---------------------------------------

Manuscript submitted on June 28, 2010. This manuscript has been

authored by UT-Battelle, LLC, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with
the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and
the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the
United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable,
world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this
manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes.
Y. Xu, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN, USA,
xuy3@ornl.gov.
H. Li, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA, hli26@utk.edu.
D. T. Rizy, ORNL rizydt@ornl.gov.
J. D. Kueck, ORNL, kueckjd@ornl.gov.
F. Li, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA, fli6@utk.edu.


Abstract -- Distributed energy resources (DER) with a power
electronics inverter interface can provide both active power and
nonactive power simultaneously and independently. A
decoupled control algorithm of active power and nonactive
power is developed based on the instantaneous active power and
nonactive power theory. A current limiter is combined to the
control algorithm, and it ensures that the inverter is not
overloaded. During the normal system operation, the active
power has higher priority over the nonactive power so that the
energy from a DER can be fully transferred to the grid. Within
the inverters capability, nonactive power is provided to the grid
as required. With this control algorithm, the inverters
capabilities are taken full advantage at all times, both in terms
of functionality as well as making use of its full KVA rating.
Through the algorithm, the inverters active power and
nonactive power are controlled directly, simultaneously, and
independently. Several experimental results fully demonstrate
the validity and effectiveness of this new control algorithm. As
evidenced by the fast dynamic response that results, a DER
system with the control algorithm can provide full services to
the grid in both steady state and during transient events.

Index Termsactive power control, nonactive power control,
current limiter, distributed energy resource
I. INTRODUCTION
istributed energy resources (DER) are widely used in
power systems to supply active power. As an
alternative to the traditional centralized synchronous
generators, DER has steadily gained higher penetration in the
power systems. However, many present DER systems have
little to no nonactive power capability. The power electronics
interfaces between the DER and the grid are similar to a
STATCOM. They both have an inverter to convert dc power
to ac power, or vice versa. It has been proven that a
STATCOM with energy storage can provide both active and
nonactive power for voltage control [1] or enhance its
dynamic response [2]. A STATCOM with energy storage at
wind power generators can reduce voltage flicker and remove
the voltage variation caused by the wind speed fluctuations
[3]. Another example is mitigation of the voltage fluctuation
generated by arc furnaces using a STATCOM with energy
storage [4].
A widely-used control scheme for grid connected
inverters is to convert the 3-phase ac system to a 2-phase
system using the Park Transformation and then convert to a
2-phase dc system [5]. Another control method is to use
genetic and evolutionary algorithms [6].
An instantaneous active power and nonactive power
theory [7] is adopted in this paper to perform real-time
calculation and control. Instantaneous definitions of active
power, nonactive power, active current, nonactive current,
voltage root-mean-square (rms) value, and current rms value
are defined, which provides the basis of real-time control of
DER. A control scheme is proposed in this paper to control
the active power (P) and nonactive power (Q) of the DER
independently. A current limiter is also developed to ensure
that the DER and its interface are not over-loaded.
Compared to some other instantaneous power theories
and the control algorithms derived from them, the proposed
decoupled control algorithm for instantaneous active power
and nonactive power can control the inverters active and
nonactive power instantaneously and independently. The fast
response of the control algorithm ensures that the DER can
provide service under different system conditions, both in
steady state and during transient events.
II. DECOUPLED CONTROL ALGORITHM WITH CURRENT
LIMITER
A typical system configuration of a DER with an inverter
interface is studied in this paper, as shown in Fig. 1. An
instantaneous active power and nonactive power theory [7] is
adopted to develop the control algorithm for this system.
Instantaneous Active and Nonactive Power Control
of Distributed Energy Resources
with a Current Limiter
Yan Xu, Member, IEEE; Huijuan Li, Student Member, IEEE; D. Tom Rizy, Senior Member, IEEE
Fangxing Li, Senior Member, IEEE; John D. Kueck, Senior Member, IEEE
D
978-1-4244-5287-3/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE 3855






Fig. 1. Parallel connection of a DER with a power electronics inverter.
A. DER System Configuration
The system configuration of the DER system is shown in
Fig. 1. The DER system is connected in parallel with the grid
through a coupling inductor L
c
. The coupling inductor can
mitigate the ripples in the DER output current. The
connection point is referred to as the point of common
coupling (PCC), and the PCC voltage is denoted as v
t
. The
equivalent local load is also connected at the PCC. The rest of
the system is simplified as an infinite voltage source with a
system impedance of jL
s
, neglecting the resistance. The
DER energy source is connected to the DC link of the
inverter with a capacitor C
dc
. The DER energy source is the
active power source, and the capacitor is the nonactive power
source of the DER system. The inverter current i
c
is
controlled so that the desired amount of active power and
nonactive power is provided from the DER system.
The instantaneous values of the PCC voltage and the
inverter current are measured and provided to the controller.
The controller is developed based on a dSpace real-time
control platform. After calculation, pulse width modulation
(PWM) signals are sent to the inverter by the controller to
turn on or off the power electronics switches. The inverter
converts the power on the dc side to ac power with
appropriate waveform, frequency, magnitude, and phase
angle so that it can be connected and synchronized to the
grid.
B. Instantaneous Power Theory
An instantaneous active power and nonactive power
theory [7] is adopted. Consistent with the standard steady-
state power definitions, this theory is an extension of the
standard definitions and other instantaneous power theories.
It defines the instantaneous active current, instantaneous
nonactive current, instantaneous active power, and
instantaneous nonactive power. It also defines the average
power, average active power, average nonactive power,
apparent power, apparent active power, and apparent
nonactive power. These power definitions are instantaneous
values, and functions of time. Similarly, the rms values of
voltages and currents are also defined as instantaneous
values. The instantaneous active power and nonactive power
theory is valid in various power systems, whether single-
phase or multi-phase, sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal, periodic
or non-periodic, balanced or unbalanced.
Considering that the power system in this paper is a three-
phase balanced system, the instantaneous power theory is
simplified in the following derivation. The DER system
shown in Fig. 1 can also be simplified as the single-phase
equivalent circuit in Fig. 2, assuming that the three-phase
system is balanced. Let v
t
(t) and v
c
(t) denote the
instantaneous PCC voltage and the inverter output voltage
(harmonics are neglected), respectively, where is the phase
angle of v
c
(t) relative to the PCC voltage.
:
t
(t) = 2I
t
cos(t) (1)
:
c
(t) = 2I
c
cos(t + o) (2)
The rms values of v
t
(t) and v
c
(t) are given in (3) and (4),
respectively.
I
t
(t) =
_
2
1
] :
t
2
()J
t
t-
T
2
(3)
I
c
(t) =
_
2
1
] :
c
2
()J
t
t-
T
2
(4)
where T/2 is one half of the period of the voltage. It is the
averaging interval used in this paper. In the instantaneous
nonactive power theory [7], the averaging interval can be
different values depending on the system characteristics. In a
sinusoidal system with period T, the averaging interval is
usually chosen as kT/2, where k is a positive integer. In this
paper, k is chosen as 1, which is the shortest averaging
interval so that a fast transient response can be achieved.
Different from the standard steady state definitions, V
t
(t) and
V
c
(t) are instantaneous variables, function of time t. At steady
state, they are constant values V
t
and V
c
, which are consistent
with the standard definitions. Similarly, all the other rms
definitions and power definitions are functions of time;
therefore, they are valid in both steady state and transients.
The current from the DER to the utility is denoted as i
c
(t):
i
c
(t) =
2
oL
c
|I
c
sin(t + o) - I
t
sin(t)] (5)
where is the phase angle between the PCC voltage v
t
(t) and
the inverter current i
c
(t). The average power of the DER is
denoted as P(t):
P(t) =
2
1
] :
t
()i
c
()J
t
t-
T
2
=
v
t
v
c
oL
c
sin (6)
The instantaneous active current component of the
inverter current i
c
(t) is defined as,
i
cu
(t) =
P(t)
v
t
2
(t)
i
c
(t). (7)
3856



Fig. 3. Active power and nonactive power control diagram.


Fig. 2. Simplified circuit diagram of a parallel connected DER.
The instantaneous nonactive current of the inverter
current is defined as,
i
cn
(t) = i
c
(t) -i
cu
(t). (8)
The i
ca
(t) and i
cn
(t) are the active component and the
nonactive component of the inverter current i
c
(t). By
controlling these two current components, the active power
and the nonactive power of the DER can be controlled
independently.
The rms values of i
ca
(t) and i
cn
(t) are defined as I
ca
(t) and
I
cn
(t), respectively.
I
cu
(t) =
_
2
1
] i
cu
2
()J
t
t-
T
2
(9)
I
cn
(t) =
_
2
1
] i
cn
2
()J
t
t-
T
2
(10)
The apparent power S(t) and the average nonactive power
Q(t) of the DE are:
S(t) = I
t
(t)I
c
(t) =
v
t
oL
c
I
t
2
+ I
c
2
-2I
t
I
c
cos o (11)
(t) = I
t
(t)I
cn
(t) = S
2
(t) - P
2
(t) =
v
t
oL
c
(I
c
cos o - I
t
)
(12)
where Q(t) is defined as positive if the inverter injects
nonactive power to the utility, and negative if the inverter
absorbs nonactive power from the utility. P(t) and Q(t) in (6)
and (12) can be approximated by the first terms of the Taylor
series if the angle is small, as shown in (13) and (14),
P(t) =
v
t
v
c
oL
c
o (13)
(t) =
v
t
oL
c
(I
t
- I
c
) (14)
C. Feedback Control Algorithm
In (13) and (14), assuming the variation of V
t
can be
neglected, i.e., V
t
is constant, then the average nonactive
power Q(t) is proportional to the magnitude of the inverter
output voltage v
c
(t). However, the average active power P(t)
is dependent on both the amplitude V
c
and the phase angle
of v
c
(t). A control scheme is developed accordingly with two
feedback control loops. The inner loop controls the nonactive
power Q(t) by controlling the amplitude of v
c
(t), while the
outer loop controls the active power P(t) by controlling the
phase angle of v
c
(t).
If the active power and nonactive power are the control
objects, the inverter current is not a controllable variable.
However, the inverter is very sensitive to the current;
therefore, to insure that the inverter is not overloaded, a
current limiter is developed in the controller. Instead of the
active power and the nonactive power of the inverter, the
inverter current is the direct control variable. The active
current I
ca
(t) and the nonactive current I
cn
(t) are control
variables instead of P(t) and Q(t). At steady-state, the
relationships of I
ca
(t), I
cn
(t), P(t), and Q(t) is as follows:
P(t) = I
t
(t)I
cu
(t) (15)
(t) = I
t
(t)I
cn
(t) (16)
The active power P(t) and nonactive power Q(t) in (13)
and (14) can be controlled indirectly by controlling the active
current I
ca
(t) and nonactive current I
cn
(t) in (15) and (16)
directly.
The decoupled feedback control diagram is shown in Fig.
3. In the nonactive power control loop, the amplitude of the
instantaneous inverter output voltage v
c
(t) is controlled by the
PI controller PI
1
, where I
cn
*
is the reference, I
cn
is the actual
value, and K
P1
and K
I1
are the proportional gain and integral
gain of the PI controller PI
1
. Using the PCC voltage as its
reference, the amplitude of the inverter output voltage is
modified based on the amount of the nonactive power. The
result of this control loop is v
*
c1
(t), which is in phase with the
PCC voltage v
t
(t), as shown in (17).
:
c1
-
= j1 + K
P1
(I
cn
-
- I
cn
) +K
I1
] (I
cn
-
- I
cn
)Jt
t
0
[ :
t
(t)
(17)
The inverter active power control is realized by
controlling the phase angle of the inverter output voltage.
Equation (18) describes the active power control loop. The
phase angle of v
c
(t) is controlled by the PI controller PI
2
,
where I
ca
*
is the reference, and I
ca
is the actual value.
o
-
= K
P2
(I
cu
-
- I
cu
) + K
I2
] (I
cu
-
- I
cu
)Jt
t
0
(18)
D. Current Limiter
As shown in (15) (18), the active current reference I
ca
*

and the nonactive current reference I
cn
*
can be calculated
according to the preset active power reference and nonactive
3857


Fig. 4. Current hysteresis loop limiter.



Fig. 5. Current limiter flow chart diagram.
power reference. To be clear, the active current and nonactive
current references calculated from the preset active power
and nonactive power references are referred to as the preset
references. By adding the current limiter to the controller, the
preset active current reference and the nonactive current
reference are modified so that the inverter current will not
exceed the current limit I
c_limit
.
As shown in Fig. 4, after the inverter current limit value
(I
c_limit
) is set, the value of the inverter current falls into the
three zones: safe zone, transition zone, and over current zone.
The transition zone is the band around the current limit I
c_limit

with the width of 2threshold. The inverter current is
controlled no larger than the I
c_limit
with a hysteresis loop.
When the current increases, it follows the red curve in Fig. 4.
When the current enters into the transition zone from the safe
zone, the inverter remains the same operation mode as in the
safe zone, i.e., the active current and nonactive current are
controlled to meet the active power and nonactive power
references. It changes from this mode to current limit mode
once the current reaches beyond the upper limit of the
transition zone, i.e., I
c_limit
+ threshold. When it decreases, it
follows the blue curve. When the current enters into the
transition zone from the over current zone, the inverter
remains in the same operation mode as in the over current
zone, i.e., the current is limited below the preset current limit.
Once the current decreases below the lower limit of the
transition zone, i.e., I
c_limit
threshold, it changes from
current limit mode to active power and nonactive power
tracking mode. The hysteresis loop prevents the controller
from switching back and forth between two zones when the
inverter current is very close to the current limit value.
The active current has higher priority than the nonactive
current, because providing active power is the DERs main
task. When the inverter current exceeds the current limit, the
nonactive current is decreased first. The active current is
limited only if the active current itself is already larger than
the current limit, or the nonactive current is already decreased
to its minimum value.
The current limiter diagram is shown in Fig. 5. The PCC
voltage and inverter current are measured. The active power
and nonactive power references are preset, and the preset
active current and nonactive current references are calculated
according to the active power and nonactive power references.
The measured inverter current is compared to the current
limit value, and it is determined to be in the safe zone, the
transition zone, or the over current zone.
If the measured inverter current is smaller than (I
c_limit
-
threshold), it is in the safe zone. The active current and
nonactive current references are equal to the preset references
calculated based on the active power and nonactive power
references.
If the measured inverter current is greater than (I
c_limit

+threshold), it is in the over current zone. Then the active
current is compared to the current limit I
c_limit
to determine the
values of the active current and nonactive current references.
Similarly, the active current also has three zones, i.e., the safe
zone, the transition zone, and the over current zone. If the
active current is in the safe zone, the active current reference
is equal to the preset reference, and the nonactive current
reference is calculated so that the total inverter current does
not exceed the current limit. If the active current is in the
transition zone, the active current reference is chosen as the
smaller one of the current limit and the preset reference. The
nonactive current reference is calculated so that the total
inverter current is equal to the current limit. If the active
current is in the over current zone, the active current
3858


(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference
(c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference
(e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter

Fig. 6. Active power Pref from 10 kW to 50 kW,
nonactive power Qref = 10 kVar.

(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference
(c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference
(e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter

Fig. 7. Active power Pref from 50 kW to 10 kW,
nonactive power Qref = 10 kVar.

reference is equal to the current limit, and the nonactive
current is zero (In the experimental results, the minimum
nonactive power is set at 10 kVar instead of zero.).
If the measured inverter current is between (I
c_limit
-
threshold) and (I
c_limit
+ threshold), it is in the transition zone.
Similar to the over current zone, the active current is
compared to the current limit, and the active current and
nonactive current references are determined accordingly.
III. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The proposed DER system in Fig. 1 with the
instantaneous active power and nonactive power controller
has been implemented experimentally. The ac voltage is 480
V (line-to-line rms), the inverter dc link voltage is 800 V. The
inverter current is limited to 60 A rms.
Four cases have been studied, and the experimental
results are illustrated in the following sections. These cases
were tested on an actual distribution system at the Distributed
Energy Communications & Controls (DECC) Laboratory at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, TN. In each
case, a step change is applied to the active power or nonactive
power reference in order to study the dynamic response of the
control method.
The inverter efficiency in the following cases is
calculated based on the input power on the DC side of the
inverter and the input power to the grid at PCC by the
inverter. The efficiency includes losses in the capacitor on the
inverter DC link, the inverter itself, and the coupling
inductor.
A. Active Power Reference Increase
Case 1: The active power reference P
ref
has a sudden
increase from 10 kW to 50 kW, and the nonactive power
reference Q
ref
is set at 10 kVar. Figs. 6a 6f show the active
power, the nonactive power, the inverter active current i
ca
, the
inverter nonactive current i
cn
, the inverter current i
c
, and the
inverter efficiency. The powers are average values, and the
currents are in rms values. The currents are the average of the
three phase-to-neutral values. In Fig. 6a, the red waveform is
the active power reference, and the blue waveform is the
actual active power. In Fig. 6b, the red waveform is the
nonactive power reference, and the blue one is the actual
value. In Fig. 6c, the red waveform is the active current
reference, and the blue one is the actual active current. In Fig.
6d, the red waveform is the nonactive current reference, and
the blue one is the actual value.
Before the sudden change in the active power reference,
the inverter current is below the current limit, and it is in the
safe mode. The active current and nonactive current
references are the red waveforms in the figures, which are
calculated from the P and Q references. The active power and
3859


(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference
(c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference
(e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter

Fig. 8. Active power Pref = 20 kW,
nonactive power Qref from 20 kVar to 50 kVar.

(a) Active power and reference (b) Nonactive power and reference
(c) Active current and reference (d) Nonactive current and reference
(e) Inverter current (f) Efficiency of the inverter

Fig. 9. Active power Pref = 20 kW,
nonactive power Qref from 50 kVar to 20 kVar.

nonactive power are tracking their references. After the
sudden change, the active current reference is increased to
above 61 A, and the nonactive current remains the same, as
shown in Figs. 6c and 6d. In Fig. 6c, when the inverter
current exceeds the current limit (60 A), the current limiter is
triggered. The current references are re-calculated based on
the current limit so that the total current is limited to 60 A
(Fig. 6e). Fig. 6f shows the DER system efficiency. It is
higher when the inverter is loaded closer to its rating.
B. Active Power Reference Decrease
Case 2: As shown in Fig. 7, P
ref
decreases from 50 kW to
10 kW, and Q
ref
is set at 10 kVar. When P
ref
is 50 kW, and
Q
ref
is 10 kVar, the total inverter current exceeds the limit;
therefore the inverter operates in the current limit mode. After
P
ref
is decreased to 10 kW, it is out of the current limit mode,
and the currents follow the references calculated from P
ref

and Q
ref
.
Fig. 7a is the active power and its reference. The actual
active power is lower than the reference when P
ref
= 50 kW,
because the inverter is in the current limit mode. The total
inverter current is limited to 60 A, and the active current and
nonactive current references are calculated based on the
preset limit instead of the active power and nonactive power
references, as shown in Figs. 7c and 7d. Fig. 7e shows that
the inverter current is controlled below the current limit. Fig.
7f shows the inverter efficiency during this case.
C. Nonactive Power Reference Increase
Case 3: As shown in Fig. 8, P
ref
is set at 20 kW, and Q
ref

increases from 20 kVar to 50 kVar. Similar to Case 1, the
current limit is triggered after the current reaches above 60 A.
The nonactive current reference is re-calculated so that the
total inverter current is controlled at the current limit.
Figs. 8a and 8b are the waveforms of the active power
and nonactive power. The red waveforms are the references,
and the blue waveforms are the actual values of the active
power and nonactive power. When the references are 20 kW
and 20 kVar, the actual values are tracking the references
very well. When the nonactive power reference is increased
to 50 kVar, the nonactive power increases until the inverter
current reaches the current limit. After the transient, the
actual nonactive power is lower than the reference. The active
current and nonactive current references are re-calculated
based on the current limit, as shown in Fig. 8c and 8d.
D. Nonactive Power Reference Decrease
Case 4: As shown in Fig. 9, P
ref
is set at 20 kW, and Q
ref

decreases from 50 kVar to 20 kVar. Similar to Case 2, the
inverter changes from the current limit mode to the safe zone
after the inverter current drops below 60 A. Both the active
3860


current and the nonactive current follows the references
calculated from P
ref
and Q
ref
.
In Figs 9a and 9b, the active power reference and
nonactive power reference are 20 kW and 50 kVar,
respectively. The inverter current of the total is higher than
the current limit; therefore the inerter is operated in the
current limit mode. The actual nonactive power is lower than
the reference. After the nonactive power reference is
decreased to 20 kVar, the inverter is changed to the safe zone
so that the actual active power and nonactive power can track
the references in this mode. Figs. 9c and 9d show the active
current and nonactive current waveforms.
When there is a sudden change in the active power or the
nonactive power, the other power also go through a transient
despite having a fixed reference, as shown in all the four
cases. This is because the control algorithm is derived from
the linear approximation of the system, and the active power
and nonactive power are not 100% decoupled. There is a
delay of up to one half of the fundamental period in the phase
shift, which also causes some error. The change of the
amplitude of the PCC voltage is another reason of the
transient in the active power during the nonactive power
sudden change as shown in (13) in Section II.
IV. CONCLUSION
A DER with a power electronics interface can provide
both active power and nonactive power simultaneously and
independently. A decoupled control of active power and
nonactive power is developed based on the instantaneous
nonactive power theory. Combining it with a current limiter
insures that the inverter is not overloaded. The inverter is
controlled so that the active power has higher priority over
the nonactive power, and maximum nonactive power is
generated within the inverters capability. With this control
algorithm, full advantage can be taken of the inverters
capabilities at all times, both in terms of functionality as well
as making use of its full KVA rating while ensuring that the
inverter operates within its current capability to prevent
equipment failure with thermal stress.
The experimental results demonstrate the validity and
effectiveness of the control algorithm. They also show that
the inverter can fully deliver the active power from the DER
to the grid, generate maximum nonactive power, and does not
exceed its current rating requirement. The control algorithm
combines the current limiter with the active power and
nonactive power control, and ensures that the transition from
one control mode to another is smooth and effective.
The control algorithm provides a fast dynamic response
of the DER; therefore, the DER system is capable of
providing its full active power and nonactive power service
during system transients, such as voltage dip, sudden load
change, and high current inrush from large motor start.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to
Chester Coomer and Phil Irminger for their assistance in
performing the experimental work for this paper.
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