Consumption(predationandherbivory) I.Howdoespredationaffectpreypopulations? Question:Dopredatorsreducepreypopulationsbelowthe levelthatcanbesupportedbyavailableresources? level that can be supported by available resources?

Predatorremovalexperiments: Wolves,cougars,coyotesremovedfromtheKaibab l f h b b plateau19071937 Start: 1920: 920

1. Whatisthegraph s 1 What is the graphs takehomemessage?

2.Createahypothesis toexplainthedata.

Calvesbornper100cows

Predatoradditionexperiments:Restoringwolvestothe d dd l h GreaterYellowstoneEcosystem Wolveswereextirpated W l i d inthe1920sand reintroducedin1995; reintroduced in 1995; elkarethemainprey.

PrewolfPostwolf Pre wolf Post wolf

Pr roportionvigilan nt

Distancetowolves(km) ( )

Proportionoftimevigilant

WolvesWolves absentpresent

II.Howdopreyrespondtopredators? A. Standingdefensesarealwayspresent e.g.porcupinequills;camouflageinfemaleblackbirds; i ill fl i f l bl kbi d chemicalsprayfromskunks Designanexperimenttotestthehypothesisthatstingers areaneffectivestandingdefenseinhoneybees.

B.Inducibledefensesareproducedinresponseto predation d i e.g.bluecrabs(predator)andmussels(prey) Lowpredationinhigh tidalflowareas;high l fl h h predationinlowtidal flowareas flow areas

A Averageshellthickness

HighLow predationpredation

Thesedataarecorrelational innature,andthereareother reasonableinterpretations,besidesinduceddefenses. p ,

Hypothesis:Musselsincreaseshellthicknessand attachmentstrengthinresponsetoevidenceofpredation. g p p Anexperimentaltest:

III.Howdopredatorsaffectcommunitiesofspecies? Akeystonespecieshasanextraordinarilylargeimpacton thesurroundingcommunity,relativetoitsabundance. the surrounding community, relative to its abundance. e.g.Pisaster removalexperiments
Spe eciesrich hness Time(years)

Trophic cascadesintheGreaterYellowstoneEcosystem
Hawks,owls, eagles Coyotes Wolves

Rabbits

Mice

Elk

Deer

Moose

Beaver

Grasses,forbs

Aspen

Willow

IV.Whyistheworldgreen? H1:Thetopdownhypothesis H2:Thepoornutritionhypothesis(Nlimitation) (onaper grambasis,plantscontain 10%ofNfoundin (on a pergram basis, plants contain <10% of N found in animals) H3:Theplantdefensehypothesis

Example:Nicotineasaninducibledefense Synthesizedinrootsinresponsetoattackbyherbivores S th i d i t i t tt k b h bi andtransportedtotrichomes (leafhairs) Experiment:Study3populationsofwildtobacco.For manygenerations,eachhasbeenexposedtodifferent levelsofherbivory (low,medium,orhigh). levels of herbivory (low medium or high) 1.Growindividualsfromeachpopulationinthesame environment. 2.Inducenicotineproductionineach(samestimulus). 3.Measure:numberofseedsproduced.

NOTE:individualsfromeachpopulationshowaboutthe sameresponsetoinduction(samenicotineproduction). i d i ( i i d i ) Dataonavg.#seedsproducedperplant Data on avg. # seeds produced per plant

SourcepopulationhistoryInducedControl(notinduced) Lowherbivory Mediumherbivory Highherbivory High herbivory 4,4946,047 5,3147,335 4,8604,505 4 860 4 505