R.

Easwaran, SDGM/ Plant Lab, BHEL(T)

 Steel is a family of iron- iron carbide (Fe3C) alloys, and other alloying elements. In the processing of plain carbon steels, residual elements are present in low concentrations, e. g., Mn (0.6 Wt %), P (0.05%), and Si ( 0.3%) In alloy steels, alloying elements are deliberately added to make steels hardenable/ achieve specific properties. The iron-iron carbide phase diagram is useful in understanding steel alloys -- their heat treatment, microstructure and properties 2

IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM This diagram depicts, in a temperature vs. composition plot, the regions of stability of equilibrium phases

Key phases are:

Ferrite () bcc Austenite () fcc Delta ( ) bcc Iron carbide (Fe3C)

On heating, bcc ferritic iron transforms to fcc iron at 923 Deg C

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Crystal Structures
- Body centered cube
9 atoms: 8 at cube corners and 1 in the center

- Face centered cube

14 atoms: 8 at cube corners and 1 each on the six faces

Crystal Structures
Cementite - Iron carbide Fe3C chemical compound of iron and carbon

Microstructral Constituents in Steels

Ferrite - Pure iron, bcc iron with low carbon solubility Pearlite - Grain structure resulting from a mechanical combination of ferrite and cementite in layer formation. Austenite - grains of ferrite and pearlite change when steel is heated to transformation temperature. Austenite will dissolve carbon and alloying elements. Martensite - Formed when carbon steel is rapidly cooled by quenching. Untempered martensite is the hardest and most brittle of the microstructures.

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Carbon is soluble in austenite up to 2.11 wt. % at 1148 deg C whereas the carbon solubility in ferrite is only 0.022 wt. % at 723 deg C Eutectoid composition is 0.8 wt % carbon Eutectic & Eutectoid Reactions Hypo-eutectoid and Hyper - eutectoid steels Microstructures A1 , A3, Acm nomenclature

723 C

HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS
High strength & toughness Readily fabricated Nearly all structural and automotive steels fall into this category Carbon contents up to 0.8%
How does microstructure change with temperature?
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HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS
Consider 0.2% C steel
Heat to 927C - all austenite grains - called austenitising temperature Cool to 815C - primary ferrite begins to form at austenite grain boundaries (allotriomorphs & Widmanstatten plates) Further cooling causes more ferrite to form and austenite to be enriched in carbon, until at the eutectoid temperature ( 723C) the remaining austenite transforms to pearlite, a lamellar mixture of ferrite and carbide
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HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS
Very slow cooling needed to get equilibrium amount of phases More rapid cooling suppresses primary ferrite formation and results in finer lamellar spacing in pearlite By holding at temperatures just below the eutectoid temperature (say, at 710C) the lamellar structure will spherodise, yielding better ductility
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Plain-Carbon Steels
Properties depend on C content and thermomechanical processing & the heat treatment the steel has received. For low carbon contents less than 0.5%, increasing the carbon content, increases the pearlite, and thus the tensile and yield strengths. Cold drawing improves the tensile and yield strengths. In the higher carbon range, 0.6-0.95 wt % the pearlite has to be spheroidised in order to draw the steel. Thus, drawing does not improve the tensile strength, but does improve the yield strength. Usually, the higher strength, the lower elongation. 12

Steel Nomenclature and Properties

The nomenclature for plain carbon steels: They are designated as 10XX, where XX is the carbon content. For example, XX=10 is equivalent to 0.10 wt % C.

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HYPEREUTECTOID STEELS Carbon contents -- 0.8 to 2.0% High carbon - more carbide which results in higher strength, hardness and wear resistance, but poorer ductility Assume 1.0% C steel Heat to 890C -- all austenite grains Cool to 660C, primary carbide forms at austenite grain boundaries
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HYPEREUTECTOID STEELS
At the eutectoid temperature, the remaining austenite transforms to pearlite. Primary carbide can be suppressed by rapid cooling. Pearlite can be spheroidised by holding at temperatures just below the eutectoid
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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE

By measuring length changes in a rod of steel undergoing isothermal transformation (dilatometry) or using hot stage microscope, it is possible to determine the start and stop times of the transformation A partially completed isothermal transformation curve for a 1080 (eutectoid) steel. Between 723C and about 540C austenite transforms to pearlite Below 540C the ferrite + carbide microstructure is no longer lamellar, but changes to a feathery, acicular(needle-like) structure, which is called Bainite
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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE

Below about 215C, austenite transforms to a product called Martensite. Martensite forms instantly ( 10-6 sec) as the temperature drops below the martensite - start temperature, Ms , which in this case is 215C At each temperature below Ms , only a fraction of the austenite is transformed, until at the martensite-finish temperature, M f , the transformation is complete.

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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE

When austenite transforms to martensite the carbon in the austenite does not have time to precipitate as iron carbide and remains in solution while the austenite transforms to a body-centered tetragonal unit cell -- a strained bcc cell. Because of this martensite is a very hard, low ductility product that increases in hardness as the carbon content increases. The completed iso-thermal transformation curve for the 1080 steel as determined from dilation curves, see fig.
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QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS

Quench and tempering is a treatment to harden steel by quenching, followed by tempering to improve the ductility of the steel. Three methods of carrying out Q&T treatments.
Conventional tempering Martempering Austempering

Conventional Tempering
Austenitize at temperatures for 0.5 hrs. Oil quench to T below M f Reheat to 400F - 1000F for 1-10 hrs. to temper to desired hardness
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QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS

Martempering is used to avoid distortion and cracking produced by conventional Q&T.
Austenitize, as before Oil quench to T just above M f and hold to equalize temperatures throughout the part Air cool to T< M f Temper, as before

Austempering also avoids distortion

Austenitize, as before Quench in salt bath to T> M s and hold until austenite transforms to bainite and air cool
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TTT CURVES FOR NON-EUTECTOID STEELS

For hypoeutectoid steels, the TTT curve shows an austenite + primary ferrite region For hypereutectoid steels, Fig. 4c-10, the TTT curve shows an austenite + primary carbide region. Higher carbon steels have lower Ms Mf temperature

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TTT CURVES FOR ALLOY STEELS

In plain carbon steels, water quenching is needed for thicker parts but it produces distortion. Some parts are too thick for even for water quenching Thus, alloying elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo and Mn, are added to steel to retard the transformation of austenite to ferrite + carbide The effect of alloying elements on TTT curves is shown in Fig. The composition and SAE/AISI designation for plain carbon and alloy steels is shown in Table The auto industry has moved away from Ni-bearing steels over the past two decades because of their high 29 cost.

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High Strength Low Alloy Steels

HSLA Steels were developed in the early 1970s to provide the automotive industry with weight reduction opportunities in parts that are designed primarily for strength rather than stiffness, e.g., front end, crushable beams for crashworthiness. Mild steel for body structures has yield strengths near 30 ksi with % elongation near 50% for excellent formability and a finish. On the other hand HSLA steels have yield strengths in the range 40-60 ksi with lower elongations of 23%.
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High Strength Low Alloy Steels

HSLA Steels derive their strength from a combination of strengthening mechanisms;
Solid solution strengthening elements Very fine grain size due to continuous rolling with close temperature control Prevention of grain growth by pinning grain boundaries with precipitated carbides of vanadium or columbium. Note that only small concentrations of alloying elements are needed, hence, in down-gauging applications, cost savings are possible
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Properties of Plain Carbon Steels

Carbon content wt % Properties Applications

0.01 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.25

Soft, ductile, no useful hardening by heat treatment except by normalizing, but can be work-hardened. Weldable.

Pressings where high formability required

Strong, ductile, no useful hardening by heat treatment except by normalizing, but can be workhardened. Weldable.Ductile-brittle transition temperature is just below room temperature Very strong, heat treatable to produce a wide range of properties in quenched and tempered conditions. Difficult to weld. Can become brittle below room temperature.

General engineering uses for a mild steel

0.25 - 0.6

Bars and forgings for a wide range of engineering components. Connecting rods, springs, hammers, axle shafts requiring strength and toughness.

Properties of Plain Carbon Steels

Carbon content wt % Properties Applications

0.6 - 0.9

Strong, whether heat treated or not. Ductility lower when less carbon is present

Used where maximum strength rather than toughness is important. Tools, wear resisting components ( piano wire and silver steels are in this group).

0.9 - 2.0

Wear resistant and can be made Cutting tools like wood very hard at expense of toughness chisels, files, saw blades. and ductility. Cannot be welded. Tend to be brittle if the structure is not carefully controlled

Impurity Effects on Steel

Phosphorous: solution harden, corrosion resistance, better machining Silicon: removes oxygen, increases oxidation resistance, strengthens low-alloy steels, decreases ductility Titanium: forms carbides, age hardening possible, used in stainless steel Chromium: corrosion resistance (stainless steel), abrasion resistance at high C, high temperature oxidation resistance, solution hardening Nickel: used with Cr in stainless steel, low temp. strength, toughness Cobalt: increases hardness at high temperature, solution hardening Manganese: Sequesters S as MnS, improves machining Molybdenum: MoC provide abrasion resistance, slows grain growth in fcc material, improves corrosion resistance, improves hot strength Tungsten: Similar to Mo, delays tempering to higher temperatures Vanadium: Slows fcc grain growth, delays softening, forms carbides