ME353

HEATTRANSFER1

LectureNotes

Prof.MetinRenksizbulut
MechanicalEngineering
Heat Transfer:
Physical Origins
and
Rate Equations
Chapter One
1
What is heat transfer?
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature
difference.
What is thermal energy?
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.
2
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units
Thermal Energy
+
Energy associated with microscopic
behavior of matter
Temperature Ameans of indirectly assessing the
amount of thermal energy stored in matter
Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to
temperature gradients
Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred
over a time interval t > 0
Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time
Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time
and surface area
or U u
J or J/kg
T K or C
Q J
q
W
q''
2
W/m
+
Thermal energy of system
Thermal energy per unit mass of system
U
u

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy, Temperature

and Heat Transfer
3

DEFINITIONS and NOMENCLATURE
Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to
the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and
random motion for fluid flow over a surface.
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron
configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves
Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material
medium.
Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material
medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Modes of Heat Transfer
4
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
MOLECULAR DIFFUSION + ADVECTION

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
5

Conductionthroughastagnantgasbymoleculardiffusion

6
2 1
x
dT T T
q k k
dx L

'' = =
1 2
x
T T
q k
L

'' =
Heat rate (W):
x x
q q A '' =
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fouriers Law:
Heat flux
q k T '' = V
Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient
2
W/m W/m K
C/m or K/m
7
In this specific case, the
temperature profile is linear.
Heat transfer by molecular diffusion

8
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A PLANE WALL

Calculate the heat transfer rate.
Convection
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of velocity and thermal boundary layers:
Newtons law of cooling:
( )
s
q h T T

'' =
2
Convection heat transfer coeffici : (W/m K ent ) h
9
Heat transfer by conduction PLUS advection

ExamplesofConvectiveHeatTransfer

10
Forced Convection
Free
Convection
Boiling
Condensation

11
12

THERMALRADIATION:heattransferbyelectromagneticwaves
Theelectromagneticspectrum:

13
ThermalRadiation

14
Radiation Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, ), as well as convection
( ) if .
s
T T

=
Energy outflow due to emission:
4
b s
E E T c co = =
( ) emissi : Surf vity ace 0 1 c c s s
blackbody : Emissive power of a (the perfect emit r) te
b
E
( )
2
Emissive powe : r W/m E
( )
-8 2 4
: Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.6710 W/m K o
Energy absorption due to irradiation:
abs
G G o =
2
abs
: incid Absorbed radiatio ent (W n /m ) G
( ) absorpti : Surfa vity ce 0 1 o o s s
( )
2
Irradiation : W/m G
G
15
16
Example:
17

Transmissivity

18
Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature,
sur
T
4
sur sur
G G T o = =
( ) ( )
4 4
rad sur
If , the from the
surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
net radiation heat flux
b s s
q E T G T T
o c
c o co
=
'' = =
19
<<< a very useful approximation
Alternatively,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
rad sur
2
2 2
sur sur
Radiation heat transfe : W/m r coefficient K
r s
r
r s s
q h T T
h
h T T T T co
'' =

= + +
For combined convection and radiation,
( ) ( )
conv rad sur s r s
q q q h T T h T T

'' '' '' = + = +

20

21
Problem 1.40: Power dissipation from chips operating at a surface temperature
of 85C and in an enclosure whose walls and air are at 25C for
(a) free convection and (b) forced convection.
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure, (3)
Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by conduction through the substrate.
Analysis:
elec conv rad
P q q = +
(a) If heat transfer is by natural convection,
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
5/ 4 5/4
2 5/4 -4 2
conv
-4 2 -8 2 4 4 4 4
rad
elec
= 4.2W/m K 2.25 10 m 60K = 0.158W
0.60 2.25 10 m 5.6710 W/m K 358 298 K = 0.065W
0.158W + 0.065W = 0.223W
s
q CA T T
q
P

=
=
=
(b) If heat transfer is by forced convection,
( ) ( )( )
2 4 -4 2
conv
elec
250W/m K 2.25 10 m 60K 3.375W
3.375W + 0.065W 3.44W
s
q hA T T
P

= = =
= =
( ) ( )
4 4
sur s s
hA T T A T T c o

= +
( )
2
2 -4 2
0.015m 2.2510 m A L = = =
Problem: Electronic Cooling
22
use absolute temperature
in radiation calculations
At an Instant of Time:
Note representation of system by a
control surface (dashed line) at the boundaries.
Surface Phenomena
,
in out
energy transfer across the control
surfa
: rate of thermal and/or mechanical
due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interac c t e ions.
E E

Volumetric Phenomena
: rate of due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion proc
thermal ener
ess occurs wi
gy generat
thin the s
ion
ystem.
g E

st
energy : sto rate of rage in chang the s e o ys f . m te
E

Conservation of Energy
in out st
st
g
dE
dt
E E E E
+ =
Each term has units of J/s or W.
APPLICATION TOACONTROL VOLUME
Over a Time Interval
Each term has units of J.
in out st g
E E E E + = A
23
Storage = Inflow - Outflow + Generation

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (First Law of Thermodynamics)
Example 1.4: Application to thermal response of a conductor with Ohmic
heating (generation):
Involves change in thermal energy and for an incompressible substance.
t
dU dT
Mc
dt dt
=
Heat transfer is from the conductor
Generation may be viewed as electrical work done on the system
24
25
26
Aspecial case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation of Energy
out
in
0 E E =

Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.
cond conv rad
0 q q q '' '' '' =
( )
( )
4 4
1 2
2 2 2 sur
0
T T
k h T T T T
L
c o

=
With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.
THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE
27
Storage = 0 always !
also, there may be heat generation directly at the surface
28
On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface by
dashed line(s).
Choose the appropriate time basis.
Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms
by labeled arrows on the schematic.
Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy requirement.
Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation.
Solve for the unknown quantity.
METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAWANALYSIS
29
30
PROBLEM 1.85

KNOWN: Solar collector designed to heat water operating under prescribed solar irradiation and loss
conditions.

FIND: (a) Useful heat collected per unit area of the collector, q
u
, (b) Temperature rise of the water
flow, T T
o i
, and (c) Collector efficiency.

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) No heat losses out sides or back of collector, (3)
Collector area is small compared to sky surroundings.

PROPERTIES: Table A.6, Water (300K): c
p
= 4179 J/kgK.

ANALYSIS: (a) Defining the collector as the control volume and writing the conservation of energy
requirement on a per unit area basis, find that

& & & &
. E E E E
in out gen st
+ =
Identifying processes as per above right sketch,
= q q q q
solar rad conv u
0

where = q q
solar s
0 9 . ; that is, 90% of the solar flux is absorbed in the collector (Eq. 1.6). Using the
appropriate rate equations, the useful heat rate per unit area is

( )
( )
( )
( )
4 4
u s cp s
sky
8 4 4 4
u
2 2 4 2
q 0.9 q T T h T T
W W W
q 0.9 700 0.94 5.67 10 303 263 K 10 30 25 C
m m K m K

=
=

o


= = q W/ m W/ m W/ m W/ m
u
2 2 2 2
630 194 50 386 . <

(b) The total useful heat collected is q A.
u
Defining a control volume about the water tubing, the
useful heat causes an enthalpy change of the flowing water. That is,
( )
u p i o
q A=mc T T or &

( )
2 2
i o
T T 386 W/m 3m / 0.01kg/s 4179J/kg K=27.7 C. =
o
<
(c) The efficiency is
( ) ( )
2 2
u S
q / q 386 W/m / 700 W/m 0.55 or 55%. = = = <

COMMENTS: Note how the sky has been treated as large surroundings at a uniform temperature
T
sky
.
31
Problem 1.57: Thermal processing of silicon wafers in a two-zone furnace.
Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the wafer
temperature and (b) the steady-state temperature.
Problem: Silicon Wafer
KNOWN: Silicon wafer positioned in furnace with top and bottom surfaces exposed to hot
and cool zones, respectively.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of change of the wafer temperature from a value of 300 K,
w,i
T = and (b)
steady-state temperature. Is convection significant? Sketch the variation of wafer temperature
with vertical distance.
SCHEMATIC:

32
Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Wafer temperature is uniform, (2) Hot and cool zones have uniform
temperatures, (3) Radiation exchange is between small surface (wafer) and large enclosure
(chamber, hot or cold zone), and (4) Negligible heat losses from wafer to pin holder.
ANALYSIS: The energy balance on the wafer includes convection to the upper (u) and lower
(l) surfaces from the ambient gas, radiation exchange with the hot- and cool-zones and an energy
storage term for the transient condition. Hence, from Eq. (1.12c ),
in out st
E E E =

or, per unit surface area
rad, rad, cv, cv,
w
h c u l
d T
q q q q cd
dt
'' '' '' '' + =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4
sur,
sur,
w
w c w u w l w
h
d T
T T T T h T T h T T cd
dt
co co

+ =
(a) For the initial condition, the time rate of change of the wafer temperature is determined
using the foregoing energy balance with 300 K,
w w,i
T T = =
( ) ( )
8 2 4 4 4 8 2 4 4 4 4 4
0.65 5.67 10 W / m K 1500 300 K 0.65 5.67 10 W / m K 330 300 K

+
( ) ( )
2 2
8W / m K 300 700 K 4W / m K 300 700 K =
3
2700kg / m 875J / kg K ( ) 0.00078 m /
w
i
dT dt
( ) 104 K / s
w
i
dT /dt =
<
33
Notice how the convection
terms are handled.
Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
(b) For the steady-state condition, the energy storage term is zero, and the energy balance can
be solved for the steady-state wafer temperature,
w w,ss
T =T .
( ) ( )
4 4 4 4 4 4
s
0.65 1500 K 0.65 330 K
w,ss w,s
T T o o +
( ) ( )
2 2
8W / m K 700 K 4W / m K 700 K 0
w,ss w,ss
T T =
1251 K
w,ss
T =
To assess the relative importance of convection, solve the energy balances assuming no
convection. With ( ) 101 K / s and 1262 K
w w,ss
i
dT /dt T = = , we conclude that the radiation
exchange processes control the initial rate of change and the steady-state temperature.
If the wafer were elevated above the present operating position, its temperature would
increase, since the lower surface would begin to experience radiant exchange with
progressively more of the hot zone. Conversely, by lowering the wafer, the upper surface
would experience less radiant exchange with the hot zone, and its temperature would decrease.
The temperature-distance relation might appear as shown in the sketch.
<
34
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister
Problem 1.64: Cooling of spherical canister used to store reacting chemicals.
Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the canister temperature,
(b) the steady-state temperature,
KNOWN: Inner surface heating and new environmental conditions associated with a spherical
shell of prescribed dimensions and material.
FIND: (a) Governing equation for variation of wall temperature with time and the initial rate of
change, (b) Steady-state wall temperature
535 J/kg
35
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible temperature gradients in wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform,
time-independent heat flux at inner surface.
PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless Steel, AISI 302: = 8055 kg/m
3
,
p
c = 535 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: (a) Performing an energy balance on the shell at an instant of time,
in out st
E E E =

.
Identifying relevant processes and solving for dT/dt,
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 3 3
i
4
4 4
3
i o o i p
dT
q r h r T T r r c
dt
t t t

'' =
( )
( )
2 2
3 3
3
i i o
p o i
dT
q r hr T T
dt
c r r

(
'' =
(

.
SCHEMATIC:
<
36
Assignment: solve this first-order ordinary differential equation to find T = T(t).

Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)
(b) Under steady-state conditions with
st
E

= 0, it follows that
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
4 4
i i o
q r h r T T t t

'' =
2
2 5 2
2
10 W/m 0.5m
300K 439K
0.6m
500W/m K
i i
o
q r
T T
h r

| | ''
| |
= + = + =
| |
\ .
\ .
Substituting numerical values for the initial condition, find
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 5
2 2
3 3 3
3
W W
3 10 0.5m 500 0.6m 500 300 K
m m K
kg J
8055 535 0.6 0.5 m
kg K
m
i
dT
dt
(

(

=
(

(

0.084K/s
i
dT
dt
=
<
<
37