was a law implemented by the British government in colonial India in March 1919 in order to keep the troublemakers under control. The purpose of the Act was to deal with revolutionary activities. According to the Act, suspected people could be arrested without warrant and kept in prison without trial. They could be stopped from attending meetings and could be ordered to live in a particular place. This was a repressive measure that infuriated the political leadership and common Indians. Muhammad Ali Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Council in protest. In the Punjab the protest was very strong which led to the infamous Amritsar Massacre of 1919.

Why did the Congress Party oppose the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1906?

The number of members in the Imperial and Provincial Councils was increased, but the actual power still remained in the hands of the British. Official majority was maintained in the Imperial Council due to which it was not possible for the Indians to win voting on policies. The councils could only give advice, decisions were in the hands of the British. Congress wanted more share in the affairs of the state but such concessions were not granted in the reforms. Indians were not allowed high positions which was a racial discrimination. Congress also seriously disliked the right of separate electorate that was given to the Muslims in Morley-Minto Reforms. The Muslims were granted 6 reserved seats in the Imperial Council which the Hindus thought were more as compared to their population.

Why was Khilafat Movement founded?

[Protecting the Caliph and Caliphate] The Turkish Ottoman Empire joined World War 1 on the side of Germany and suffered military defeat against the Britain and her allies. After the war was finished, UK and USA seemed determined to overthrow the Caliph and divide the empire into different territories. Protecting the Caliph was very important for the Muslims because he was the symbolic religious and political leader of all Muslims in the world. Similarly, the disintegration of caliphate would harm the concept of Muslim Ummah. So, the Khilafat Movement was launched in November 1919 by Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and his brother in order to protect the caliphate from breakage and save the Caliph from being dethroned.

[Holy Places] The Ottoman Empire contained the Holy places of Arabia. The Muslims of India feared that collapse of the Caliphate could result in fall of the Holy places under the control of non-Muslims. Muslims all over the world have

strong religious attachment with these places and their sanctity is of topmost priority to them. Therefore, the movement was launched to defend Turkey and the sacred places.

[British Actions] During World War I, Indians were supporting the British against Germany. When Turkish Empire joined the war on the side of Germany, Indian Muslims came in a very awkward position because it was very difficult for them to fight against their Muslim brothers. The British realized the situations and put a number of prominent Muslim leaders behind the bars, which obviously offended their feelings. Secondly, the British prime minister had given assurances that Turkey would be protected, but later on the allied powers changed their mind and decided to remove the Caliph. These actions were convincing the Indian Muslims to launch massive protests against the British Government in the shape of Khilafat Movement.

What was the importance of Khilafat Movement?

Inspite of collapse of the Caliphate, Khilafat Movement was an important step towards the Muslim political development. Muslims learnt the importance of leadership and political organization. The movement did a great job in uniting the Muslims of India against Britain in support of the Caliph of Turkey. It aroused the feelings of Indian Muslims for their brothers in the world. Muslims got the idea and desire of a separate homeland for themselves. Once again, the Muslims became aware that they could no longer trust on Hindus and British. Both betrayed them on various occasions. Congress suddenly quit the movement when it had reached its climax. If Muslims have to survive, they will have to do it on their own. No dependence on other nations.

Why did the Cripps Mission of 1942 fail?

[Congress wanted immediate self-rule] Cripps proposals conceded complete independence at the end of the war. During the war, Indian political leaders could join the Executive Council with control of all government departments except the armed forces. Congress rejected the offer because it wanted immediate power and independence. Gandhi described the proposals as a post-dated cheque on a bank that was failing.

[Congress didnt want Indias disintegration] According to Cripps proposals, provinces could opt out of the Indian Union, which was definitely not acceptable to Congress Nationalists. They considered this option a lethal blow to Indian land. They could not see disintegration of Mother India, and therefore rejected the Cripps Offer.

[Jinnah wanted firm assurance] Cripps Mission conceded the right of self-determination to provincial units i.e. the provinces were free to remain within India or opt out of Indian Union. Mr. Jinnah was pleased with this clause because the provinces with Muslim majority could form their own federation i.e. Pakistan. But there was another clause stating that constitution of free India would be drawn up by the Indian political leaders. Jinnah feared that the constitution-making body would be dominated by Hindus who will deny the rights of Muslims. He wanted solid assurance for independent Pakistan, and therefore didnt agree with the Cripps Mission of 1942.

[Britains Crucial Position] Congress wanted to exploit Britains critical position. Many Congress leaders thought that wartime was the best opportunity to pressurize the British for immediate withdrawal from India. Therefore, instead of accepting Cripps Offer, they started the Quit India Movement on massive scale, which was an attempt to drive the British out of India through protests and demonstrations. If this strategy succeeds, Congress would deal with all other parties on its own terms.

Why did the Muslim league do better in the 1945 elections than it had in 1937?
In the 1945 elections, Muslim League came up with a striking victory by winning all the 30 Muslim seats in the Central Legislative Assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslim seats in provinces. The reasons behind this success were that Quaid-i-Azam had organized the party from the grass roots and party branches were increased after the 1937 elections. By mid 1938, membership numbers had increased dramatically. The chief ministers of Punjab, Bengal and Assam formally joined Muslim League. They gained experience in the by-elections and in 1945 the League knew how to contest elections. Image of the party was restored when leadership shifted from aristocrates and princes to true leaders of the people. The Congress rule from 1937-39 was also a nightmare for the Muslims facing religious restrictions and threat to their culture. During this period, Hindus provoked Muslims' indignation. The 1940's Pakistan Resolution proved a uniting force for the Muslims who were now thinking differently. Muslim League was now standing parallel to Congress and the communal divide was much greater. Therefore ML came up with surprising victory in the 1945 elections.

Describe Simon Commission of 1927?

Simon commission was made in 1927. It was headed by John Simon. It was formed to consider the situation in India. All members were British and none of them was Indian. This thing angered many Indians who went against it. In fact in 1919 the Government of India act stated that a commission would be formed after 10 years to look for the situation India. It was considered as an insult to India and many parties and Indian rose against it.

Describe the Nehru Report of 1928?

Nehru report was made in 1928. It was made by all parties conference in opposition for the Simon Commission. It was supported by about all Non-Muslims. It stated that India to be a federation. It said that protection of minorities should be done. It also stated immediate dominion status for India vote right for all adult male and female. British were given one year to accept the recommendation for the report or non cooperation was to be started.

Why did Jinnah produce his 14 points of 1929?

Jinnah decided to issue 14 points in response to Nehru Report (1928) which was a scheme of constitution for India. It included several points which were against Muslim interests. The Nehru Report suggested joint electorate (in place of separate electorate for Muslims), unitary form of government (in place of federal form of government) and Hindi as national language for India. These points were clearly against Muslim interests and were not liked by the Muslims. Jinnah suggested three amendments to the Nehru Report but these were rejected by the Congress. It clearly showed that the Congress was not sincere with the Muslims. At the annual meeting of Muslim League in March 1929 at Delhi. Jinnah gave his points in order to safeguard and protect the rights and interests of the Muslims. The 14 Points were the first ever demand of the Muslim League put to the British. These demands covered all aspects of Muslim interests at the time.

Jinnah 14 Points

1. Any future constitution should be federal, power resting with the provinces.

2. All Provinces should have the same amount of autonomy. 3. All legislatures and local bodies should be constituted with adequate representation of minorities. 4. Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the Central Assembly. 5. Election should be by separate electorates. 6. Any territorial changes should be affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, the Punjab and the NWFP. 7. Full liberty of belief and worship shall be granted to all communities. 8. No Bill shall be passed in any elected body if of any community in that body opposed it. 9. Sindh shall be separated from Bombay. 10. There should be reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan to put them on the same footing as other provinces. 11. Muslims should have an adequate share in the services of the state. 12. Muslim culture, education, language, religion and charities should be protected by the constitution. 13. All cabinets (at central or local level) should have at least 1/3 Muslim representation. 14. The Federation of India must not change laws without the consent of the provinces.

How successful were the three Round Table Conference of 1930-1932?

Round Table Conferences were successful only to some extent. The Round Table Conferences were held in London in 1930, 1931 and 1932. But neither Gandhi nor Jinnah attended all of them.

The Round Table Conferences were held to consider the Simon Commission Report and to suggest reforms to solve the constitutional problem of India. On the whole the Conferences did not achieve much and the constitutional problem was not resolved.

The First Round Table Conference (1930) was successful in the sense that it was agreed that Federal System of government would be adopted for India and responsible representative government would be set up in provinces. This was a great achievement because the Congress had suggested Unitary Form of government in provinces was a good step forward for self-rule. But Congress did not attend this conference because congress leaders were in jail on account of non-cooperation movement.

Secondly, the princely states also agreed to join the federation. Also several committees were formed to discuss different issues.

The Second Round Table Conference (1931) was attended by the Congress with high hopes of progress. Mr. Gandhi represented the Congress but he declared that the Congress was the only political party which could speak for all the Indian people. He also declared that there was no minority problem in India. Muslims and other minority leaders did not agree with Mr. Gandhi. Therefore on account of Mr. Gandhi stubborn and unfair attitude the conference could not achieve much but its success was that it was declared that Orissa, NWFP and Sind (after separation from Bombay) would be given full provincial status. The minorities issue remained unresolved.

The Third Round Table Conference was held in November 1932. It was again not attended by Congress. Mr. Jinnah also did not attend. The Conference proved to be a mere formality. It only finalized the reports and broke up without achieving anything of substance.

In the light of above facts, it can be said that although the Round Table Conference did not achieve much on the whole, yet the first conference of 1930 was more successful than the other two.

Describe the Communal Award of 1932?

On August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced that British government would give position to the minorities. The Muslim were given weight age in Hindu dominated provinces, but Muslims majority in Punjab and Bengal was reduced.

How important was the Government of India Act 1935?

Despite the failure of the Round Table Conferences, in March 1933 the British government gave the Joint Select Committee the task of formulating the new Act for India. The Committee comprised of 16 members each from the House of Commons and House of Lords, 20 representatives from British India and seven from the princely states. Lord Linlithgow was appointed as the president of the Committee. After a year and a half of deliberations, the Committee finally came out with a draft Bill on December 1934. The Bill was discussed in the House of Commons for 43 days and in the House of Lords for 13 days and finally, after being signed by the King, was enforced as the Government of India Act, 1935, in August 1935. The main features of the Act of 1935 were: 1. A federation of India was promised for, comprising both provinces and states. The provisions of the Act establishing the federal central government were not to go into operation until a specified number of rulers of states had signed Instruments of Accession. Since, this did not happen, the central government continued to function in accordance with the 1919 Act and only the part of the 1935 Act dealing with the provincial governments went into operation. 2. The Governor General remained the head of the central administration and enjoyed wide powers concerning administration, legislation and finance. 3. No finance bill could be placed in the Central Legislature without the consent of the Governor General. 4. The Federal Legislature was to consist of two houses, the Council of State (Upper House) and the Federal Assembly (Lower House). 5. The Council of State was to consist of 260 members, out of whom 156 were to be elected from the British India and 104 to be nominated by the rulers of princely states. 6. The Federal Assembly was to consist of 375 members; out of which 250 were to be elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the British Indian provinces while 125 were to be nominated by the rulers of princely states. 7. The Central Legislature had the right to pass any bill, but the bill required the approval of the Governor General before it became Law. On the other hand Governor General had the power to frame ordinances. 8. The Indian Council was abolished. In its place, few advisers were nominated to help the Secretary of State for India. 9. The Secretary of State was not expected to interfere in matters that the Governor dealt with, with the help of Indian Ministers. 10. The provinces were given autonomy with respect to subjects delegated to them. 11. Diarchy, which had been established in the provinces by the Act of 1919, was to be established at the Center. However it came to an end in the provinces.

12. Two new provinces Sindh and Orissa were created. 13. Reforms were introduced in N. W. F. P. as were in the other provinces. 14. Separate electorates were continued as before. 15. One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature was guaranteed. 16. Autonomous provincial governments in 11 provinces, under ministries responsible to legislatures, would be setup. 17. Burma and Aden were separated from India. 18. The Federal Court was established in the Center. 19. The Reserve Bank of India was established. Both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League opposed the Act, but participated in the provincial elections of winter 1936-37, conducted under stipulations of the Act. At the time of independence, the two dominions of India and Pakistan accepted the Act of 1935, with few amendments, as their provisional constitution.

Why was Congress Rule of 1937-1939 unpopular with many Muslims?

Congress Ministries were formed in 8 out of 11 provinces of India in 1937 and they worked under the instructions of the Congress High Command, which was controlled by Mr. Gandhi and some other leaders. The Congress Rule was hated because it adopted policies which harmed and hurt the Muslims in many ways. Some of the steps taken by Congress Ministries were: 1. Song of Bande Matram which clearly hurt Muslim feelings, adopted as National Anthem. 2. Wardha Scheme was educational schemes which encouraged Hindu religion and culture. Teaching was to be in Hindi with no religious education which meant that Muslim students were at a disadvantage. 3. Muslim children were required to show reverence for Gandhis portrait which was hung up in schools. 4. Ban on cow slaughter was enforced. 5. Frequent occurrences of Hindu-Muslim riots in which always the Muslims were made victims. The Congress Rule was hated on account of these anti-Muslim policies and the Muslims heaved a sigh of relief. When the Congress Ministries adopted in November 1939.

Why were the British able to replace the Mughals as the dominant force in the sub-continent by 1850?

The most important reason is that Indians were not united as a nation against the invaders. India was a collection of disunited states with religious and cultural differences. The rulers plotted against each other and fought among themselves. Many of them were seeking protection from the British who had come there for establishing their own empire. A number of local rulers and princely states provided support to the British when they were fighting against the Mughals or other provincial nawabs.

The British were good planners of war strategies, they were equipped with latest warfare tools and naval equipment and had well-trained armies. They had enough financial resources and could afford fighting long costly wars. They used efficient means of communications e.g. railways for quick deployment of their troops. So they were technologically much more advanced than Indians. Furthermore, they were highly committed in expanding the British Empire.

Thirdly, many Indians gained benefits by trading with the British. They appreciated the development of infrastructure facilities like roads, schools, hospitals and thousands of miles of railway network. The

British irrigated millions of acres of land and provided jobs to a great number of Indians. So businessmen, traders and moderate Indians were convenient with the British rule and cooperated accordingly.

Explain why the successors of Auragzeb failed to prevent the decline of Mughal Empire?

Firstly, Aurangzeb's successors fought for succession to the throne which seriously undermined the military and financial strengths of the empire. Many important personalities who were capable of running the affairs of the state lost their lives in these wars.

The successors of Aurangzeb were pleasure-loving and did not take serious interests in the affairs of the empire. They gave all the powers to their ministers and nawabs who governed the state according to their own interests and wishes. They were extravagant in spite of poor economical conditions. They spent a lot of money on finest dresses, jewelry and foods. They used to serve a number of dishes in official invitations.

They gave no attention to the development of modern warfare tools, military training and naval technology. Due to their weak military position, they could not defend the empire against external invasions and internal rebellions.

How far was Aurangzeb responsible for the decline of Mughal Empire?

Aurangzeb was ambitious to be the ruler of entire India. He built up a massive army and launched several military campaigns to expand his empire. He went north-west into Afghanistan, and drove southwards to conquer Bijapur and Golconda states. Though he succeeded in expanding the empire, but it was at enormous cost in lives and treasury.

Instead of political solution through negotiation, he always tried to suppress the rebellions by using military force. A number of revolts rose against him throughout the empire - Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs, Satnamis, Marathas and Pathan tribes. These far-flung campaigns were extremely costly and almost drained the Mughal treasury.

To sustain long costly wars, Aurangzeb obviously needed money for his armies and so he levied heavy taxes on the people including the Jizya tax on non-Muslims. This caused immense displeasure in the people and resulted in political instability in the empire.

According to some historians, his religious policies were intolerant towards non-Muslims. A number of temples were destroyed and construction of new ones was forbidden, and he tried to impose Islamic laws on non-Muslims which caused an angry reaction in them.

However, the kingdom survived for 150 years after Aurangzeb's death. There were a number of other reasons that lead to the disintegration of the empire including weak successors, foreign invasions, vastness of the empire, fratricidal wars and final blow from the British. So Aurangzeb solely cannot be held responsible for the collapse of the Mughal Empire.

How important were the religious reforms of Shah Wali Ullah?

Shah Wali Ullah worked for the revival of Islam in the Muslim community. He translated the Holy Quran into Persian so that a common man could understand its teachings and seek guidance for his routine dealings with the people.

He wrote a number of books which enabled a large number of people to implement the teachings of Islam in different walks of life - social, political and economic etc. In his books, he emphasized on social justice and the rights of peasants and workers. He urged the Muslims to lead pure life and keep away from all kinds of social evils. His books are used as authentic sources of references even today. He identified the un-Islamic practices and Hindu customs and influences that had crept into the lives and worships of the Muslims. It was very important for the Muslims in order to attain moral and spiritual regeneration. He promoted the message of unity and harmony in the Muslim community. He concentrated on the fundamental principles of Islam in a very balanced style which reduced religious differences among the sectarian groups.

He founded madrassa Rahimiya that played a pivotal role in preaching Islamic teachings. This madrassa produced a number of scholars who spread his ideas and teachings throughout the continent. Many Islamic leaders were inspired by him who worked for the betterment of Muslim community.

Was a lack of unity amongst the Indians the main reason for the failure of the War of Independence 1857-58? Explain your answer.

During the War of Independence 1857, there was a complete lack of unity among the fighting groups though all were fighting against a common enemy, the British soldiers. There was no coordination between different regions of unrest and no attempts were made to bring their strengths together. Some local leaders even helped the British in the war e.g. the ruler of Kashmir sent 2000 troops on the British side. However, there were also some other reasons for the failure of the war.

The sudden outbreak of 1857 war had no defined goals or planning. Different groups were fighting for different causes. Most of the Muslims wanted to restore the Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, but Hindus and Sikhs were not ready to fight for restoring the Muslim Mughal Empire. Many princes were interested in regaining their own feudal powers. A good number of ordinary people remained neutral i.e. they did not take part in the uprising.

There was no central leadership to motivate people to join the rebellion. There was no central command to provide guidelines, prepare action planes or coordinate between different areas of revolt. The final reason is that the British were very strong to defeat, and they were very determined to suppress the revolt.

The most important reason for the failure of the war was the strength and position of the British. They were good planners of war strategies. They had sound financial resources and could fight long wars. They had latest warfare tools and their troops were experienced and highly trained in modern methods of fighting. They had efficient means of communication e.g. railways for quick deployment of troops. They had skilled diplomats who knew the techniques of gaining support of local rulers.

Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistan government since 1947?

Promotion of regional languages is important in order to preserve local culture and literature. People have strong attachment with their native languages to maintain their identity.

Promotion of local languages would enable the people to read poetry, religious books and folks stories written in their mother languages. Being most easily understood, sometimes teachers can use native languages for instructions in the classrooms.

Many people love to watch dramas, talk shows and other TV programs in native languages. They like to hear local music. A number of local TV programs on agricultural methods, livestock rearing, poultry farming and fish farming are highly appreciated in the public. Literacy rate in Pakistan is quite low and many people in rural areas can't speak or understand Urdu. Their skill-building can only be done if relevant TV and radio programs are broadcast in their native languages. Therefore it is important to promote regional languages through TV channels and radio programs.

Why did the Congress Party oppose the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1906?

The number of members in the Imperial and Provincial Councils was increased, but the actual power still remained in the hands of the British. Official majority was maintained in the Imperial Council due to which it was not possible for the Indians to win voting on policies. The councils could only give advice, decisions were in the hands of the British. Congress wanted more share in the affairs of the state but such concessions were not granted in the reforms. Indians were not allowed high positions which was a racial discrimination. Congress also seriously disliked the right of separate electorate that was given to the Muslims in Morley-Minto Reforms. The Muslims were granted 6 reserved seats in the Imperial Council which the Hindus thought were more as compared to their population.

Why was Khilafat Movement founded?

The Turkish Ottoman Empire joined World War 1 on the side of Germany and lost against the Britain and her allies. After the war was finished, UK and USA seemed determined to overthrow the Caliph and divide the empire into different territories. Protecting the Caliphate was very important for the Muslims because it contained the Holy places of Arabia. The Muslims of India feared that collapse of the Caliphate could result in fall of the Holy places under the control of non-Muslims. So Muhammad Ali Jauhar and his brother, Shaukat Ali, launched the Khilafat Movement to preserve the Ottoman Empire and protect the Caliph from being removed.

What was the importance of Khilafat Movement?

In spite of collapse of the Caliphate, Khilafat Movement was an important step towards the Muslim political development. Muslims learnt the importance of leadership and political organization. The movement did a great job in uniting the Muslims of India against Britain in support of the Caliph of Turkey.

It aroused the feelings of Indian Muslims for their brothers in the world. Muslims got the idea and desire of a separate homeland for themselves.

Once again, the Muslims became aware that they could no longer trust on Hindus and British. Both betrayed them on

various occasions. Congress suddenly quit the movement when it had reached its climax. If Muslims have to survive, they will have to do it on their own. No dependence on other nations.

Who was Allama Iqbal?

Allama Iqbal, born in Sialkot on 11 November 1877, was a distinguished Muslim Leader. He is known as the architect of Pakistan because he was the first person who gave the idea of an independent Muslim state during his presidential address to Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. He got degrees in philosophy from Punjab and Cambridge Universities and doctorate degree from the University of Munich, Germany. He wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian. In 1922, he was awarded the title of "Sir" by the British in recognition of his poetry. He was an active politician and contributed significantly in making the Muslim League a mass political party. He died on April 21, 1938.

Why was Allama Iqbal important to the Pakistan Movement?

Allama Iqbal is known as the architect of Pakistan because he was the first person to address the partition of India and gave the idea of an independent Muslim state. During his presidential address to Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930, he demanded for an independent Muslim state in the north-west India. This idea of Iqbal became the policy of Muslim League just after 10 years.

He was an active politician. He was a member of the Punjab Assembly and attended the Round Table Conferences in London to defend the Muslim community in India. He made significant contributions in making the Muslim League as a mass political party. He wrote many poetry books, writing in Urdu and Persian. Through his poetry, he recalled the Muslims their past glory. He kindled the candle of freedom and provoked their desire for having a separate state. Furthermore, he instructed the Muslims to work hard in order to improve their status in the society.

His work was around the Two-Nation Theory. He said that there were different races in India, speaking different languages and practicing different religions. He, therefore, argued that partition was necessary to preserve Islamic Faith in their culture.

Why did the Round Table Conferences Fail ?

1st Round Table Conference

The first Round Table Conference which was held in London in 1930 included the Muslim League, the Liberals and the Princes of the Princely States. The Congress did not attend the conference and started the non-cooperation movement. As it was the largest body of India which represent the whole of India no big decisions were made.

The Hindu representatives returned and asked Gandhi to stop the non-cooperation movement and join the next Round Table Conference. He signed the Irwin Gandhi Pact according to which Irwin agreed to release the prisoners while Gandhi agreed to stop the movement.

2nd Round Table Conference

The second Round Table Conference was held in 1931however it failed as Gandhi gave a hard line against the minorities and initiated the whole problem. This resulted in the lost of power of local bodies as well. The British government threatened to pass the act if no solution is reached within few weeks. Jinnah sitting in front and listening to the views.

A number of representatives from Congress and Muslim League are listening to the proceedings

Third Round Table Conference

So to solve the problem in 1932, the final round of discussion started. Lord Irwin was replaced by Lord Wellington who was not ready to listen to the people and wanted everyone to follow whatever he says. Jinnah was not even invited. Before the conference Ramsay McDonald announced the Communal Award which was surely a huge mistake in its own. It declared Muslim majority in Hindu majority areas while Muslim minority in Muslim majority areas.

The Congress clearly was outraged and boycotted it. the Muslims however were weak and at least it was giving them something so they accepted.

These reasons were behind its failure.