UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES DILIMAN

LIBREPENSADOR: PROGRESSIVE THOUGHTS IN THE WRITINGS OF VICENTE SOTTO, 1900-1915

SUBMITTED AS A REQUIREMENT FOR THE COURSE HISTORY 199.2

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

BY RUFUS REY C. MONTECALVO

U.P. DILIMAN, QUEZON CITY MARCH 2012

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................4 Background of the Study and Argument ..............................................................................................4 Objectives .............................................................................................................................................5 Significance: Language, Literature and Nationalism ...........................................................................6 Source, Scope and Limitations .............................................................................................................8 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................8 Survey of Related Literature ................................................................................................................9 I. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS AND WRITING....................................................................................11 II. NATIONALISM AND MORAL INSTRUCTION.............................................................................17 III. LOVE AND ITS TROUBLES...........................................................................................................23 IV. FREETHOUGHT AGAINST DOGMA.............................................................................................29 V. CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................35 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................36 APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................................38 SYNOPSES OF THE STORIES IN VICENTE SOTTO'S ................................................................38 MGA SUGILANONG PILIPINHON (1929)......................................................................................38 1. Ang Inahan sa Sundalo (The Soldier's Mother)..........................................................................38 2. Mga Ilo (Orphans) .....................................................................................................................38 3. Magpakamatay Tungud sa Yutang Natawhan (Dying for The Native Land) ............................38 4. Gugma sa Inahan (A Mother's Love) .........................................................................................39 5. Kabuotan (Kindness) .................................................................................................................39 6. Ang Talikala (Chains) ................................................................................................................39 7. Ang Silot (The Punishment) ......................................................................................................40 8. Panikas sa Gugma (Deceit in Love) ..........................................................................................41 9. Ang Bakakon (The Liar) ............................................................................................................42 10. Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara (Barbara's Forgiveness) .....................................................................42 11. Budhi sa Yutang-Natawhan (Betrayal of the Native Land) .....................................................43 12. Gugma sa Yutang-Natawhan (Love of Native-land) ...............................................................43 13. Ang Pulahan .............................................................................................................................44 14. Baye ug Babaye (Female and Woman) ....................................................................................44 15. Ang Kawatan (The Thief) ........................................................................................................45 16. Don Benigno ............................................................................................................................46 17. Kalayo! (Fire) ..........................................................................................................................46 18. Amahan ug Anak (Father and Child) .......................................................................................47 19. Hain ang Katarungan? (Where is the Justice?).........................................................................47 20. Ang Haring Lungsod (The Sovereign Nation) .........................................................................48 21. Mister Drunkard........................................................................................................................48 22. Ang Makilungsod (The Patriot) ...............................................................................................49 23. Ang mga Tinohoan (The Beliefs) ............................................................................................49 24. Donato .....................................................................................................................................50 25. Ang Sugarol (The Gambler).....................................................................................................50 26. Ang Matarung (The Righteous) ...............................................................................................51 27. Ang Iro (The Dog) ...................................................................................................................51 28. Ang Dila sa Babaye (A Woman's Tongue) ...............................................................................52

3 29. Resurrexit!................................................................................................................................52 30. Mrs. Casta ................................................................................................................................53 31. Ang Tinagoan ni Teresa (The Secret of Teresa)........................................................................53 32. Buang kun Manggugubut? (Insane or An Advocate of Disorder/Agitator?)............................54 33. Panapaw (Adultery) .................................................................................................................54 34. Usa ka Miting (A Meeting) ......................................................................................................55 35. Ang Kampilan ..........................................................................................................................55 36. Hesus ug Pilata ........................................................................................................................55 37. Hain si Bathala? (Where is God?) ...........................................................................................56 38. Bathala .....................................................................................................................................56 39. Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon? (What is there after death?) .........................................57 40. Ang Panimalus ni Loloy (Loloy's Revenge) ............................................................................57 41. Ang Banyaga (The Scoundrel) .................................................................................................57 42. Ang Kaminyoon ni Gat-salian (The Marriage of Gat-salian) ..................................................58 43. Ulo ug Kasingkasing (Head and Heart)....................................................................................58 44. Ang mga Higala ni Benito (The Friends of Benito) ................................................................59 45. Ang Mabutangbutangun (The Gossip/Rumor-monger) ...........................................................59 46. Ang Gaba (Divine Retribution/Karma) ...................................................................................59 47. Ang Dungganan (The Reputable) ............................................................................................60 48. Ang Manunubus (The Redeemer/Savior).................................................................................60 49. Ang Salamin ...........................................................................................................................61 50. Pilo ..........................................................................................................................................61 51. Ang Timaan (The Mark)...........................................................................................................61 52. Ang Pinaakan (The Bite-Mark)................................................................................................62 53. Ang Panumpa ni Cecilia (Cecilia's Promise)............................................................................62

INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study and Argument
Vicente Sotto (1877-1950) was a Cebuano journalist, writer, nationalist, lawyer, and politician. Living and struggling during the great period of the rising of Philippine nationalist consciousness during the late nineteenth century, and the beginning of the American period, he can be seen as a key transitional figure. This is because he was active in the social and political as well as cultural life of his 'lungsod' (nation) which is Cebu. For his nationalist efforts, he came into conflict with the newlyarrived colonial administration numerous times. His contributions to the development of the Cebuano language has been noted with the epithet given to him of being the 'father of Cebuano Language and Literature.' Interest with him however is now largely limited to the academic world, as young people take their cultural influences somewhere else. Cebuano literature never regained the popularity it once had during the decades before the Second World War. A crucial motivation for this paper was the discovery of the author of the collection of short stories by Sotto entitled Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon [Philippine Stories]1 in the Filipiniana Section of the Main Library of the University of the Philippines Diliman. Even more motivation is the fact that the language used by Sotto, though it has a lot of archaic words and phrases, is still largely understandable. The author's interest in Sotto hinges not only on his being a Cebuano though, but also by Sotto's labeling of himself as a librepensador, a freethinker. The word freethinker connotes a specific type of persona that when juxtaposed with the intensely Catholic setting of the Philippines during the late
1 'Pilipinhon' means pertaining to, or of/from the Philippines. The addition of the suffix '-hon' denotes the place of origin. American, for example, would be 'Amerikanhon.'

5 nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth, appears as striking. This paper asks: How did Sotto justify his labeling of himself as a librepensador? The paper would argue that the significance of Sotto, the writer, lies in his translating and rendering of progressive ideas culled from various European thinkers into the local scene. This can be specifically seen in the stories he wrote before, during, and a few years after the period of his self-exile in Hongkong, from 1907-1914. These prose narratives have a popular appeal given their various topics, and access to them by the masses through his championing of the vernacular language enabled the creation of a common consciousness.

Objectives
At the most general level, the study aims to gain an understanding of Sotto's works, taking into account the worldwide intellectual climate of radicalism and calls for progress at that time. These progressive thoughts then will be sought out in his narratives in the volume to be studied, as well as how they were incorporated into the stories. The period of the late nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth was the heyday of radical thoughts Socialism, Marxism and Anarchism. Worldwide, the stirrings of the various socialist groups created fear among the leaders of states and empires. The international anarchist movement, for example, whose self-identified members all over the world, though mostly in Europe, engaged in tactics such as the 'propaganda of the deed,' arguably the origin of modern-day terrorist tactics and initiated the infamous image of the bomb-throwing anarchist. At the more pacific end of the anarchist spectrum of ideology and action, we find the labor organizing of the anarcho-syndicalists, which focused mostly on urban workers. In the Philippines during this period, which was undergoing an inter-imperial transition, the entrance of leftist ideas had as a manifestation the founding of the First Filipino Labor Union, the Union Obrera Democratica, by

6 Isabelo de los Reyes. In the history of the entrance of radical ideas in the Philippines, the figure of Isabelo de los Reyes is important, as it would appear that he was the first to bring into the country works by such revolutionary propagandists and thinkers as Errico Malatesta and Karl Marx. The connection between Sotto and Reyes can be seen in their correspondence besides similarities in their personalities and professional fields. Another objective would be to see how Sotto, who emphasized and championed the cause of the local through his production of literary works in the vernacular, connected this effort to the larger concept of a nation. It will look at his concept of the nation. Similar to de los Reyes, in being more 'connected' in a sense to their localities compared to the other Ilustrados, Sotto bridges somewhat the popular and the elite. For it must not be forgotten that Sotto was part of the intellectual elite at that time, having studied in Manila and passing the examinations for being a lawyer in 1907.

Significance: Language, Literature and Nationalism

The need to improve a language is for its capability then to produce literature. The history of the national language policy of the Philippines, with its raising of one of the vernacular languages into the level of a national language has created resentment among the other ethnolinguistic groups in the country. There is a feeling expressed as well of the marginalization of literatures as a corollary to this. In the creation of a national literary 'canon,' it was seen that what was privileged were those works that originate from the political-geographic center of the country. Mojares writes regarding the perceived obscurity of writers in the vernacular that this is due to "our uncritical tendency to equate national literature with the literature of court and capital, produced by a small cultural elite and externally defined by the use of a foreign medium (Spanish and English)...and the literature of the primate region, though this may be written in a native language (i.e, Tagalog) as well as popular in character."2 There is
2 Ma. Cecilia Locsin-Nava, History and society in the novels of Ramon Muzones (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila

7 a need therefore to look at the local literatures with the understanding that these are indeed national literatures as well. There is a need for a focus on regional literary history, not only because these are in the local language, which is culturally relevant in itself, but also because they are written. The simple fact of them being complete written narratives in the vernacular or local language has great significance historically. Literature written in the vernacular language, which is one's native regional tongue, is virtually nonexistent in the realm of interest of young people nowadays. It is indeed very rare for someone today to claim to have read at least one Cebuano story or even a novel. This is quite understandable given the pervasiveness of foreign cultural influences, for example in movies, music and the openness engendered by technologies such as the internet. However, there are blogs and websites that promote and use the Cebuano language, aiding in its propagation. The study is an attempt by the author at a sense of 'rootedness.' Part of the motivation is personal therefore. The issue between regionalism and nationalism will be explored or touched at as well in this study. In nationalist histories, there is a sense of disparagement of that which is deemed regionalistic as a regression towards a more 'tribal' outlook which is claimed, has divided Filipinos apart for centuries, as if there has always been that identity 'Filipino' that united the various ethnolinguistic groups in the archipelago centuries before. Regionalism, or the promotion of the importance of the local culture, has been seen as a hindrance towards the larger project of nationalism. The discussion of the lives and works of figures such as Isabelo de los Reyes for Ilocos and Vicente Sotto for Cebu, is necessary to counteract this idea. A focus on the local first is an important part, not necessarily a hindrance, in the project of the creation of a national consciousness.

University Press, 2001), 3.

Source, Scope and Limitations

The main document used in this paper is the collection of stories Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon. These are over-all fifty-three stories (sugilanon) about several topics ranging from a few pages to tens of pages.3 Since the author has knowledge of the Cebuano language, being a native speaker, understanding the text would be relatively easy without the need for translations, though the translation by Ramos into Tagalog of several of these prose pieces, as well as the English translation of Antigua in her study are both consulted for accuracy. Cebuano dictionaries, mostly the ones found online, will also be used to ascertain the meaning of several arcane and newly encountered Cebuano words. The stories in these volume were written a few years before, during and after 1907-1914, the years of Sotto's selfexile in Hongkong. Two other writings of Sotto serve to provide more information regarding this early period of his writing: Mga Handumanan sa Sugbu4 (1926) and the play Ang Paghigugma sa Yutang Nataohan (1902).5 The paper then will cover this period while looking as well at the few years before and after such time using various secondary sources. In the stories, there are several quotations and phrases in Spanish, which remained untranslated into Cebuano. For these, Antigua's translations will be consulted. In his newspapers and publications, Sotto wrote first using the Spanish language. At the urging of friends, as well as the challenge of critics, he turned towards the writing of vernacular literature. These writings then, due to the author having little knowledge of the Spanish language, will not be used, besides of course, their unavailability at the present moment.

Methodology
3 The Table of Contents (Tudloan) at the end of this document lists the title of only fifty-two stories. A printing error omitted the story Usa ka Miting which appears in pages 260-269. 4 'Handumanan' can be translated as 'memorabilia' or 'souvenir.' 5 Don Pagusara, trans., Dulaang Cebuano (Quezon City : Ateneo De Manila University,1997).

9 The study begins with a close reading of the primary source, which is the compilation of stories Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon. It will then look for certain patterns and themes that emerge and that clearly has relevance to Sotto's project, for as he already stated, and as Antigua has already noted, Sotto's writings were didactic in character, that is, it exposes perceived anomalies and wrongs and then aims at correcting them. Analysis of this kind would be incomplete without reference to their context. Thus it is necessary to have knowledge as well of the life and even temperament and personality of Vicente Sotto, as the writer's personality clearly has an effect on the things that he writes. Several words, phrases and proverbs can be difficult to understand and are no longer widely used. However, using context clues, the basic flow of the narrative, the plot of the story, is easy to follow. This is in part due to Sotto's awareness of his audience and the need for pandering to the needs of his readers, making the stories understandable to as wide a readership as possible. Given the length of the stories, and the wide focus, there is not much character development and so Sotto uses direct description of the characteristics, making certain that the readers know the virtuous from the morally suspect or villainous. Sotto therefore uses flat characters that represent certain wanted or unwanted characteristics. It will look at certain character types that recur and are subjects of criticism of Sotto.

Survey of Related Literature

Vicente Sotto's writings that are studied in this paper are his 1929 publication of stories entitled Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon which is an important document as it collates for the first time, his short prose narratives. The stories in Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon were written between 1900 and 1915. The year 1915 marks the end of Sotto's exile, his return into political life and the end of his early literary production. Most of the stories do not have dates indicating when they were first written or published. Many also do not have information on which publication they were published first, as well as in what

10 language they were first written. The earliest dated story is Gugma sa Yutang Natawhan (1900)6 while the latest is Ang Dungganan (1911). Sotto's exile in Hongkong from 1907-1914 appears to be his most productive in the creation of these stories. Mga Handumanan sa Sugbu [and] Atong pinulongan [Memorabilia of Sugbu, Our Language] (1926) are his reminiscences of the beginning of the vernacular language newspaper in Cebu as well as a sort of mini-memoir as it relates significant events regarding this period of his journalistic career. This document is actually composed of two works, the latter is a series of short guides for the improvement of the orthography and other rules in writing in Cebuano. A few stories of Sotto which were translated from the original Cebuano into Tagalog by Remedios B. Ramos and published in 1998 with Erlinda K. Alburo as editor will be consulted as well. Two pioneering studies of Vicente Sotto's life and works are Leonor Y. Antigua's Master's Thesis: 'A Study on the Short Prose Narratives of Vicente Sotto' written in 1956, and Mojares' Vicente Sotto: The Maverick Senator (1992). The first work is a literary analysis of the writings of Vicente Sotto in the Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon. Antigua's study situates Sotto's writing amidst the turbulent period of the Philippine's transition of being under the control of two imperial states before going on to provide a literary analysis and a translation of some of the works. Mojares' work, published more than thirty years after Antigua's pioneering work, is the first comprehensive biography of Vicente Sotto and further situates Sotto within his time, discussing his early nationalist journalistic years and his later career in politics, as well as the various controversies and issues that he was involved with throughout his life. Secondary literature used in this paper deal with the spread of ideas from Europe to the Philippines in the late nineteenth century as well as providing historical background of the period when Sotto was writing. Mojares again figures importantly with his Brains of the Nation: Pedro Paterno,
6 Synopses of the fifty-three stories in Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon (1929) are provided in the Appendix. For brevity, translations of the titles of the stories will be given only in the Appendix. The synopses are arranged according to their sequence in the collection.

11 T.H. Pardo de Tavera, Isabelo de los Reyes and the Production of Modern Knowledge (2006). Of significance as well in sketching the radical intellectual climate during the late nineteenth century is Benedict Anderson's Under Three Flags: Anarchism and the Anti-colonial Imagination (2006), with its contextualization of the character of Simoun-Ibarra, as well as its discussion of the points where radical ideas and Filipino intellectuals could have possibly met. Towards the local, on the matter of Philippine vernacular literature, Alburo's article 'History and the Prewar Cebuano Novel' (2007) discusses the importance of vernacular literature in the popular culture of Cebuanos during the decades before the Second World War and points as well, using three Cebuano novels as objects of study, to the didactic and slightly moralizing tone of these kinds of writing; the collection of essays Many Voices Towards a National Literature (1995), shows the various perspectives of writers in vernacular languages regarding the issue of a national literature. It is crucial to see here that the issue regarding literature and language is very connected. Locsin-Nava's History and Society in the novels of Ramon Muzones (2001), provides additional contribution to the study of vernacular literatures, this time in Hiligaynon.

I. FREEDOM OF THE PRESS AND WRITING

Writing from Barcelona, Isabelo de los Reyes, a fellow journalist and nationalist, tells the readers of Sotto's Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon, that although he does not understand Cebuano and is thus unable to read any of the stories in it, he assures the reader of the honor and patriotism of Sotto. The year was 1908, and Sotto wrote the letter asking de los Reyes to write the introduction for his collected works while he was in Hongkong, in self-exile. De los Reyes ends his introduction to Sotto's work in a rather somber note. Probably remembering memories of his own imprisonment and conflicts with the law, he looks at the situation of Sotto and writes of the bitterness of those exiled fighting for their country, which is exacerbated by being forgotten and ignored by one's fellow-countrymen.

12 Whereas de los Reyes faced the Spanish colonial state, having been imprisoned in the infamous Montjuich Castle, Sotto's adversary was the newly emerging American rule. The story Gugma sa Yutang Natawhan (1900), was a cause for its author's early troubles. What made it incriminating was that at the end of the story, Sotto stated that the young man who accepted the post granted to him by the American government was kidnapped and in the process was killed by the revolutionaries. For this, Sotto was fined two hundred pesos and issued a warning not to publish any more anti-American stories or he would be sent to Guam. Before this incident, between September and November 1899, Sotto was imprisoned in the ancient Fort San Pedro of Cebu, for publishing a story which seemed to show his approval of the killing of two American soldiers. Many of the stories in the collection were inspired by Sotto's experiences with press repression. The experience of the character Resurrecto in Ang Makilungsod (1908) with his pioneering publication Ang Kaugalingnon [Independence], for example, shows the fate of those journalists who use their paper as a public stage to criticize the wrong-doings of those in power. For reporting on the abuses of the police and Constabularies who were supposed to keep the peace, Resurrecto was jailed. Looking at the story, Sotto does not criticize the emerging colonial government as a whole however. He describes the American Governor-General for example, as kind-hearted and reasonable. The relevance of the press is shown here when the story by Resurrecto gets picked up by newspapers in Manila, which leads to the Governor-General personally coming to their town and putting things aright. Amahan ug Anak (1908) features an allegorical conversation between a father, Sotto, and his son, which is the publication Ang Suga [The Lamp/Light].7 The father relates to his son the numerous difficulties he has faced and the countless enemies he has acquired because of the latter. Sotto's meditations on the importance and power of the truth is revealed in his teaching his 'son' that though
7 This publication was hailed by Sotto as the first ever Cebuano newspaper in the Cebuano language. It was established in 1901 and phased out of existence in 1911 after the death of Leoncio Avila who managed the paper while Sotto was in exile in Hongkong. This was the longest-running of Sotto's several publications. Resil Mojares, Vicente Sotto The Maverick Senator (Cebu City: Cebuano Studies Center, 1992), 46.

13 there are truths that should not be brought out in public if one wants to succeed in life, telling the truth remains a noble act and must be done especially when the dignity and freedom of the nation is at stake. Several characters in the story voice their criticisms, which are probably based on what Sotto himself has heard and experienced, of his publications. Coming from the Catholic religious perspective, a nun character upon being informed by a wife that her husband reads Ang Suga, in Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara (1908) alarmingly comments: Hesus, Hesus, Hesus! Nga si Bathala magpasaylo kaniya! ... Wala siya mahibalo nga ang mobasa sa Ang Suga excomulgado? Wala siya mahibalo nga ang Magtutukod niana maoy usa ka tawong mason ug walay tinohoan? Wala siya mahibalo nga kana si Alviola, Ranudo, Villagonzalo, Morre, Bagyo ug Avila pulos mga Protestante, Aglipaynon ug kaaway nato?" [Hesus, Hesus, Hesus! May God forgive him! Does he not know that whoever reads Ang Suga is excommunicated? Does he not know that the Founder of that publication is a mason and has no beliefs? Does he not know that Alviola, Ranudo, Villagonzalo, Morre, Bagyo and Avila are all Protestants, Aglipayans which are our enemies?]8 From a more sympathetic voice, the concerned uncle in Ang Makilungsod provides the argument that it is a highly difficult undertaking to publish a paper in the Philippines. Those who do so would face criticisms and would have numerous enemies, besides the problem of people wanting to read the paper but would not pay. Despite these warnings, numerous characters in the stories are depicted reading Sotto's Ang Suga. The mother for example in the story Resurrexit! (1908), though largely lacking in formal schooling, is able to learn her rights through the paper of Sotto. Cesar, the father in Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara (1908) learns of the fate of his daughter through the same publication. Though not without a certain level of self-promotion, these examples show how Sotto envisions the importance that a free press has on society. Besides providing news, being a newspaperman during that period meant being aware of the larger events all around the world. It meant having access to this larger information sphere, which most of the people during the late nineteenth to early twentieth century in the Philippines, were just starting to experience. Sotto then translated these events to the local level, finding their significance to the daily
8 Vicente Sotto, Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon (Cebu City: Barili Press, 1929), 77.

14 lives of Filipinos, specifically the segment that read his works in Cebuano or the ones who read his works in Spanish-language Filipino publications. We thus see for example a student referencing the anarchist-geographer Elisee Reclus in the story Ang Mga Tinohoan (1908), or a young man quoting Kropotkin in front of a crowd, pointing out the dynastic despotism that is occurring in Russia in the story Buang kun Manggugubut? (1908). Sotto thus presents a local imagining or placing of thoughts from the international scene in his stories. Sotto emphasizes that freedom of thought is made possible by freedom of the press, of the spread of ideas. Resurrecto in Ang Makilungsod divulges the underlying philosophy or aim of his publication: Ang akong pamantalaan magaladlad sa Bandilang maputi sa Kagawasan sa Huna-huna (Libertad del Pensamiento) [My paper will raise the white banner of Freedom of Thought]9 This statement is important in that it highlights memories of the earlier Spanish period during which censorship was a method used to control the dissemination of liberal ideas. The still rising colonial American administration though less strict on this matter, as evidenced by the blossoming of numerous bilingual and multilingual Filipino publications, clearly tolerated these papers so long as they did not directly or even obliquely criticize the newly emerging order. Sotto's aims are limited however by, besides the external ones of those that are reacting against their being criticized, of his own limitations as a writer. Among others, there is a problem with characterization in most of the stories. The characters are simply puppets, with their strings too visible. Given the length of the stories, there is not enough space for character development. The formulaic writing of Sotto has the following elements: use of names to convey character, such as: 'Pakaka Abigatlona,' 'Balas Torotot,' 'Placido Imparcial,' 'Mauro Peste,' 'Teresa Nonbirgo; a clear Beginning, Middle and End; the use of an epilogue to wrap things up quickly; and wanton use of violence in resolving conflicts, as can be seen in most of the stories regarding love.
9 Ibid., 154.

15 As Antigua assessed, the story of Sotto violated numerous literary conventions. Sotto sacrificed literary originality upon the didactic altar. Coming from a journalistic background, Sotto's stories sometimes have the atmosphere of being news stories rather than actual tales. Even so, the line between reality and fiction is sometimes blurred when he references actual living persons in the supposedly fictional stories. In Ang Timaan (n.d.), he states that the jeweler the man owed the money from is a famous one in Cebu who sells jewelries at a reasonable price. In Ang Tinagoan ni Teresa (1908), the narrator states that all the events he related have happened and that if the reader would visit Cebu, he would still see the old man in the story walking alone and asking the heavens as to the fate of his wife. Sotto himself relates that many people who read his story Maming (1901), where a pious young woman is seduced and gotten pregnant by a Catholic priest who himself baptizes the child, did not understand that it was fictional: "Ang mga tawoang kadaghanan kanila wala manghibalo nga ang sugilanon minaomao ug tinukodtukod - nagkanayon: "Diin kaha kini mahitabo? Kinsa kaha kining si Maming, si Niyora Kikay ug Niyor Kikoy? [The people most of them did not know that a story is made up and fictional said: Where did this happen? Whoever could Maming, Niyora Kikay and Niyor Kikoy be?]10 Sotto's definition of the term 'sugilanon' is another point worthy of exploration. Sugilanon is a term that has the broad meaning of narrative or tale. In Sotto's definition or conception of what this term means, he specifically denounces those stories of the old people which lasts for several nights, regarding Kings, Dukes, and Counts, and enchanted rings.11 The word he uses to describe these things is 'binuang' which comes from the word buang meaning 'crazy' or 'insane.' These tales, Sotto tells us,
10 'Niyora' and 'Niyor' are contractions of Seora and Seor, which are terms used in Cebu during the time when Sotto's stories were set, to refer to those who are respectable in society. Vicente Sotto, Mga Handumanan sa Sugbu Atong Pinulongan (Cebu City: Barili Press, 1926), 9-10. 11 "Sa wala pa matawo 'Ang Suga', ang ginganlang 'sugilanon' sa mga bisaya mao kadtong mga sugilanon sa mga tigulang nga moluntad tibuok gabii, tagutlo ka gabii, hangtud sa kaadlawon. Mga sugilanon mahitungod sa mga Hari, Duke, Kunde, singsing 'encantado' ug ubang mga binuang." [Before Ang Suga, what was called 'sugilanon' by the Visayans were those stories of the old people which go on for a whole night, three nights, until the mornings. Stories about Kings, Dukes, and Counts, enchanted rings and other nonsense.] Ibid., 7.

16 were nothing but mere foolishness. This definition by Sotto arose during the early twentieth century debates in Cebu regarding the importance of the linambay, otherwise known as 'moro-moro' a traditional form of drama or play which drew from European influences and has, as a feature the triumph of Christianity over Islam. The conflict between the linambay and the newly-emerging social-realistic group of playwrights led by Sotto, was rooted in the observation that the linambay has grown decadent and that its production has become so costly.12 Sugilanon was confined by Sotto within the social-realistic cage, merely an extension of his views regarding the creation of plays. This narrow focus of Sotto we should take in contrast with Isabelo de los Reyes who like the former, was also a journalist. Whereas Sotto emphasized a more journalistic or social-realistic stance regarding the construction of literature, de los Reyes saw the need for folklore, stating that in order to write a national history, it is necessary to look at the local sources rather than those accounts written by foreigners. This project of collection, says de los Reyes, is more pressing since progress in communications and transportation is ushering in a cultural leveling.13 The sugilanon of Sotto is a narrow definition therefore, it is social-realistic, moralizing and tailored to his aims of educating his fellow-countrymen and of criticizing those who are abusing their authority. In the search for what is 'progressive' in the thoughts of Sotto, we searched as well for his contemporaries that might have had the same thoughts. In my search for this stream, I found Isabelo de los Reyes to be particularly interesting. Similar to the project of the Grimm Brothers of Germany, de los Reyes aimed at collecting various folklore in his native-land, Ilocos, in order to have these as the cultural base on which to build literature and other artistic works that can be deemed authentic and original or unique. The project of Sotto, on the other hand was different. His conception of what
12 Resil Mojares, introduction to Dulaang Cebuano by Don Pagusara, trans., (Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997), xix-xxi. 13 Resil Mojares, Brains of the Nation: Pedro Paterno, T.H. Pardo de Tavera, Isabelo de los Reyes and the Production of Modern Knowledge (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2006), 304-305.

17 constitutes 'proper' literature which manifested in plays and short stories, is in the realm of the socialrealistic. It is understandable that Sotto should advocate for this given the perceived decadence and outdatedness of the linambay form, with its characters of Kings and Dukes and Counts, castles and enchanted rings. Sotto seems to have stopped there however, and this to me is problematic. Given that Sotto already had connections with Isabelo de los Reyes, it would be an interesting exercise to speculate on the works that could have been produced if somehow Sotto had the same interest in folklore that Isabelo de los Reyes had. As it is, we eventually have to look at what actually happened. Sotto's literary career ended with his entry back into politics in 1914, following his return to the Philippines. He had his main office, because he was then able to practice law, in Manila. In the years that followed his return, he was to visit Cebu every now and then during business visits and political campaigns, but it seemed that the earlier literary flame, bright though it was, finally dimmed and was extinguished.

II. NATIONALISM AND MORAL INSTRUCTION

In Ang Haring Lungsod, Sotto personifies the Nation as a sort of deity: "...ang Lungsod maoy usa ka bathalang buhi ug matuod: ang iyang mga hukom dayon ug dili malalis. Batok kaniya walay adunay katarungan. [ the Nation is a living and true deity: his judgments are final and cannot be questioned. Against him, no one has any right.]"14 The word Sotto uses for nation is 'lungsod.' The word however can also mean a city or a town. Another term he uses is 'Yutang-Natawhan,' which literally means 'the land where one is born:' one's Native-Land. For nationalist or patriot, Sotto uses 'manggilungsudnon.' The word appears to be of original coinage and literally means 'someone who partakes of activities of the native-land.' The word therefore can also mean a citizen. Another word that
14 Vicente Sotto, Sugilanong Pilipinhon, 142.

18 appears frequently in the collection is 'manggugubut.' The word 'kagubut' means 'troubles' or 'war.' As used in several stories in the collection, it came to mean the Philippine Revolution.15 Manggugubut therefore means a revolutionary. As it was used in the story 'Buang kun Manggugubut' however, the word takes on another meaning, which is that of agitator or an advocate of violence for its own sake. The nation as conceptualized by Sotto has an ethnolinguistic meaning. He wrote for a certain group of people who understood him. The use of the vernacular was more than a practical choice. It also had a nationalistic intent. The nation of Sotto, at one level considers Cebu and all those who speak the Cebuano language (Bisaya, Binisaya and Sugbuhanon are terms that are used interchangeably to refer to the language). It also includes all the other ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines who fought and faced trials and tribulations against the colonizers. The relevance of Sotto's Ang Suga was that it provided a space for an imagined community which included everyone, from all classes of Filipino society who can understand the language. There was a consciousness in Sotto of the importance of a national language, but not in the way that it would be conceived decades later during the 1960s which was the period when the 'language debates' took place. Multilingualism was the norm with Sotto, writing his early literary works in Spanish and Cebuano respectively, and then later learning the English language. Sotto did promote the Cebuano language however. Though the Tagalogs, he says, have published newspapers and other reading materials earlier than the Cebuanos, they still have yet to translate the words MUNDO (kalibutan), VIRGEN (ulay), VICIO (kahihilayan) PILIPINO [pilipinhon, ORAS [takna], ANGEL [manulonda]...16 which were already translated by the Cebuanos. The relationship of language to nationalism, if we look at the example of Sotto, was never really an issue. Recalling the beginning of his fruitful foray into literary work in Cebuano, he remembers that it was at the urging of his friends that he started writing using his native tongue. The simple role of a
15 The story Budhi sa Yutang Natawhan for example, has the subtitle 'Handumanan sa Kagubut'' [Memorabilia of the Revolution.] 16 Brackets and parentheses by Sotto. Sotto, Handumanan, 53.

19 language to articulate ideas to and for the majority eventually won out. Sotto imported ideas which he believed could help in the struggle of the nation. The most dramatic representation of these, and the most politically radical, is voiced by the character Maby in the story Buang kun Manggugubut (1908).17 The narrator shifts from the first to the third person point of view, and enters the story while Maby, a student who has just returned from Europe, is making a speech in front of a group in a club composed of various people. Maby first offers a rebuttal to the argument by the Americans that the Filipinos are ungrateful. Americans have given the Filipinos freedom of assembly and the press, freedom of religion, the right to vote, and they have constructed roads among others, so what are the Filipinos still clamoring for? Maby reminds the listeners that rights are not given but are fought for. He tells them of the blood that has been shed by the revolutionaries, that this is the reason that the Filipinos are currently enjoying these rights. He defends the Filipino people from accusations of ignorance, saying that he has been to Europe and the Filipinos do not have anything to be ashamed of compared to the countries there; Filipinos do not have vices that Europeans have. In what appears to be a condemnation of the whole American colonial administration, as well as a defense of the right of the people to revolt, he expounds on the idea that Justice is above the Law. Citing the Russian anarchist thinker Peter Kropotkin, he expounds that the Law has always been on the side of the wealthy. Actions that are unjust have always been made under the argument that it is lawful. He gives as an example the order by the Spanish Governor-General Polavieja during the Revolution, to shoot hundreds upon hundreds of patriots, as having been done in the name of the Law. Taking a more international view, he proceeds to give as further examples the Holy Inquisition during the Middle Ages, and on a more contemporaneous period, the despotism being suffered by the Russian people under their Emperor. At the end however, the young man is captured by agents of the government and
17 In this story, Sotto references the Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921), the French anarchist and journalist Arthur Arnould (1833-1895) who was with the Russian anarchist and revolutionist Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876) for a while in Switzerland, as well as the French historian and philosopher Count De Volney (1757-1820).

20 is to be taken to court for inciting the people to revolt. The young man shouts asking for help, but the people turn their heads. A scene which follows tells us that most of the people did not really understand what the young man was talking about. Continuation of hostilities with the Americans is explored as well in the story Budhi sa Yutang Natawhan (1908). The betrayal of the Native-Land is symbolized by the young man's surrender of the Mauser rifle which was entrusted to him by the old man whose daughter he was planning to marry, to the Federalista Party, which Sotto characterizes as having explicitly been created in order to put an end to the continuing efforts of various scattered groups to continue the fight. The story, which Sotto labels a memorabilia of the Revolution, contains a detailed account of the terms of the treaty of Biyak na Bato, and tells of the few remaining officials after the period of surrender of Aguinaldo who continued fighting the Americans. The years of Sotto's exile in Hongkong saw him becoming more radical. He was involved in a clandestine effort by other exiled Filipinos to revive the Revolution in the Philippines. A council was created with him, Artemio Ricarte and several other exiled revolutionaries, to serve as a conduit for help from Japan. He later resigned from this council though still continuing with propaganda activities.18 Buang kun Manggugubut as well as Budhi sa Yutang Natawhan can be interpreted as an exploration by Sotto of the means by which this renewed Revolution could be realized. He seems to be doubting the capacity of his fellow countrymen back home to understand or follow such radical ideas that were presented, and more than the problem of not being understood, is the complacency to the new regime as evidenced by the people turning their heads away. The disruption of home and domestic life caused by war and revolution is portrayed by Sotto in several of the stories. The young patriotic son of a widow in Ang Inahan sa Sundalo (n.d.), before dying from fighting the Spaniards, tells his mother that above her, there is a greater mother, which is
18 Resil Mojares, Vicente Sotto The Maverick Senator (Cebu City: Cebuano Studies Center,1992), 57-58.

21 the motherland. A conversation along the same vein occurs between the young married couple in Magpakamatay Tungud sa Yutang Natawhan (n.d.), where Violeta, the beautiful wife implores her husband not to leave her. Ernesto, the husband replies, in a manner similar to that of the son in Ang Inahan sa Sundalo, that his life belongs to the native land. Violeta, days later learns of her husband's death in the newspaper La Independencia, the publication of Gen. Antonio Luna. As a result of her grief, she stops eating and eventually becomes insane. In Mga Ilo (n.d.), the widow of a revolutionary soldier comforts the crying of her children who continually asks her where their father is. We learn through the mother talking to her children that her husband has died and that his body is nowhere to be found. Families are broken: fathers sacrifice themselves to the cause of the Revolution, lovers are separated, sons die fighting for their Native-Land, wives are widowed and children are orphaned. The sacrifices one makes for the Native-Land are great. Nationalism is not only about love for one's country, of outright sacrificial acts, however, but also a pervasive attitude regarding the society one is a part of. While the times of troubles and of defending the native-land call for bravery and heroism, during times of peace, living a moral and righteous life can be seen as another aspect of nationalism. Gambling and its consequences are presented in several of the stories. Besides the overt moral message in Ang Sugarol (1908), of the correction of the vice of gambling, the story is interesting for its depiction of the culture and superstition surrounding the cockfight. The gambler, Kandiro Demalas, that morning while at church, prayed three Hail Marys to the Virgin of Remedios, kissed the statue of St. Vicente Ferrer, daubed a lot of holy water onto his forehead, navel, back and the top of his head, in preparation for the cockfight. The husband and wife discuss who is the patron saint of cockfighting. The wife says she read in a newspaper that St. Jorge is the patron saint of gamblers. The husband says it is Vicente Ferrer because he has wings. The wife says it is St. Peter because he is often portrayed carrying a rooster. The husband replies however that St. Peter is only a servant, a guardian of the gates

22 of heaven and not an actual patron saint. Before going on to the cockpit (bulangan), the gambler tells his wife that in order to increase his chances of victory, he will look for an old man with a tangil19 to attach near the spur of his rooster. In Ang Talikala (1908), it is the wife who is taken in by gambling, being fond of loteria. It is one of the causes of her troubles with her husband, who continually admonishes her on this. Her other habits which irks her husband include chewing the betel nut and smoking tobacco. The first story ends with the death of the family's children due to cholera. While the climactic scene in the latter is the massive physical confrontation between husband and wife. The tragedy of prostitution is presented by Sotto in Ang Silot (1908) where he situates the redlight district at Sampaloc, Manila. In this place, Kutub sa dalan, bisan ang mga tambuanan binabagbabagan ang uban ug tinaptapan sa panaptong masihag ang uban, makita ang tunga sa mga lawas sa mga babayeng maanyag sa nagkalainlaing kaliwat nga nanagpatigayon sa ilang lawas. Ang kadaghanan mga Haponanon, ug diriyot uyamut ang mga Pilipinhon. [Up to the road, even though the windows are covered with veils of transparent cloths, can be seen the bodies of the beautiful women of various ancestries who trade with their flesh. Most are Japanese, while here and there are some Filipinas.]20 There is a boisterous drunk American, singing 'Because I love you' beside a prostitute who is playing the harp while the visitors are choosing who among the women arranged before them they will take for the night. Womanizer Miguel Cepeda dies in this story at the end, finally stricken by his own conscience, after discovering that his daughter, whom he has abandoned with her mother years ago, has become a prostitute in Manila. Here we see Divine Retribution's hand take revenge on this seducer of women who, after having his way with them, casually leaves them along the wayside, with no support whatsoever for their offspring. The wife in Hesus ug Pilata (1909) is presented as someone that should not be emulated. After
19 In cockfighting superstition, Sotto explains, a tangil is a small charm that is wrapped near the cockfighting spur on the rooster's leg. It is believed that this bestows the rooster a callus all over its body so its enemy's blade would not affect it so much. 20 Sotto, Sugilanong Pilipinhon, 47-48.

23 the mass, the town gossips gather near the church entrance, and discuss among themselves the reason for the wife's adultery. Someone raises the notion that maybe she has not been fully instructed in morality. Another one says that she is lacking in education. The parish priest, overhearing all these, joins the conversation. He offers, quoting Balzac and Schopenhauer, that studying morality does not make one a moral person, much in the same way that those who read aesthetic works do not end up as musicians or singers. The priest seems to make the case that whatever the wife has done arose out of her nature, that she is by nature, a flirt. They have already ruled out maltreatment from the husband since he has always been kind to her; and in fact it was her who often got into squabbles with their neighbors. Taking a negative assessment on the improvement of human nature, he continues that knowledge does not make a person a moral or righteous, either. He cites instances in Cebu (here it is difficult to ascertain whether the names Sotto gave as examples are actual persons or merely fictional ones) of reputable and educated young women who committed some morally questionable actions. One eloped with an American, another was gotten pregnant by her servant, while another had a child out of wedlock. Balancing things out, he cites other cases where supposedly reputable men engaged in acts that are heinous and immoral. The setting of these stories are in the local or domestic realm. The family remained central in the thoughts of Sotto. He presented the argument that the stability of the nation is rooted in the stability of its citizens' domestic situation. From the private or domestic lives, Sotto extended his range towards the public. Vices are to be condemned and corrected, for moral failings affect the nation, not only the individual.

III. LOVE AND ITS TROUBLES

Sotto's stories about romantic love and the complications that arise out of it are the most

24 numerous in the collection following those that deal with issues of love of country and journalism. Like the other group of stories, personal experience played a major factor in their creation. Sotto was involved in the abduction case of a young woman, and one of the reasons for his self-exile to Hongkong was to escape the penalties of this suit against him. Years afterward, Sotto was to look at this incident and say that it was a youthful indiscretion on his part, and that he never claimed to be a saint in the first place.21 These stories presented several situations people at that time may have faced. These are tales of seduction, adultery, revenge, and of unbearable domestic situations. Several stories open with general statements regarding the nature of women. Ang Dila sa Babaye (n.d) begins with the quote that women cannot be trusted with secrets, another story states that women's promises are like the ones made by politicians - merely blown away by the wind (Ang Haring Lungsod, 1908), while the opening line to Ang Panumpa ni Cecilia (n.d.) tells us that one must not believe the promises of women. These pronouncements resemble the ones made by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, whom Sotto references in the story Hesus ug Pilata, in his essay 'On Women.' Given the nature of women, as these statements claim, it is not surprising that they should fall into the seduction and promises of men. However educated they may be they are not exempt from falling into immoral actions, as the priest in Hesus ug Pilata proclaims. Sotto did not seem to believe these ideas regarding the nature of women that rigidly however, for if women are forever bound to be in a certain way, his project of moral improvement then would be pointless. He presented stories where there is an opportunity for improvement. Such is the case in the story Resurrexit (1908), wherein the mother, after castigating her daughter after falling for the charms of a man who was only after her body, enjoins the daughter not to proceed with her plan to take the man to court. Acting as the voice of reason, she counsels her to be humble and learn from her mistakes.
21 Mojares, Maverick Senator, 170.

25 Further, she tells her that women should be strong and able to survive in this world without men, that they should be able to stand on their own. She adds that if women want the rights and privileges of men, they should also learn how to face the accompanying responsibilities. The nature of the woman involved was one among several reasons given by Sotto why she would involve herself with other men even though she is already married. Adultery was a serious issue with Sotto. Terrible things happen to wives who are not faithful in their marriage. In Ang Kampilan (1909), the adulterers are beheaded by the husband who is then pardoned of his acts by the Sultan, who says that there are some trespasses that only the kampilan can bring to justice. Fire, in Kalayo! (1908) is the favored medium by which justice is dispensed by the aggrieved husband. In Ang Tinagoan ni Teresa (1908), the titular character informs her daughter that in China, women who commit adultery are chopped into pieces, and that all over the world men who murder adulterous wives are never punished by the law. In Panapaw (1908), it is the innocent who suffers. The unfaithful wife, goaded by her lover, mixes poison in his Chinese husband's tea powder. Their child, waking up later while she was away, complains of a stomachache and is given tea by the father. The child dies and we are told that for their crime, the adulterous couple are imprisoned in Bilibid, with iron shackles connected to their ankles. Terrible things also happen to women who spurn or forget their previous lovers. Tinding in Ang Timaan (n.d.), the faithless lover of Mintong, has her forehead mutilated with a knife by the latter. The conversation, or rather the lecture by the titular character in Don Benigno (1908) to the wife whom he discovered is about to commit adultery against her terrible husband (he keeps another woman on the side, beats her when he is drunk, and most often spends his salary gambling), explains to her the double-standard that exists for women on the issue of adultery: ... ang lalake, bisan magluib, tibook gihapon; apan ang babaye, kong mabuling, mabulingon na hangtud sa gihapon. Labut pa, Margarita, gipakaingon mo ba nga kong ikaw magluib, nakapanimulas ka na sa imong bana? Anaa ka sa kasaypanan. Kong ikaw magbuling sa imong dungog, ikaw day mabuling: walay labut ang imong bana, kay siya wala magsugo nga magluib ka. [ the man, even if he cheats, remains whole; but the woman, if dirtied, remains dirtied until

26 the end. Also Margarita, did you think that if you cheat on your husband you would be taking revenge against him? You are mistaken. If you dirty your honor, you are the only one who is dirtied: your husband is unaffected, because he did not command you to cheat on him.22 As Antigua has noted, it is easy to see how these stories could be construed as misogynist.23 The violence perpetrated against women in the stories seem to be totally out of proportion to the crime that they have committed. It is also somewhat revealing of Sotto's character that he spends so much time brooding over matters such as these. It helps in explaining to say that because of his experiences, that is his unhappy domestic life and his reputation of being a womanizer (Mojares in his biography of Sotto writes that overall Sotto fathered thirty children), he would spend much time focusing on these issues. Sotto presented the traditional domestic situation wherein the man is the ruler of the household. Patriarchal aspects of Sotto's thought can be found in the stories Ang Matarung (n.d.) where the father shoots and kills his daughter who committed adultery against her husband. The wife should follow his husband and obey him whatever his flaws may be, the old lawyer in Don Benigno says. In Ang Baye ug Babaye (1909), the two pensionados who are in the United States and are roommates, in their conversation before bed, agree that the husband should be the more affluent one in the household, otherwise it would not be an ideal situation. In Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara, the wife, being the rich one, is the ruler of the household, which upon the absence of the husband quickly descends into tragedy. Ang Tinagoan ni Teresa reads like a manual on how a woman should act towards her husband. Among the advice given by the mother to her daughter is to serve her would-be husband as if he is a 'bathala.' Marriage between Americans and Filipinos was not seen as viable by Sotto. All the examples of Filipino-American marriages in Sotto's story failed. The American husband in Mrs. Casta (1908)starts out well enough, but later he beats both his wife and stepson, culminating in the rather violent ending where the young boy protects his mother being chased by the American with a stingray-tail whip, by
22 Sotto, Sugilanong Pilipinhon, 119. 23 L. Antigua, "A study on the prose narratives of Vicente Sotto, (Ma Thesis, University of the Phillippines Diliman, 1956), 38.

27 stabbing the latter's crotch with the blade he was using to sharpen his pencil. Conversations between Filipino characters in the stories attest to the alleged fact that when an American man tires of his relationship with a Filipina, he simply leaves. The American wife in Baye ug Babaye, though beautiful, is portrayed as someone who does as she pleases, going out eating ice cream and drinking beer with her friends, and buying expensive things, while her husband is at work. When the husband confronts her, she threatens to shoot him with her pistol and calls him a monkey. Sotto argued for a way out of these kinds of marital troubles. As early as 1908, Sotto was already advocating for divorce, something he dramatizes in the story Ang Talikala. He paints a domestic situation where the wife persists on her uncouth and, to the eyes of her husband, uneducated and bad manners, as evidenced by her gambling and insistence on not wanting to read books, no matter how much the husband pleads. Another cause for separation Sotto provides is that the husband's temperament is just too different from the wife. He is educated, being a doctor, and is keen on changing the ways of his wife, something that the wife greatly resents, leading to the opening scene of the story where we find the wife trudging to her mother's house carrying her small child, divulging to her mother that she no longer wants to live with her husband. Cohabitation is the only option left then for those who still want to begin a new romantic life. As a few lawyer characters in the story explain, according to the law, though husband and wife can legally separate, until one dies, they remain married. In Hesus ug Pilata, the husband, wanting to start his life anew, leaves for Manila, and there, cohabits with a kind woman who takes care of him and his children. When asked of their domestic arrangement, he replies: "Wala ba magbulahan si Rizal kang Josefina, bisan sila dili hiniusa sa Simbahan, ni sa Balaod, ug hiniusa lamang sa Balaod sa Kinaiyahan? [Was not Rizal blessed with Josefina, even though they were united neither by the Church nor by the Law, and united only by the Law of Nature?"24 Miguel Cepeda in Ang Silot makes the same argument
24 Sotto, Sugilanong Pilipinhon, 282.

28 regarding the young couple who are his neighbors. On the comment by his older Spaniard friend during a party that the couple must be unhappy since they are disreputable, he replies: "Nganong dili? Matuod sila wala hiusaha sa Pari, wala hiusaha sa Maghuhukon [sic], wala hiusaha sa Balaod nga binuhat sa mga tawo: apan sila gihiusa sa Kinaiyahan, gihiusa ni Bathala, kay nanaghiusa ang ilang mga kasingkasing malipayon. Aduna bay kaminyoon nga makatumbas niana? Sa akong mga mata sila managtiayon... [Why not? It is true they were not united by a priest or by a judge, by Laws that are made by men: but they are united by Nature, united by God, they are happy because their hearts are one. Is there a marriage that can compare to that? In my eyes they are married.]"25 Here, Sotto argues that love between man and woman is something that is only between them, the Church and the Law does not have the right to interfere. However this argument also has its negative side, as this free-love motto seemed to have become the justification of Miguel Cepeda in his womanizing, leaving once he is tired of the relationship and not caring for the child that is begotten. Elisee Reclus, a well-known figure in Europe during the late nineteenth century for his awardwinning work on geography, as well as for being an anarchist, specifically on the issue of free love, would seem to have been an influence on Sotto. Reclus achieved notoriety when he allowed his two daughters to marry without the officiation of either a state official or a priest.26 Sotto's view that love and marriage should be something that is only between those involved, shows a similarity to that of Reclus. Sotto was aware of Reclus' thoughts as he uses the latter's work as a counter-argument to the religious account of the origin of mankind favored by the Church. Whether Sotto was aware of Reclus' anti-marriage advocacy, we can only speculate. In several cases he presented, Sotto urged society to be more lenient and accepting, rather than subjecting those who trespassed from the rules with condemnation. Sotto confronted issues that were
25 Ibid., 41. 26 RECLUS, JEAN JACQUES ELISEE (1830 -1905), http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/ReclusElisee.htm [retrieved March 2012]

29 then newly-emerging, such as the possibility of divorce becoming legal under American rule, and of that of interracial/American-Filipino marriages; even contraception and abortion (Donato, Baye ug Babaye, Ang Panumpa ni Cecilia). The story Baye ug Babaye is particularly interesting for its traditionalist tone. It could be interpreted that the American wife, however bad-mannered she may be to the eyes of her Filipino husband, represents modernity and progress, with her alleged contraception, her outgoing ways and assertive attitude. The attitude we see in several of the Filipina wife characters in the stories appear in stark contrast to the behavior of this American woman. It would seem in these stories that Sotto was looking at the good and not so good aspects of the changes that he expects will come in the Philippines, with the beginning of American control. Sotto was caught in between great changes faced by Filipino society, and between upholding the traditional and accepting progressive changes, he does not shy away from taking the former option, when he sees in them something useful.

IV. FREETHOUGHT AGAINST DOGMA

Belief in the laws of nature is one of the attributes of the librepensador. As already discussed in the earlier chapters, the librepensador was an advocate of the freedom of the press in the belief that it is a necessary extension of freedom of thought. The politically radical aspect of the librepensador is already given in the second chapter. This chapter will focus on the more salient aspect of the librepensador persona, which is that of the relation between faith and freethought. The word librepensador first appears in the Introduction to the collection Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon where a footnote states that this is the point of view of Sotto regarding religion. That Sotto took great interest in the issue of religion and faith can be seen in the fact that the longest story in the whole collection is Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon (1908), which is basically an exposition of the whole debate regarding the authority of the Church and its critics from the freethinker camp, in the

30 form of a conversation between the dying Spaniard doctor, Roman Impio (note the name) and the supposedly brilliant priest Fr. Fanfarron. The story, dedicated by Sotto to the youth of the native-land, goes on for thirty pages and presents contradictions in the Bible. When the Spaniard mentions the idea of Epicurus regarding the contradiction of God's omniscience, kindness and omnipotence, the priest says that that is the reasoning of an 'ateo,' to which the Spaniard replies: Bisan katarungan sa Yawa, angay ta pamation kong nagapamulong sa Matuod. [Even the reason of the Devil, we must consider if it speaks of the Truth.]27 On the doctrine of the resurrection of Christ, the Spaniard offers an interesting explanation. He states that it is similar to the idea of the alleged resurrection of Rizal who, due to the extreme love that the Filipinos have for him, did not believe in his death. Given the context of more than three hundred years of Roman Catholicism in the Philippines, the figure of the freethinker was and remains a novel one. It drew from the earlier conceptions, whether stated outrightly or merely implied, of the Propagandistas and other nationalists, whose love for their country manifested in calls for the reform of the Roman Catholic Church. The librepensador of Sotto is cognizant of European liberal thought and tradition, uses its ideas, and contextualizes it within Philippine society. The librepensador has similarities to the Ilustrado therefore. However, what differentiates the former from the latter is his preoccupation with matters of religion and of how religion and blind faith or obscurantism hinders the freedom of thought. It is knowledge and advocacy, not the socio-economic status that defines the librepensador. The father, Justo Yap, in the story Ang mga Tinohoan (1908), belongs to the lower-class, yet people are astounded by his amazing knowledge which he acquired not through studying in schools, but through reading. Sotto describes at length the library of Justo Yap which included books on law, religion, philosophy, medicine and various publications from Europe. Justo Yap describes himself as 'walay-tinohoan' or faithless. And in his lecture to his son who was named Plaridel, after Marcelo H.
27 Sotto, Sugilanong Pilipinhon, 307.

31 del Pilar, he lets the latter choose the faith which he would follow. In order for the son to choose which of the faiths is the right one, he presents the books of those critical of the Catholic Church and those who are for it, the writings of the Church fathers such as Tertullian, Origen, St. Thomas and others, for his consideration. Regarding the Church and its teachings, in a footnote in Bathala (1908), Sotto states we must avoid the friars in the same way that we steer clear from those with leprosy. The teachings of the Church are all nonsense, the dying Spaniard in Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon states. Priests and friars are frequently presented as lustful and manipulative in the stories. In Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara, the priest reasons that he is a representative of God on earth, so his will should be 'done on earth as it is in heaven,' to which the extremely pious young woman assents after thinking for a while. The priest in Ang Banyaga (n.d.) after being adamantly refused by the woman he is after, pens a letter to the woman's husband telling him of his wife's alleged infidelity. In the burial procession of the woman whose husband believed the letter and in anger beat her to death, we see the very same priest walking with the bereaved. Sotto does not characterize all priests negatively however. There is the interesting Catholic priest in Hesus ug Pilata for example, who counsels the aggrieved husband that more than the Laws of the Church and of men, the welfare of the person must be considered. What was brought as a useful tool by Sotto in the fight against the dogma of the Catholic Church was what he called 'librepensamiento.' The translation of this into Cebuano was 'Kagawasan sa Huna-huna': Freedom of the Mind. The word appears in the introduction of the collection where it is stated that this is what Sotto advocates. Like the Propagandistas before him, Sotto drew the concept from eighteenth-century European Enlightenment tradition. He also gained inspiration from nineteenth century thinkers such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Sotto's familiarity with western thought can be seen in the litany of names scattered in the stories. These included ancient figures such as Cicero, Socrates and Plato, medieval ones like St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, the renaissance figure

32 Montaigne, eighteenth-century thinkers such as Voltaire, Mirabeu and d'Holbach; and nineteenthcentury ones such as the anarchist-geographers Peter Kropotkin and Elisee Reclus among numerous others. Ernest Renan, the French scholar known for his theory of nationalism and historical work, is an important figure for Sotto, whom he references constantly on issues regarding the historicity of Christ. Reclus is referenced by the character Marcelino Balagtas in Bathala when arguing against the creationist account of the world. What differentiates Sotto it seems among the Ilustrados was of his public avowal of being a freethinker. Given the more critical stance that was possible towards the Catholic Church during the early American period, it is understandable that Sotto would be able to make statements and claims that are clearly anti-Catholic. Librepensador was translated in the introduction as 'walay-tinohoan' and both words are frequently interchanged in the stories. What 'walay-tinohoan' means literally however is 'without faith,' so it would seem to be speaking of atheism, which is not the case at all. In Ang mga Tinohoan, the father who is teaching his son the major world religions, differentiates between librepensamiento and atheism. His description of atheism is that of another belief, which is the belief in the non-existence of God. Librepensamiento, upon further questions by the child is defined by the father as not a belief: Ang 'Librepensador' (Walay-Tinohoan) nagatoo sa pagatohoan sa salabutan sa tawo. Dili igaagad, dili igasunod, dili igasubay sa mga badlis nga tinudlo sa mga laing tawo. Pananglitan: ang 'Librepensador' dili motoo nga si Hesus milakaw sa ibabaw sa tubig, kay supak man sa salabutan, apan motoo kita sa Kinaadman nga matuod. Dili sama sa adunay Tinohoan nga kong pangotan-on nganong motoo niini ug niadto, motubag nga maoy pulong sa Biblia, sa Doctrina ni Astete, sa Koran, sa basahon ni 'San Cuan', ni Juan kun ni Pedro: dili magapahayag mga katarungang kinuha sa Salabutan sa tawo (Razon humana) ug sa Kinaadman (Ciencia). Mao nga ginganlang 'Librepensamiento': Hunahunang-Gawas, Walay-Tinohoan." [The Freethinker believes in man's reason. He does not blindly obey the teachings of other people. For example: the 'Librepensador' does not believe that Jesus walked on water because this is against reason, but we believe in Science which is true. Unlike those who have Faith who when asked why they believe in this or that, would reply that it is written in the Bible, in the Doctrine of Astete, in the Koran, in the writings of 'St. Someone', by John or by Peter: would not express reasons using human reason

33 and Science. This is why it is called 'Librepensamiento':Free-Thought, Without-Faith.28 Atheists, the father explains to his son would rather have it that God does not exist because of the great amount of suffering happening in the world. It appears then that however the freethinker may criticize the Church and the kindness of God, he still believes in Him. The freethinker's conception of God we see expressed in Bathala, where the student Marcelino Balagtas argues against his religious classmate, Bartolome Orapronobis. He conceives of his God as a "Geometro Eterna" or as a "motor" that runs the world, and moves the stars and the earth, the very same God that was thought of by Victor Hugo and Voltaire. He states he believes in a different God from that of the white-haired and white-robed old man surrounded by cherubs carrying harps which is taught by the Church. He believes in the kindness and justice of this God and also that this God does not need any representative on earth (priests and friars). The benevolence and kindness of God was a highly personal issue with Sotto. In arguably the most poetic of all works in the collection, Hain si Bathala, with its use of repetition and images from nature, we see the father character requesting the moon to ask God why his child has died. The dying Spaniard in Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon also mentions the contradiction of God's omniscience and kindness. In Bathala, the student uses the analogy of a person bringing a child into the middle of the road. The child gets run over by a car and dies. He asks, whose fault is it? The idea is that since God knows everything beforehand and is capable of doing anything, he could have stopped terrible things from happening in the first place, so why did he not? This question of the kindness of the freethinker's conception of God remains open-ended in Sotto's stories. Religious and freethinker conflict within the home is presented in the stories Ang Makilungsod and Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara. In the former, Resurrecto, the newly-licensed lawyer, instead of accepting cases, plans to start a newspaper instead. He responds to his uncle's question regarding the purpose of
28 Ibid., 172.

34 his paper that it is the duty of his publication to criticize the superstitions and mistakes that were taught by the Spanish friars. Hearing this, his religious aunt berates him, calls him a 'mananap' [beast] and disinherits him from their will. The father in the latter story has learned to criticize the priests through being a constant reader of Sotto's Ang Suga. His wife reacts in the same manner as the aunt in Ang Makilungsod , though it escalates into physical confrontation. Sotto presents, as a counter to these, households where there is a harmonious co-existence between freethinker and religious members, such as that in Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon, Ang mga Tinohoan, and Ang Panumpa ni Cecilia. The figure of the librepensador, besides the ultra-religious beata, the vice-ridden husband, the lascivious priest, the seduced/deceived young woman, the persecuted journalist, among others, remains one of the most memorable characters in Sotto's literary creations. The librepensador represents the connection between anti-Catholicism/anti-clericalism and nationalism, which is directly related to the rise of the Aglipayan or Philippine Independent Church which still exists to this day. The conflict, as defined by the librepensador is of the modernist and progressive or liberal mindset and the dogmatic and authoritarian Catholic Church. The librepensador remains defiant at the end: We see them on their deathbed for example still questioning the authority of the priest. The freethinker states, since the priest is also a man and therefore sinful, why confess your sins to him? The dying Spaniard character in Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon, citing Rizal, conceives of death merely as rest. The freethinker does not have any religious ritual performed upon his death, and his body is not even visited to the Church. He has a gravestone carved with the words 'Post Mortem Nihil Est' on it, which is actually an atheistic remark since it confesses a certainty regarding the nonexistence of an afterlife, and consequently of an enduring soul. The concept of a soul, 'kalag' is doubted by the freethinker. The last part of Ang Bakakon has the narrator meditating on the existence of spirits, ghosts and also of the human soul itself which is supposed to transcend human life. Sotto was buried in the very same manner as the freethinkers he

35 envisioned in his stories, the only difference is that his coffin was laid standing up as he commanded, as a final symbol of his struggle for the rights of the downtrodden in society.

V. CONCLUSION
Progressive aspects of Sotto's thoughts during the period of the first decade of the twentieth century, was centered around the figure of the librepensador. Using mainly the source Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon as well as other pertinent primary sources, we have explored these thoughts in a few major and interconnected issues. The librepensador of Sotto was a Filipino caught between great historical changes. His nationalism was a continuation of the nationalism of the Propagandistas of the last decades of the nineteenth century which looked at both the good aspects of Philippine society as well as ones that needed to be removed or corrected. The librepensador derived inspiration from the progressive or liberal, even radical ideas from Europe during the second half of the nineteenth century, besides the ones from the earlier period of European Enlightenment. The use by Sotto of his nativetongue, Cebuano in the creation of most of his literary and nationalistic works was motivated by the necessity of being understood by the majority of his countrymen. In the didactic stories of Sotto, he upholds the connection between freedom of thought and freedom of the press, with the latter necessary for the former. He expressed the idea that being a righteous person is an important aspect of being a nationalist. The advocacy of divorce, when the love no longer is there, can be seen as something progressive compared to the conception of marriage as a chain where both partners are bound until one dies. Finally, the librepensador confronts the philosophical foundations of the Catholic Church through his questioning of its dogmas and 'mysteries,' advocating in their stead the faith in the ability of human beings to think for themselves.

36

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Primary Sources Sotto, Vicente. Mga handumanan sa Sugbu [and] Atong pinulongan. Cebu City: Barili Press, 1926. [microform]. Quezon City : Photoduplication Service, University of the Philippines Library, 1976. ___________. Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon. Cebu City: Barili Press, 1929. ___________. My Second Travel Around the World. Manila: Benipayo Press, 1948. B. Secondary Sources Alburo, Erlinda K. "History and the Prewar Cebuano Novel." (Philippine Studies 55. No.4 2007): 479-508. Antigua, L. "A study on the prose narratives of Vicente Sotto. Ma Thesis. U.P. Diliman. Main Library: University Archives and Records Depository, 1956. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Revised edition. London and New York: Verso, 1991. ________________. Under Three Flags: Anarchism and the Anti-colonial Imagination. Philippines: Anvil Publishing Inc., 2006. Joll, James. The Anarchists. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1964. Jung, Moon-ho. "Seditious Subjects: Race, State violence, and the U.S. Empire," JAAS 14:2 (2011): 221-247. Locsin-Nava, Ma. Cecilia. History and Society in the novels of Ramon Muzones. Quezon City : Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2001 Mojares, Resil B. Cebuano Literature: A Survey and Bio-bibliography with Finding List. Cebu City: University of San Carlos Publications, 1975. _____________. Vicente Sotto: The Maverick Senator. Cebu City: Cebuano Studies Center, 1992. _____________. Brains of the Nation: Pedro Paterno, T.H. Pardo de Tavera, Isabelo de los Reyes and the Production of Modern Knowledge. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2006. Ordoez, Elmer A. (ed.) Many Voices Towards a National Literature. Philippine Writers

37 Academy: MOED Press, 1995. Pagusara, Don, tagapagsalin sa Filipino. Dulaang Cebuano. Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University, 1997. Rafel, Vicente L. White Love and other events in Filipino history. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2000. Schumacher, John N. The Propaganda Movement: 1880-1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, The Making of a Revolution. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997. Scott, William Henry. The Union Obrera Democratica: First Filipino Labor Union. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1992. Sotto, Vicente. Labindalawang kuwento ni Vicente Sotto. Pinamatnugutan ni Erlinda K. Alburo; isinalin ni Remedios B. Ramos. Lungsod Quezon: Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, Sistemang Unibersidad ng Pilipinas, 1998.

38

APPENDIX

SYNOPSES OF THE STORIES IN VICENTE SOTTO'S MGA SUGILANONG PILIPINHON (1929)

1. Ang Inahan sa Sundalo (The Soldier's Mother)

A patriotic only son of an old, widowed mother dies after fighting the Spaniards. Before going to the battle, the son comforts his mother by making a speech about how there is a greater mother which is the motherland. After the battle, he is carried back to their house and we learn that he fought bravely along with several others. no date [n.d.]

2. Mga Ilo (Orphans)

It is All Soul's Day. In a small hut, the children keeps asking their mother where their father is. She replies that their lives were much better before when their father was there. Finally she reveals that their father died fighting for the Revolution and that unlike other people who visited the graves of their beloved that day, they do not know where their father, her husband, is buried. The last scene is of the mother embracing her crying children asking the heavens where her husband is. Though it is not specified, the enemies that are being discussed are the Americans. n.d.

3. Magpakamatay Tungud sa Yutang Natawhan (Dying for The Native Land)

Violeta is a young and beautiful wife. Her husband, Ernesto, is an officer of the Revolutionary army under Aguinaldo. He arrives home one day to tell her that he has received orders to join with another officer to fight the Americans. She pleads to him, asking if he has it in his heart to leave her. He immediately replies that a man's life belongs to his native land. He embraces her then leaves. She cries. Two weeks later, Violeta acquires a copy of La Independencia, and from it reads that her husband has died along with several other revolutionaries. She loses consciousness and falls to the floor. Five days

39 pass and the death of Ernesto is confirmed. Violeta, because of great anger, stops eating and goes insane. n.d.

4. Gugma sa Inahan (A Mother's Love)

A mother counsels her son not to get married since he is still too young, only eighteen years old. She asks him who will take care of her as she is old and sickly. The young man assures her that his wife-to-be would take care of her since she would love as well those that he loves. The young man gets married. The wedding and the wedding celebration is grand since the wifes father is well-known and rich; many friends and relatives of the couple are invited. Only one person is unhappy - the grooms mother. Six months later he is suddenly stricken with the sickness of St. Lazarus which is leprosy; his young wife leaves him because of his sickness. He is transferred to a home for those with the sickness, his mother caring for him. n.d.

5. Kabuotan (Kindness)
The story begins with a conversation between lovers. The woman is a former prostitute. The young man saved her from her previous life. The young man is telling her that once she loses her love for him and would want to leave him, to tell him at once; he would not be angry of her doing so. We are then presented a short background of Sisay, the former prostitute. She was sold by her parents to a rich Chinese. Abandoned by the Chinese, she was picked up by a Spaniard, and from the Spaniard she was passed on to other arms like a ball, until Fate put her in a house of Venus in Paho. [Paho is a town in Cebu] Goryo, the young man, found her there, and whether out of pity or love, took her out of that life. They both live in a house by the side of the sea like a married couple. Five months later, Goryo arrives to find Sisay sitting on the stairs of their hut with her things already packed, clearly planning on going away. Goryo asks whether he has displeased or made her angry in any way. Sisay replies that her gratitude for him knows no bounds as he was the first man to ever took pity on her, even love her. She says however, that she is tired of him. He pleads for her to stay. She reminds him of his request that they be honest to each other, and asks whether he would like it if they continue living together even though both know she no longer loves him. This persuades the young man and she leaves. Epilogue: Goryo is now an old man. The people of the town sees him sometimes going to a grave of an unknown person. This is the grave of Sisay whom Goryo loved and still has not forgotten. Hongkong, February 25, 1908

6. Ang Talikala (Chains)

40 Carrying her child in her arms, a young wife goes to her mothers house. In her conversation with her mother we learn that she has quarreled with her husband again because she did not welcome their visitors that day. The husband called her bad-mannered. The mother asks her daughter why she did not greet their visitors. She tells her this is because she does not like the visitor who talked to her husband. The mother asks for the reason why she does not like the visitor. She replies that the visitor who is a young woman, sounded as if she is ingratiating herself to her husband. We learn that the visitor and her husband conversed in Spanish so she does not really know what they talked about. The mother counsels her daughter to go back to her own house as there is no proper reason for her to be angry with her husband. The daughter replies she does not want to go back as she and her husband have different personalities and because of this quarrel a lot. At the same time that the young wife goes to her mother, the husband, who is a doctor, visits a lawyer friend. Complaining of the manners and character of his wife, he asks whether he could ask for a divorce. The lawyer, concerned over the unhappy domestic life of his friend, replies that although the Philippines is under the control of the United States, the old Spanish laws regarding marriage are still the ones that are followed. The best that can be done is legal separation since divorce is not allowed. The lawyer advises his friend to bear the burden of his marriage as there is nothing that can be lawfully done, and also for the sake of the couple's child. A month after the squabble, the wife's mother, the wife and the husband are having lunch when the wife's friends arrive at their door calling the wife to play 'loteria' with them. The husband gets angry and scolds his wife, reminding her what he said about her gambling. The wife defends her friends and the domestic scene turns into a fight with blows exchanged and plates flying. The mother faints. The wife's head is bloodied. Her friends disperse. The husband, covered with his wife's bites prepares to leave the house, intent on never coming back. He hears the crying of his child. He goes over to the hammock where the child is, and says there are two chains binding him: the Law and his child. He comforts the infant, saying he would not leave. Hongkong, February 24, 1908

7. Ang Silot (The Punishment)

Miguel Cepeda confides to an older Spanish friend during a party in the former's house that he is tired with his married life. His wife, though rich, is older than he is and although they have been together for two years, she has not given her a child. He is envious of the young couple which is their neighbor. Poor though they are, they have twins and are both young and handsome. He swears to enjoy life and asks his older friend to keep his secret between them. Years pass and he becomes known around town as a womanizer. Using the money of his wife, he carries on affairs and frequents prostitutes. He fathers numerous children; his friends call him 'the Sultan.' His wife remains ignorant of this as she is a reserved and quiet woman who spends her time reading, playing the piano, sewing and tending to her plants. One day a letter arrives from one of the women whom he had a child. It says he should be responsible and provide support for Tuling, their child, a girl. She writes him that it was her fault that she believed his lies. She tells him to at least have the heart to care for their child. Miguel smugly tears the letter into pieces. Many years pass and Tuling grows up. Though poor, she becomes known for her beauty. A Turkish man arrives one day with an offer for her to work some place. An acquaintance of theirs

41 convinces the mother to part with Tuling. Money is exchanged, and Tuling tearfully goes with the Turkish man. The mother hearing the wheels of the Tartanilla (covered, horse-drawn carriage), changes her mind, runs outside, but the carriage has gone. She falls down sobbing. A widower now, Miguel has continued with his ways. It is Carnaval in Manila and he, along with a few 'honorable' companions are going out to enjoy themselves. They ride a car to Lardizabal St. Sampaloc, and asks the driver to bring them to one of the 'Tagalog' houses. They go inside the house where there is a room with several girls arranged in front of them. Each choose their companion for the night. Miguel Cepeda learns that the women he has chosen hails from Cebu. Upon asking her more questions, she bursts into tears and tells him that she was brought to Manila by a Turkish man who upon tiring of her, left her and went back to Turkey. Left all alone, she was forced into prostitution. Asking further questions, Miguel realizes and confirms that she is his daughter Tuling as evidenced by a birthmark of hers. [plothole: Sotto forgets to tell us where Miguel could have known of her daughter's birthmark as it is not mentioned in the letter.] His conscience assails him and as if insane, he runs outside towards the street. Before he dies from busting his head falling down the stairs, he asks forgiveness from Tuling. Hongkong, February 27, 1908

8. Panikas sa Gugma (Deceit in Love)

Torcuata Abella is a vain and middle-aged widow with three daughters. Against her daughters' wishes, she plans on entertaining suitors, searching for a new husband. They quarrel, and one by one they leave their mother. Though no longer young and beautiful, many still pursue her since she has money. Potenciano Kabug, [Kabug means the animal bat in Cebuano] 25 years old, adunay maayong barog, maayong nawong, tuping washington, mabugnawong tingog (has a good posture, nice face, washington haircut, cold voice), wins her hand. They get married. Potenciano's situation in life improves. He now walks around with gem-studded rings in his fingers, enjoys wandering to places, and spends his time caring for his racing horses. One day, Torcuata wakes up and tells him she is pregnant. She wants him to summon the mananabang (an herbolario or manghihilot) as she wants a massage. Getting tired of his wife's pretensions of being pregnant, Potenciano Kabug pays the mananabang for the latter to agree with his wife's delusions. Happy upon hearing the mananabang's confirmation of her alleged pregnancy, she allows Potenciano to go to Hongkong to procure cattle, something that he has been requesting her before. He withdraws all of her money from the bank, and promises to return with the purchased cattle after twelve days. Twelve days turn to twelve months. Potenciano still has not returned. To keep her suspicions at bay, he writes to her that he has contracted a sickness. She prays for him constantly, offering candles to various saints, and keeping the lamp on her altar lit at all times. Still not giving birth, she consults a doctor who tells her that the bump on her stomach is nothing but fat. Tired of replying to his wife, Potenciano tells her to stop wasting his time and in the letter tells her to got to hell: Pangita sa sama kanimo o lakaw ba hinoon sa Solad. (Search for someone like yourself or maybe just walk to Hell.) He is living in Hongkong in a large house with a young Portuguese woman, and has opened a bar in the first floor of his house. Having no more money, Torcuata could not pursue her husband. In a fit of rage, she punches the

42 image of St. Vicente Ferrer on her altar, saying she wasted all those candles and also the oil for the lamps for nothing. She then turns round and round, while shouting how she have been deceived, like a madwoman. Hongkong, March 10, 1908

9. Ang Bakakon (The Liar)

Chenggoy is a married man whose wife has returned to Manila since she is sick. He is an enemy of the friars and the civil guards as he reported their corrupt methods to the Governor-General one time. He is fond of the budbud [suman] that Kuring, an attractive young woman sells around town. Kuring has numerous admirers, including a Sargento Mastache of the Civil Guard. Kuring is seduced by Chenggoy, he gives her jewelery and they meet daily in his house to conduct their affair. Rumors soon spread and a jealous Sargento Mastache warns Kuring's relatives not to allow her to see Chenggoy anymore. But the Sargento is already too late. Kuring is pregnant and is cohabiting with Chenggoy in his house. The Sergeant visits a lawyer to see what can be done. The lawyer turns to the friars and they all conspire against Chenggoy. Their main argument is that Chenggoy seduced and dishonored Kuring. The problem however is that she has been cohabiting with him for nearly a year and that the reputation of the family of Kuring is not that good since her sisters also are cohabiting with other men. They continue with their lawsuit however. They present as witness Pakaka Abigatlona, a 'beata.' Sotto goes on to great length to describe the nature of the beata: she is a creature of the church, a blind and dogmatic follower of the parish priest. Since the judge is biased for the prosecution, Chenggoy is sentenced to four years in jail. A couple of years pass and the Spaniards are driven out of the country; though the friars remained, Sotto notes. Chenggoy is freed. On her deathbed, Pakaka Abigatlona's conscience forces her to tell the truth. She confesses to a priest that she has lied which lead to the imprisonment of an innocent man, then she dies. The epilogue states that no one wants to live in the beata's abandoned house because it is haunted. During nights, a voice is heard asking for forgiveness. Hongkong, March 4, 1908

10. Ang Pasaylo ni Barbara (Barbara's Forgiveness)

The family has just returned to their home after fetching their daughter from her school Colegio de Santa Maria. Cesar Solon, the father asks his daughter what she has learned so far in her school. He is not satisfied with her answer, saying one could also learn about religion and prayer simply by staying at home. The father criticizes the priests, and decides to transfer her to Colegio Normal and gives her Rizal's Noli me Tangere and Carlota Braeme's Dora to read. The mother, Barbara, overhears the father-daughter conversation and tells her husband not to include their daughter in his 'heresies.' He replies: 'Herejes diay kong magtudlo sa kahayag?' (Is it heresy when what is taught is the truth?). The conversation devolves into a physical confrontation, and ends with the husband leaving them, and the mother taking their daughter back to the Colegio de Santa Maria.

43 Before he departs that day for Manila, he leaves a letter to his wife, saying he absolves himself of their daughter's upbringing, as he is poor and she is rich and thus the ruler of their home. The mother and daughter turn more religious, only associating with the priests and the friars. In Manila, Cesar finds work as a warehouse manager where he is greatly valued by his employer for his honesty, integrity and industriousness. Birina, the daughter, is seduced by a priest and gets pregnant. The incident is alluded to in an article published in Ang Suga, [The Lamp/The Light] Sotto's publication. Cesar, a constant reader of Ang Suga, reads further the details of the incident and realizes that what is being discussed is her daughter. He returns to Cebu. He arrives home and when they see him, the mother and pregnant daughter cries. They ask for his forgiveness, but his heart is hardened. He kicks his wife and immediately returns back to Manila. Hongkong, March 29, 1908

11. Budhi sa Yutang-Natawhan (Betrayal of the Native Land)

Mang Patsong returns home after fighting in the Revolution, following the exile of Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders to Hongkong as part of the agreement in the Treaty of Biyak-na-Bato of 1897. He brings with him a Mauser rifle which he acquired fighting the enemy. He shows his daughter and wife the scars from his numerous battles and tells them to keep the rifle in a safe place in case the Spaniards renege on their promise. Upon Aguinaldo's return in the ship McCullough on May 1898, hostilities between the Filipinos and Spaniards resume. A young neighbor of Mang Patsong asks his permission to marry his daughter. Wanting to participate in the struggle, but already old and sickly, he accepts the proposal of the young man on the condition that the latter join the renewed struggle in his stead. They dig up the old Mauser rifle and the young man goes off to battle. The narrator tells us that in 1900, the Partido Federal was created to put an end to the armed struggle. Revolutionaries were called upon to surrender their rifles in exchange for thirty pesos. The young man returns and is embraced by Mang Patsong. Upon learning however that the young man has surrendered the Mauser, Mang Patsong angrily castigates the young man, saying the rifle was bought with the people's blood and that he had no right to give up the rifle. He exclaims, Dili ako buut motanaw bisan sa landung sa mga managbaligya sa Yutang-Natawhan. Mabudhion! (I do not want to gaze upon even the shadow of those who sell their native land. Betrayers!), then chases the young man our of his house. Hongkong, April 2, 1908

12. Gugma sa Yutang-Natawhan (Love of Native-land) *

* There is a long preface to this story. At the time that this story was published in El Pueblo, which was Sotto's publication, he has just been released from Fort San Pedro for the crime of publishing an article that was perceived as being against the American authorities. This particular story got him sued as advocating the kidnapping of those who accept posts in the American sponsored government. He was given the sentence of a fine of two hundred pesos, and a warning that if he continues with his anti-American writings, he would be sent to Guam.

44 Aurora is a beautiful young woman who, like his father, is nationalistic. She comes from a family of modest wealth. The interior of her house is described. It has a marble table, two rocking chairs, and on the walls are framed verses from the bible. The living-room is lighted by three lamps which are very bright. It is nine in the evening and she is sitting by the table, reading a newspaper, while waiting for Octavio, her fianc to visit her along with his sisters. She reads that Octavio has just been appointed as 'maghuhukom sa kadaitan' (associate magistrate) of their town. Octavio and his sisters arrive and she tells him of the news. He smiles and tells her this is the first time he became aware of the news being published. They go home at eleven in the evening. That night, Aurora could not sleep. He thought about Octavio's appointment and also about the situation of the native land. That morning, as the roosters are about to crow, she pens him a letter. It tells how he has betrayed the native land by accepting the post given to him. She tells him how he used to fight for the native land and now he has turned his back on his country just when it needed him most. She tells him that since last night, her heart is no longer his, and wishes him well in his new duty. The epilogue tells us that Aurora has married another man. And of Octavio, the narrator tells us that he has died after being kidnapped by revolutionaries for betraying the native land. 1900

13. Ang Pulahan

Iyo Diyakoy and his two sons arrive home to find Iyo Diyakoy's wife bound to a post, his daughters-in-law and youngest daughter raped. (Iyo is a term used to designate an elder or senior) In revenge, the two sons chase after the constables who were the ones who committed the acts. An exchange of gunfires is heard. The sons of Iyo Diyakoy are both killed. Iyo Diyakoy rallies his neighbors and they form a band to fight the abuses of the constables. A government campaign against the Pulahanes ensues. Even those who stayed in their houses and kept out of the hostilities were caught and imprisoned. Many women are raped. The governor calls on the mayor for the surrender of Iyo Diyakoy. Diyakoy replies in a letter that the reason for their rising against the government are the abuses of the constables. He says that they respect the flag of the United States, that they only want for those constables who raped their women and stole their properties to be brought to justice. Due to an undercover constable who attended one of Diyakoy's meetings, he is caught and brought to a court in front of a judge. He is given the death penalty by hanging for the crime of banditry. Diyakoy replies that he agrees with the court's decision as they have been forced to steal food because they do not have any other means of support, however he exclaims that those constables who raped the women and stole properties should also be brought to trial. The judge orders him to shut up. Diyakoy, quick as a tiger, jumps towards the judge and attacks the latter with a sharp glass from the vase that was broken on the table. Diyakoy is then beaten to death by the constables. Yutang Madalag, April 6, 1908

14. Baye ug Babaye (Female and Woman)

The story starts with a conversation between two Filipino students in the United States. David is

45 studying medicine and is a scholar supported by a club, while Cornelio is a law student from a rich family. They both room together and before going to sleep, their conversation turns to what they will do after their studies, specifically marriage. Cornelio wants to marry an American woman, he says, because they are tall, have a big bosom, a narrow waist, milk-white skin and blonde hair. David criticizes his friends' plan, saying that the narrowness of their waists is due to wearing corsets, that without the perfume and jewellery, American women are just like any other women in the world. David wants to marry a Filipina and enumerates the various reasons why, but most importantly because a woman from the Philippines would be nearer to the desires of his heart, would laugh when he laughs and would cry when he is in sorrow. Both realize the conversation is going nowhere, so they agree to go to sleep. Time passes and Cornelio goes back home to Manila with his law degree and an American wife named Letty Flirt. She is as Cornelio desired, and he becomes the envy of those who see them walking in Luneta. David meanwhile is now a doctor and falls head over heels over a woman he has treated, a daughter of vendors of clothing, named Neneng. Six months later, David and Neneng are now married. As David is going out of his house, he meets with Cornelio and both enthusiastically greet each other. Cornelio tells him that the ten months he was together with Letty was the darkest ten months of his life. He complained of Letty's habits such as spending all her time while he is in his office, in stores in Escolta buying things, drinking beer and eating ice cream. At night, she wants to go to the theater and if he refuses, she just calls over some of her friends. She rides horses with American men and travels around with a few of them in her husband's car. David asks, why did he not admonish her. Cornelio replies that he raised his fist on her once and she came out of her room with her revolver. She now has gone back home to the United States. After exchanging words of sympathies to Cornelio, and reminiscing of their time abroad, they both bid farewell to each other. As David departs, Cornelio exclaims to his wife how fortunate he is to have her. She tells him how can he love her when she has numerous scars on her neck. He replies that it is not her appearance that made him love her, that he has fallen in love with her uniqueness as well as her imperfections. He then covers her face with kisses. Yutang Madalag, May 5, 1909

15. Ang Kawatan (The Thief)

Demy is alone with her sleeping child in her hut. The creditor of Demy's husband, or Awing, visits and tells her he loves her. Demy tells him to please have pity and not dirty her honor as she is married and already has a child. He continues and recalls how he loaned his husband the boat he is using now, and also some money. Demy replies he can have any other women he wants as he is rich, and to leave her be as she will be faithful to her husband. She locks the door and he forces his way inside through the window. As he peeks his head in, she hits him with an umbrella, while shouting 'thief, thief!,' and he falls down. That morning, a figure was seen going home, walking with a limp. Yutang Madalag, May 20, 1908

46

16. Don Benigno

Abdon and Nano both work in the office of Don Benigno, an old lawyer. Nano is away on an errand to Dagupan. Matias, another worker under Don Benigno, through a mistake, was given a letter that was meant for Abdon. Matias gives the letter to Don Benigno who learns that it is a love letter for Abdon from Nano's wife, saying the two should meet in Bagong Bayan. Don Benigno tells Matias not to tell anyone of the contents of the letter. Don Benigno meets with Margarita, the wife of Nando, instead. We learn that Nano maltreats Margarita when he is drunk. Don Benigno counsels that there is nothing that she can do as whatever flaws Nando may have, he will still remain his husband. Margarita further tells him that Nano spends the money he earned on cockfighting and gambling, and that he also has a lover he cohabits with in Pasay. The narrator tells us that through Don Benigno's intervention, Margarita becomes a faithful and humble wife. While Abdon is fired by Don Benigno for participating in the adultery. The former tries to argue his side, but Don Benigno threatens him with his cane; Abdon runs out of the office. Though Margarita becomes faithful and humble, Nano however continues with his gambling, cockfighting and womanizing. Yutang Madalag, May 22, 1908

17. Kalayo! (Fire)

Agustin Takatani, captain of the ship Independencia comes home, and is welcomed by his wife Talina, who asks him for one hundred pesos for her to buy jewelries. She reasons it is so she has something to wear for the coming fiesta in Mabulo. He refuses and reasons to her that it is not necessary for a beautiful woman to wear jewelries, as jewelries deceive the eyes. Even if an ugly woman is shining from all the jewelries that covers her body, she remains an ugly woman. She replies that he is just being stingy. He says he is not being stingy, if she would ask him for medicine and good food he would immediately give these things to her, he thinks jewelries are extravagant and unnecessary. Finally he tells her why would she need jewelries does she aim to be desired by other men? She then frowns and goes to their room. Agustin has just returned from a voyage and he only desires to go home and sleep in the arms of his wife. Arriving home, he finds her no longer there. A servant he asks, tells him that she has been gone for two days now, and has been heard to be living with an American man in the village of Sambag. Further the servant tells him that Talina has purchased three hundred pesos worth of jewelry from a jeweler. Thinking how could she have gotten the money to purchase the jewels, Agustin realizes that the American must have brought it for her. That night, a figure was seen carrying a tin of gasoline towards a house in the village of Sambag. Not five minutes later, the house goes up in flames. The figure then runs atop a nearby hill and laughs while looking at his ghastly deed. After the fire, the burned bodies of an American man and a woman is recovered. The man who committed the act was Agustin Takatani, captain of the ship Independencia. Yutang Madalag, May 22, 1908

47

18. Amahan ug Anak (Father and Child)

The story is an allegorical conversation between father and son. Here, the father is assumed to be Sotto, and the son is the seven-year old Ang Suga. It starts with the son excitedly waking up his father from the latter's sleep. The father asks what is the matter, and the son replies that he told him last night that this day would be his birth anniversary. The father gets up out of his bed and is overcome with emotion. The son asks what is wrong, and the father replies that he is just remembering all the troubles and sorrows that he has caused him. The son asks whether he is bad since he caused him a lot of trouble. The father says no, it's just that his honesty has caused them both numerous difficulties. The son then asks whether it is bad to tell the truth. The father goes at great length to expound on the necessity of telling the truth, saying that all the religions of the world has frequently emphasized the virtue of being truthful. However, he says there are truths that should not be pointed out if one wants to be free from criticism and enemies. The father tells his son that in order to succeed in this world, one has to lie and not get in the way of those who are in power, that in order to be powerful and successful as well, one must lick the boots of those in power, such as the friars, the ones who paid for the execution of Jose Rizal. The son asks if that is what he really wants for him to do. And the father replies with a strong no, saying that before he betray the native-land he should kill himself, that in order to succeed in life he must work hard and improve using his own arms and sweat. Yutang Madalag, May 23, 1908

19. Hain ang Katarungan? (Where is the Justice?)

Mr. Perfecto Imparcial goes to court and complains of his niece, Rosa Makatoll [sic] still having not returned from her sojourn to the church last night. A sacristan of the church reported to him that she was last seen going into a car with a certain Roger Tinaban. The judge asks whether his niece is chaste. He replies how is one supposed to know something like that, but continues that now she probably is not, after going out with Roger Tinaban. The judge tells him to call his witnesses. That afternoon, Roger Tinaban and Rosa Makatoll are caught by an arresting officer (mananakop). Roger is jailed as he has no lawyer, while Rosa is returned to Mr. Perfecto. Mr. Perfecto however, complains to the judge, saying he does not want to take her back. He has come to the judge in order to find justice; he wants for his niece to be punished as well. The judge tells him that the law in cases of enticement, like the one his niece is in, punishes only the man, and rewards the woman with a monetary settlement for her honor. Mr. Perfecto Imparcial says that both should be punished since the girl agreed to the elopement. The argument that the woman is weak and easily persuaded does not apply since the girl is by nature flirtatious. Since he cannot get justice from the judge regarding his niece, he withdraws his suit against the man, as he says, he does not want someone be jailed simply for falling in love. As for the settlement money, he does not want it as the honor of a woman, once lost cannot be regained. After signing the letter withdrawing his suit against the man, he complains how unjust the law is, then asks where is the justice? Yutang Madalag, May 26, 1908

48

20. Ang Haring Lungsod (The Sovereign Nation)

The story is dedicated to the 'makilungsod' (patriot) Mariano Ponce, and opens with the quote: Mga panumpa sa babaye ug mga saad sa mga pilion, ipadpad sa hangin. (The promises of women and of political candidates, are blown away by the wind.) In a footnote, it states that this story was first written in Spanish and published in El Renacimiento and was translated later into Cebuano by Sotto. Two candidates vie for the position of mayor of a town. The first is the Nacionalista candidate, Prisco Puroviento. He runs with the platform of immediate independence from the United States, and promises to the people things such as the construction of a cemetery that would be open for all classes of people, reform of the police force, support for a deserving student to study in Manila, to put an end to gambling and other vices, and to honor the nationalists who fought against the tyranny of the friars. The other candidate is the pro-Catholic Church Rosalio Amenjesus who exhorts the voters during his campaign speech to remember all the good that the Church has done for the people. If he wins, he promises to offer prayers to the various saints daily, and among his plans is to put the municipal government under the control of the parish convent. The election is held and Prisco Puroviento wins. A year later, the administration of Puroviento is in shambles. Not even one of the promises he made during the election turned into reality. His administration is riven with corruption, the roads are in disrepair, he is frequently seen having dinner with the parish priest in the latter's convent, and the police force take a cut from the local gambling activities. To address these issues, the people of the municipality, led by a student from the Liceo de Manila, Ruben Sinamok, (Ruben Agitate) who is currently at home from his studies, meet at a warehouse. Ruben Sinamok reminds the people of the promises of Puroviento and how these promises remained as such. He says that the authority of the government officials comes from the people, that since it is the people that pays for the wages of the officials, it is to the people that these officials are accountable. He likens an administration to that of a business where if the worker is terrible and wastes money he would be immediately kicked out. That night, a demonstration headed by Sinamok storms towards the municipal office. Stopping outside the window of Puroviento, Sinamok stands atop a chair and pronounces to the mayor the causes for their discontent and demands at the end for him to step down. All the while Puroviento cowers in fear, listening. Afterwards, the people disperse. The following day, Puroviento convenes the Municipal Council and tenders his resignation for reasons of ill-health. El Renacimiento, May 7, 1908

21. Mister Drunkard

An American, Mr. Drunkard, claiming to be an editor of a newspaper The Pig, visits Mr. Lopez a Filipino, asking the latter to work for him as a translator. Mr. Lopez politely refuses as he is a Nacionalista and would not want to work for a paper that is against the aims of the Nacionalista and the Filipino people. The American criticizes the character of the Filipinos, while Mr. Lopez defends his countrymen, pointing out the moral ills of the Americans. Having nothing else to talk about, he bids farewell and promises to visit the following day. The next day, Mr. Drunkard claims that he regularly dines with the Governor-General, that back

49 in the United States he frequently dines with President Roosevelt as well. He now says he is not really a newspaper editor, but a lawyer. Mr. Drunkard asks for something to drink, but refuses when Mr. Lopez presents him with water, as he only drinks water with whiskey. He then bids farewell. The following day, Mr. Lopez has brought whiskey. Mr. Drunkard, inebriated, reveals that he is neither a newspaper editor nor a lawyer. He says he was a soldier when he came to the Philippines, but back home in the United States, he is a hotel servant. Tired with the conversation, Mr. Lopez says there is no more whiskey. Mr. Drunkard bids his farewell, then leaves. Lipang Kalabaw, n.d.

22. Ang Makilungsod (The Patriot)

A recently-licensed lawyer, Resurrecto, is asked by his uncle, Iyo Banong who raised him (he is an orphan), where he would have his office. He replies that he would not be practicing yet and instead asks for a loan so he can open a printing press for a paper as their island does not have one yet. His uncle argues that he will face many problems, acquire numerous enemies if he opens a paper. The nephew remembers a similar conversation between Isagani and Mr. Pasta in Rizal's El Filibusterismo. The uncle, who always takes the words of Rizal as if it is gospel, is convinced of Isagani's reply and would have agreed to his nephew's request had not his wife, Iya Sista, overheard the conversation. She defends the priests and the friars and orders her nephew to no longer live with them. She disinherits him, leaving their wealth to the Church once they die. It has been two years since Resurrecto set up his paper Ang Kaugalingnan (Independence) with the help of some of his friends. Throughout that period he indeed made some enemies, especially in the government and police force, as they are constantly criticized by him. A great trouble comes upon the island, as many people are caught in a battle between the soldiers and constables against the agitators who were branded by the government as bandits. Resurrecto publishes the truth about the events, saying that what started as a small band of bandits blossomed into a large-scale insurrection once the soldiers that were sent to quell them started abusing the population. Thefts by the constables as well as rapes became common. The people fled to the mountains and joined the bandits in order to escape the constables. For publishing this, Resurrecto is jailed by the authorities. The papers in Manila, however, pick up his story and the Governor-General himself hears of the events. He personally visits the island and rights the wrongs, imprisoning the constables and officials who were party to the abuses. Peace is restored and Resurrecto is freed. His aunt and uncle, who also have fled to the mountains, meet with him and ask for his forgiveness. They all hug and cry. A notary is later sent for, as they change their last will for Resurrecto to inherit their wealth once more. Yutang Madalag, June 10, 1908

23. Ang mga Tinohoan (The Beliefs)

The first part of the story is the birth of Justo and Clemencia Yap's son. He is named Plaridel by Justo, after Marcelo H. del Pilar, a saint in the eyes of the nation, though not in the almanac of the Roman Catholic Church. The mother, though having reservations, agrees with this. As to the question

50 of baptism, Justo says that they should allow the child to choose his own beliefs. The mother, trusting his husband, agrees with this as well. Twelve years later, Deling, as Plaridel is called, returns home sobbing. He reports to his father that his classmates have been calling him 'moros' because he is unbaptized. The father laughs and says what a fool he is and what fools his classmates are. As he has someplace to go, he tells his son they will speak of the matter after dinner. Justo calls Plaridel to his side after dinner, and they talk about the issue of faith. The son asks his father questions such as which religion is the right one, and he is taught by the father the main tenets of the various faiths, including Buddhism, Islam, Catholicism, Confucianism and Protestantism. The father also outlines his own beliefs, which he calls 'librepensamiento,' which is the advocacy of the use of reason. The father, seeing his son already getting sleepy, tells the latter that they will speak of these things the following day, as it is time to sleep. The following day, after the painit (informal meal/snack before the actual meal) before breakfast, the father shows his son his library filled with books and readings from various branches of knowledge. He enjoins his son to read the books and using his own reason, make up his own mind as to the proper beliefs that one must have in life. He then leaves his son as the latter starts to leaf through the pages of a book. Yutang Madalag, June 1, 1908

24. Donato
Donato is a bachelor, forty years old, a teacher of the English language. He has several female servants one of whom is Sabina who is short, dark-skinned and cross-eyed, and who already has several children out of wedlock. Rumors circulate around town as to why he remains a bachelor, but these are dispelled once Donato falls in love with a new arrival to their town, a young woman, Consuelo (Soling) Todoloquiere, a rich orphan from Magindanaw. Though many fall in love with her, she accepts the proposal of Donato. He tells his servants that he no longer needs them and they sadly depart. As the day of their marriage nears, he overhears the drunk servant of his fiancee telling how back in Magindanaw his mistress had a reputation for being an easy woman. Goaded more by the tubaseller (tuba is a wine made from fermented coconut sap), the servant says that his mistress does not get pregnant because she drinks 'Agua de Carabaa.' Donato walks home stunned, after hearing all these. That night he investigates. He goes to Soling's house and peeps inside, seeing her with another man. He throws stones through her window and shouts of her reputation back in Magindanaw. Donato ends up marrying Sabina. When asked why he married her, he replies that through all her imperfections, Sabina has a kind heart and has long been a loyal companion to him. Yutang Madalag, June 14, 1908

25. Ang Sugarol (The Gambler)

There is a cholera epidemic in Cebu. Kandiro Demalas, an unlucky gambler gambles away what his wife had saved, in the cockfight ring. There is a detailed description of the cockfighting arena, as well as the surrounding superstition with regards to cockfighting. For dinner that night, having nothing

51 else to eat, the family is forced to boil the still unripe bunch of bananas they have. Near morning, their three young children wake up, complaining of stomachache. They start to exhibit symptoms of cholera. The wife tries to wake up Kandiro, but the latter is angry and says to leave him be as he is sleepy. The children meanwhile are getting worse. Through the help of neighbors, the wife acquires a lamp. Later a neighbor helps, applying oil of manzanilla to the three children as well as giving them laudanum. All these efforts are in vain, and the gambler wakes up to the scene of his wife crying in grief embracing the bodies of their three children. Realizing his connection to the tragedy, he starts crying and walking around the house as if insane. Seeing his roosters, he takes his bolo and one by one cuts off the animals' heads. From that day on, he is a changed man. He has left gambling and is pursuing his livelihood through honest, hard work. Yutang Madalag, June 27, 1908

26. Ang Matarung (The Righteous)

Sr. Denson is an old Spaniard who has a daughter out of wedlock named Marta. He recognizes her though, raises her, and sends her to a school. He is heavily indebted to an older Spaniard friend, Sr. Hilarion Cordero. Cordero announces his desire to marry the fifteen year old Marta. Denson replies he will think on the matter and will give his decision three days hence. Three days later, Denson gives his assent and Cordero is elated with the news. Marta is married now, and one night, on their way home from the theater with her husband, she sees Biktor, a young Filipino. Biktor has declared his love for her even before she was married, and now seeing him, she realizes she is in love with him as well. Word spreads around town of Marta's betrayal of her husband. Her father, hearing of the rumors, visits her house unannounced, and catches her with Biktor. Biktor escapes out of the window. Sr. Denson has brought his revolver with him. Marta begs for forgiveness. Sr. Denson tells her how she has brought dishonor to his and her husband's names, then shoots her. Sr. Hilarion Cordero arrives and sees what has happened. Denson says to Cordero that her daughter has brought dishonor to both their names and he has just now cleansed them. Hilarion weeps and hugs Denson. n.d.

27. Ang Iro (The Dog)

Bidal and Pinay live in a simple home with their dog named Fiel. Bidal is a laborer and one day he is accused by the manager of the warehouse (kamalig) where he works, of stealing. He is sent to jail for six months for a crime he did not commit. The accusation was concocted by the warehouse manager so he could have his way with Bidal's beautiful wife, Pinay. As the months pass waiting for Bidal, Pinay grows restless and finally leaves the house, cohabiting with the warehouse boss. On the day he is released, Bidal is welcomed home only by their dog. Though thin due to not being fed, the dog is happy to see him. The neighbors tell him of his wife's infidelity. A news bulletin is posted in a newspaper the following day: A woman and her lover was

52 murdered by her husband who was just recently released from jail. The husband looked for her and seeing her with her lover in the Pansitan of the Chinese Du-Bun-Tiyong, lost his mind, and killed them. n.d.

28. Ang Dila sa Babaye (A Woman's Tongue)

One rainy evening, filled with thunder and lightning, Emilio sees a vision out of his window: a bloodied body of a man sprawled on the ground. He shivers and hugs his wife, Edeng, who asks him what is the matter. He makes her promise to keep to herself what he is about to tell, then confesses. He says that seven years ago, a friend of his, Roque Galvez, was murdered. Kapitan Tiyoy, a friend as well of Emilio, was blamed and jailed for the murder. Emilio confesses that it was actually him who killed Roque. Seven years ago, Emilio's first wife left him for Roque. He decides not to pursue her, trying to avoid confrontation as Emilio was a friend. One night however, Emilio and Kapitan Tiyoy meets Roque while the latter is coming out of a gambling house. A chase ensues with Emilio killing Roque. Him and Kapitan Tiyoy then dispose of the body. Due to the confusion of the night's events, Kapitan Tiyoy's belongings were left at the scene of the crime and eventually traced to him. Kapitan Tiyoy is tortured but does not reveal the truth. He is sent to jail for twelve years. Emilio is a womanizer, and while is inside the hut of the woman he is cohabiting with, his wife shouts at him to get out and confront her. However loud she shouted, both lovers does not come out; tiring, she finally blurts out to everyone the secret that Emilio has told her. She finally leaves. Later, Emilio is captured by the Civil Guards. Due to his wife's confessing of his crime, they found the bones of Roque Galvez. He is jailed, and on the day of his execution by garrote, Edeng runs amidst the throng of onlookers, imploring them not to kill her beloved Emilio. n.d.

29. Resurrexit!
Balanday is seduced by Purintoy and she surrenders her purity to him one night. They continue seeing each other several times afterwards. One day, Purintoy tires of Balanday and leaves her for a recently-widowed American woman, both go to Manila. Balanday then reports the loss of her virtue to her mother who after slapping and castigating her, asks her what she plans to do. Balanday plans to sue Purintoy. Prudencia, her mother, tells her this is not a good idea since it is better to keep one's dark secrets to one's self. Balanday has the idea of going to a nunnery to hide her shame. Her mother reminds her of what happened to Maria Clara in Rizal's Noli me Tangere, and of a local scandal wherein a strangled newborn was found in a well within the compound of a nunnery in Cebu. Prudencia then lectures her that the best thing to do is to be humble and learn from her bad experience; to work hard and be able to support herself without a man in her life. Time passes and Balanday has grown serious and hardworking. She assists her mother in her work and steers away from men who are after her. She becomes fond though of Kapitan Kristobal Redentoris, who although already old, has been a widower several times, and has numerous children, has a kind heart. Kapitan Kristobal has been courting her for some time now, and finally after telling

53 her that she is no longer chaste, and seeing that the old man has an honorable reputation and is a loving husband to his previous wives as well as being a good father, and that he is not bothered by her past, agrees to marry him. Three years pass, and Purintoy returns to town. He sees Balanday and realizes he still is in love with her. He visits her one night while her husband is away, after she has put her three children to sleep. Balanday refuses Purintoy's advances, calls him a rascal and a thief, and chases him out of her house. Purintoy while escaping, bumps onto a policeman who hits the thief with his truncheon. Purintoy is hit at the back of the neck and is killed immediately. Yutang Madalag, July 21, 1908

30. Mrs. Casta

A young widow, Mrs. Casta gets married to an American, Mr. Swindler, against the wishes of the godmother of her child. The marriage starts out well but one day the child, Pidel, visits his godmother, asking her to let him live with her as he is maltreated by his American stepfather. The godmother loves her nephew as her own child, since she does not have one of her own. He lives with her and is cared for and is sent to school. One day he asks for a knife to sharpen his pencil. Outside, he hears his mother calling her godmother, asking for help. He goes out and sees his disheveled mother being chased with a stingray-tail whip by his stepfather. Protecting his mother, he stabs his stepfather in the groin. His stepfather dies and he is arrested by the police. He is later freed as he is a minor. Yutang Madalag, August 2, 1908

31. Ang Tinagoan ni Teresa (The Secret of Teresa)

Teresa Nonbirgo is a young woman who is two months pregnant. She tells the doctor that she has already taken Agua de Carabaa, as well as Kumingtang and yet she still remains pregnant. Shocked, the doctor asks why she wants to abort the child. She tearfully tells him that her lover has recently died and she would not go through with the pregnancy, fearing what the people would say. The doctor tells her that what she wants to do is a great crime in the eyes of the Law as well as in the eyes of God, and refuses to help her. Teresa leaves for Magindanaw with a deaf-mute female servant, giving the reason that she needs a fresh environment for her health. Months later, she gives birth to a boy baptized with the name Silvestre. She entrusts the infant to a woman who has recently lost both husband and child. Teresa returns to her town and her friends remark on how she has regained her color and how she is becoming more plump. After a while, she gets married to Segundo Makisalin, a young man of Spanish descent. She gives birth to a young girl they name Segunda. Meanwhile, Silvestre is growing up in the mountains of Magindanaw, forgotten by his real mother. Fifteen years pass and Segunda grows up a beautiful young woman, and is studying in Cebu High School. One night, before sleep, Segunda confesses to her mother that a boy at school is courting her. The mother advises her daughter on the proper way to handle such affairs. Asking further questions, the mother realizes the young man her daughter is talking about is her love-child Silvestre, who is now an orphan and is studying in Cebu through a scholarship.

54 Both Silvestre and Segunda graduate and are now teachers. Silvestre asks Segunda whether he can formally ask her parents for her hand in marriage (pamalaye); she agrees. The day after Silvestre's formal request, a body of a woman is found floating on the waters behind the old fort. This is the body of Teresa who at dawn feigned going to church. In her devocionario is written her suicide note, which confesses her secret that Silvestre and Segunda are siblings. An epilogue tells that the marriage was canceled and that Silvestre and Segunda recognize each other as siblings. Sotto claims that most of the personages he mentions in the story are still alive and well in Cebu. The wife of Teresa, Segundo who is now old, Sotto tells us is periodically seen walking alone. One person even heard the old man asking the heavens as to where is Teresa, and that if only she has told him her secret he would have forgiven her. Yutang Madalag, August 6, 1908

32. Buang kun Manggugubut? (Insane or An Advocate of Disorder/Agitator?)

Maby, a young man who has just returned from Paris, is holding a speech in front of a crowd on the clearing/lawn of the 'Club Nacionalista.' He speaks about how Justice is above the Law, and how the Law has been used to justify all sorts of oppressions, citing the Holy Inquisition of the Middle Ages as well as the present time in Russia where the emperor terrorizes the citizens. He quotes Kropotkin at length. The people applaud him every now and then, agreeing with his declarations. As he is speaking, two persons hold him and declare they are agents of the government who will now bring him to a court as he is inciting the people to revolt. The young man screams is this not the Philippines, is this Russia? He asks for help from the people, but they turn their faces. As he is carried away, he calls them cowards. The crowd disperses, and a man asks an older man whether the one who got arrested was 'buang kun manggugubut'? (insane or an agitator?). The older man replies he does not know. Yutang Madalag, October 13, 1908

33. Panapaw (Adultery)

An unfaithful wife plans on poisoning her Chinese husband so she can marry her lover. She mixes the poison with her husband's tea leaves, as the Chinese drink tea instead of water. While she is out, pretending to go to church, their child complains of a stomachache, and the father prepares him a cup of tea. The child is immediately stricken, and the father is greatly frightened and confused, shouting for help from their servants and neighbor. The wife then arrives and sees what has happened to her child. She confesses to her crime. The epilogue states that the wife and her lover are now in Bilibid for the death of the child and for adultery. Yutang Madalag, December 7, 1908

55

34. Usa ka Miting (A Meeting)*

Mauro Peste is a representative of a certain political Party and he has come to town in order to promote his candidates. To announce the meeting, he arranges for a band to play across town, announcing the place and the purpose in the banner in front of the marching band. At the meeting, he testifies as to the youth, virtue and knowledge of his candidates who are all Doctors, Lawyers and professionals, so they would not be interested in corruption. Someone comments that the most important virtue of a candidate is nationalism, which is seen in the acts and not only in the words of candidates. Another one goes at length to characterize the politicians as suitors who would promise everything to the woman they desire, but once they have tasted of the fruit of Eden, do not even have the decency to at least bid farewell. Peste gets greatly annoyed with all the questionings and tells the man to go away if he won't vote for his candidates. Saying this, all leave the meeting, leaving Mauro Peste cursing the empty hall. Yutang Madalag, January 22, 1909

35. Ang Kampilan

The story is set in the Sultanate of Maguindanao. Akil goes to the Sultan and asks for justice against his wife Sayda and her lover, Datu Sikalunan. The Sultan asks for witnesses. Akil brings them, but none tell the truth for fear of retribution from Datu Sikalunan. The next day, Akil brings to the Sultan the heads of both adulterers. The Sultan asks what has he done. Akil replies that since he was unable to gain justice in courts of men, his kampilan satisfied the justice that was denied him. The Sultan then sends someone to check on the truthfulness of Akil's claims. The man later returns and confirms Akil's account. The Sultan then lets Akil go, saying to him that there are lawsuits that should not be tried under the courts of men, that sometimes the kampilan is the most appropriate justice. Yutang Madalag, January 29, 1909

36. Hesus ug Pilata

After mass, the town gossips have gathered outside the front door of the church. The latest rumor is that Pilata, Hesus' wife, have been living with another man, leaving their children at home. Hesus has been in Manila one says, another replies that he has just arrived the night before and has promised to kill Pilata and her lover once he encounters them. They speculate on the reason for her adultery, when the parish priest, Pari Clemente goes out of his convent and joins the conversation. The priest concludes, using quotes from Schopenhauer and Balzac that it is neither lack of education nor faith that leads a person to commit questionable acts, that sometimes it is inherent in that certain person's nature. He then bids them farewell as he will go to Hesus' house and convince him not to proceed with his plan of revenge. Pari Clemente arrives at Hesus' house and sees the latter honing his dagger, amidst the crying of his two children. Pari Clemente, through various examples, makes Hesus change his mind, with the
* This story is not listed in the Table of Contents (Tudloan) at the end of Mga Sugilanong Pilipinhon (1929).

56 most convincing argument being that if he would kill his wife, who would be there to take care of their children? Hesus lets go of the dagger, and hugs his two children. Pari Clemente picks up the dagger and goes on his way. The narrator tells us that time passed and Pilata is known around town for her dishonorable reputation as being anyone's woman. Hesus and his children however have moved a long time ago to Manila, where he lives with a woman who is the joy of his life. Asked by the narrator regarding their domestic situation as not being married, Hesus replies that love is beyond the control of the laws of men. He references the situation of Rizal and Josephine Bracken who were only married in the face of nature, not the laws of men and not by the Church. Further he says that a marriage should be considered a contract that can be broken anytime there are sufficient reasons. Yutang Madalag, February 15, 1909

37. Hain si Bathala? (Where is God?)

The story is dedicated to Yayang, on her second death anniversary. A father, whose six year old child has just died, gazes out the window, up at the moon and asks, where is God? The first portion of the narrative is of the father asking the moon why sufferings exists, why God does not, if he can, stop suffering. He asks why innocent people die while bad people continue on living. The classic arguments regarding the benevolence of God is raised by the father. Two years later, the father visits the grave of his child. A bird alights on the grave. The father requests the bird to ask God why his child was taken from him, and repeats his earlier question regarding the problem of suffering in the world. The small bird flies, carrying a flower on its beak. The father looks up at the sky, as if waiting for an answer. Night is falling and the stars are starting to shine. Yutang Madalag, June 8, 1908

38. Bathala
Two students of the Liceo de Manila, Bartolome Orapronobis and Marcelino Balagtas are in front of the entrance of their school, surrounded by their classmates, debating about God. Bartolome Orapronobis is a traditional Catholic and defends the faith against the questioning of Marcelino Balagtas who has a more unorthodox outlook regarding religion. Balagtas asks where is the justice for pagans when even if they live their lives doing good they would still go to hell since they are unbaptized. Balagtas questions the traditional idea of God as an old male residing in heaven surrounded by angels. He also expresses disagreement when Bartolome states that Adam and Eve are the actual ancestors of mankind, saying it is only a myth. Balagtas cites the anarchist-geographer Elisee Reclus when arguing for the geographic influence of the differences in mankind. He conceives of God as a sort of cosmic carpenter (Dakung Panday sa Kalibutan). The debate turns into a fistfight which is stopped by a passing teacher. Both are brought to the head of the school who settles their argument by saying that religion is a complex issue which must be addressed by all with tolerance, then quotes Rizal about how not one institution or person in the world knows about the true nature of God. Hongkong, April 15, 1908

57

39. Unsay Aduna Human sa Kamatayon? (What is there after death?)

Dr. Romano Impio, an old Spaniard doctor has been gravely ill for a month. His Filipina wife, a devout Catholic, asks him as a last measure since the drugs did not work, to confess to a priest as what he could be suffering from is a 'sickness of the soul.' He replies why would she ask him to do something against his beliefs, but in the end agrees to his beloved wife's request. Two hours later, Fr. Fanfarron arrives and he is welcomed by Dr. Romano. The former asks the latter to confess his sins. The old man replies that like all Spaniards, he was born into the lap of the Catholic faith, but after reading the works of such thinkers as Nietzsche, Hugo, Voltaire, Max Nordau and others, he is no longer a believer. The conversation turns towards the bible and the old man discusses several biblical contradictions, the morality of those favored by God such as David, and is greatly annoyed when the priest explain these away as examples of 'mysteries.' The old man says that he is a follower of the Law of Nature and Reason, that morality is natural in a man, and does not necessarily derive only from Religion. On the question whether there is a life after death, the old man is an agnostic. He is at his final moments, and the priest enjoins the latter to confess and come back into the fold. The old man remains unrepentant however. With his dying breath he says, Post mortem nihil est. Epilogue states that in the Chinese cemetery of Town X, there can be seen the grave of the old Spaniard, with the words Post mortem nihil est carved onto the gravestone. Yutang Madalag, October 5, 1908

40. Ang Panimalus ni Loloy (Loloy's Revenge)

Loloy is the former lover of Puray and he is still in love with her. As revenge for leaving him, knowing that she is to be married to Adis, he sends all the letters and memorabilia she sent him while they were still a couple, through mail, to Adis. Puray has claimed to Adis that he is her first and only love, that she is chaste. Opening the package, one day, however, Adis discovers that she has lied to him. The letters reveal that Loloy has visited her numerous times before, Loloy only leaving her house during the early mornings. He hurriedly storms to Puray's house where there is a merriment for their wedding the following day. Puray asks what is the matter and Adis dumps the letters and memorabilia at her feet, and tells her that she has deceived him, then leaves. Puray covers her face in shame, then faints. n.d.

41. Ang Banyaga (The Scoundrel)

A lascivious priest, Pari Sinto desires Gorya who is married and whose husband, a ship captain, is currently away. Gorya tells him to go away. He threatens to excommunicate her. She says even if he

58 gives her a thousand excommunications, she would remain loyal to her husband. The priest angrily leaves. The priest longs for the Spanish period when it was so easy to get revenge: one needs to only tell the Civil Guards who would take care of everything. He writes an anonymous letter to Gorya's husband, accusing her of infidelity. Three weeks later, the body of Gorya is to be buried. The people say she died from the beatings her husband gaver her. They say it's because of a letter he received which accused her of infidelity while he was away. With those in the funeral procession to bury Gorya was Pari Sinto himself. The sky was dark that day, with lightning and thunder booming. n.d.

42. Ang Kaminyoon ni Gat-salian (The Marriage of Gat-salian)

Dora, in her hut, learns through an announcement in Ang Suga, that Gaspar Gat-salian is to be married to Ms. Solidaridad Kalaw. He crumples the paper and vows to do violence to Gat-salian. She visits the house of the bride-to-be, carrying her small child with her. Solidaridad is sewing and welcomes the unannounced visitor. Dora sadly recounts to her that five years ago, when she was seventeen years old, Gat-salian seduced her. He got her drunk with Ginebra then took her chastity. She becomes pregnant. Her parents, learning of this, gets angry with her then drives her away. She is given a hut to live in by Gaspar. She pleads to Solidaridad to convince Gaspar to recognize their child as she asked a lawyer who said that once Gaspara gets married, he cannot recognize the child anymore. Solidaridad calms her and tells her that she will not go through with the wedding as Gaspar is heartless as well as a liar. Just then, Gaspar enters the house. He gets a scolding from both Dora and Solidaridad. He escapes from both, running in the street, followed by Dora. Yutang Madalag, March 6, 1909

43. Ulo ug Kasingkasing (Head and Heart)

The story is told through a correspondence between two sisters, Risalina (Tsaling) and Solidaridad (Daring). Daring writes her older sister of her humble domestic life in a small town where her husband works as a scribe for the mayor. The town is small and the pastime of the men is cockfighting and gambling, while women while their time sewing and praying. The largest building is the convent, and it scandalizes her how the convent is made of stone while the church itself is roofed only with nipa. They are poor but happy. Her husband loves her and she is pregnant again. Tsaling, the older sister replies. The letter states that she is envious of her younger sister's life. His husband, though influential and rich, does not treat her well. Though they live in a large house and eat fine food, their marriage is unhappy. She grows thin, and the abuse by her husband adds to the reason why she is unable to conceive. Her husband is a public official, and whenever he is criticized, he takes it out on her. She reminds her sister of the truth of their late mother's advice to marry someone with a heart rather than one with only a head. The narrator asks at the end, who is more fortunate?

59 Yutang Madalag, August 1, 1909

44. Ang mga Higala ni Benito (The Friends of Benito)

Benito invites his friend Moniko, a shoe/footwear-maker, to his son's baptism. The latter, hearing of the names of those invited which includes a mayor, a governor as well as other politicians expresses doubt that he would go as he feels unworthy to be with such esteemed people. Benito says he chose these politicians to be the godparents of his child so he will have strong connections whenever he needs something. Moniko says that politicians only see workers when they are campaigning. After the elections, he continues, they forget about the lesser classes, won't even glance at them in the street. The baptism was reported in a local newspaper as 'majestic.' After the elections, Moniko goes to the city hall to pay his taxes. There he sees Benito in jail. The latter reports he got drunk and assaulted someone three days ago, and that he needs five hundred pesos for bail. All his politician friends are nowhere to be found. Moniko helps his friend, collecting the amount through the help of other workers. Benito after being freed, remarks that he now has learned of the world, that the best friend of the workers are the workers themselves. Yutang Madalag, August 25, 1909

45. Ang Mabutangbutangun (The Gossip/Rumor-monger)

Asyon is an orphaned young woman, rich and of an honorable name. Friends ask her if it is true the gossip being spread by an acquaintance of hers, Balas Torotot, that she has accepted his love for her. As proof, Torotot has a photo of her. She denies this, and is puzzled how Torotot came to possess a photograph of her. On her birthday, where there are numerous guests and lavish food and entertainment, she, at the head of the table makes a toast in order to clear her name. Balas Torotot who is among those around the table, is asked by her to explain his spreading the rumor that she has accepted his love. Balas denies this, but the guests proclaim to Asyon that indeed it is true Torotot has been claiming her as his lover and that he also has a photograph of her. Balas goes pale, and says that he just said those things as a joke to friends. The guests, angry, chase Torotot away. The birthday party continues with Asyon calling everyone to a dance. n.d.

46. Ang Gaba (Divine Retribution/Karma)

Hinyo is on his way out of their house to go to the Pansitan. Tongloy, his friend, has just won a large sum in gambling and would pay for the meal. Hinyo's mother tells him not to see people like Tongloy since they are a bad influence. Hinyo argues with his mother, basically tells her he no longer needs her in his life. The mother is left alone, crying. After eating, there is trouble with the owner of the Pansitan. Tongloy insists that the owner

60 accept his counterfeit money as payment for their meal. The disagreement escalates and a brawl ensues. Tongloy stabs three Chinese. Two are injured and one dies. Hinyo is captured by the authorities while Tongloy escapes. Hinyo is sentenced to twelve years in prison. n.d.

47. Ang Dungganan (The Reputable)

Itsoy is an automobile driver. One day he arrives home filled with glee. His wife, Bihis, asks why. He has a wallet filled with money belonging to an English businessman Peter Dorrington, of Dorrington and Co, General Merchants, as the business card in the wallet states. His wife tells him he should return the wallet as he is committing a sin against God and the Law if they make use of the money. She elaborates on this, and finally he agrees. Two years later, Bihis and Itsoy have become prosperous. They own several cars, a large house, and several lands. An old friend asks how they were able to prosper. Itsoy replies that as thanks for the returned wallet, Mr. Dorrington, after knowing that Itsoy knows how to read and write, was made an agent of the company. They were then given loans so they could start their own business. Through hard work, they were able to prosper. Itsoy tells the man that the wallet was the beginning of their prosperity. He advises his friend to be honest and this will lead him to prosperity. Hongkong, China, June 25, 1911

48. Ang Manunubus (The Redeemer/Savior)

Carolina is in love with Pael, who though she knows he is already married, still continues on loving him. Now that she is pregnant with his child, she fears for her honor and reputation. He offers for her to cohabit with him. She refuses and says there is some way that she can save her reputation: to marry Don Salvador Godinez, an older man who has been courting her. He tells her does it not itch her conscience that she would deceive an older man? He angrily tells her to continue with her plan, but warns her not to abort their child because if she would, he would kill her. Carolina is married to Don Salvador. Pael is an old friend of Don Salvador. He does not attend the weeding but sends a gift however of a statuette of Christ whom Don Salvador places at the head of his bed. Carolina meanwhile, understands the meaning of the gift, which is that Don Salvador is the redeemer of her reputation. She still has feelings for Pael. Months pass and Carolina gives birth to a boy. Don Salvador is overjoyed with the child he thinks is his. Pael is walking through the road where Carolina and Don Salvador live. Memories of her return to him and he calculates that it has been nine months since she conceived. He is saddened when he remembers what happened between them. As he passes by their window, a letter wrapped around a stone hits him at the back of the neck. Realizing the letter as coming from her, he walks quickly towards a secluded spot and reads the letter. The letter states she has now recognized her mistake, and hints that she would reveal the truth to her husband. Pael nearly kills himself with rage. n.d.

61

49. Ang Salamin

Juan has been courting Isyang for two years. He has been constant and believes constancy will win him her love. Isyang is a beautiful young woman of twenty-one years, and though her lips say no, she actually is in love with Juan. Juan is beginning to lose hope, and one night he visits her. He is wearing an Americana with black pants. She is wearing a floral-patterned dress, sitting on a chair and strumming a guitar. He asks her why she would not say yes to him. She replies that she has already given her heart to someone, that she cannot betray that someone. He asks for a description of this young man. She replies that he is tall like himself, that he is also thin like him. Seemingly tired of him, she tells him that on the morning he will send something for him and he will know what her lover looks like. That night, Juan sadly goes home. The next day, Juan opens the package from Isyang, and finds it is a mirror. n.d.

50. Pilo
A reputable family has two daughters, Pilo and Pilang. They are a religious family and priests visit their house regularly. The friend of the narrator desires Pilang. However not one young man in the town has courted the two young women because they are jealously guarded by the parents and the priests. One day, Pilo gets sick and the doctor neighbor of theirs, Mr. Dorrington, becomes her physician. He visits her regularly. News breaks around town that Pilo ran away from home to cohabit with Mr. Dorrington, who is already middle-aged, married and has three children. The narrator's friend sadly tells him that if it wasn't for the priests guarding the young women, it would have been him who won Pilo's heart. Her parents and relatives begged for her to come home. The case is brought to court. Pilo however has already prepared, and showed the court that she is already twenty-three years of age and thus free to live anywhere she wished. Pilo was later heard telling her friends that her situation was similar to that of a drowning person who would latch on even to anything to find salvation; salvation that is, from the priests. n.d.

51. Ang Timaan (The Mark)

Mintong has been courting Tinding for a long time. Now that they are about to be married, Mintong tells her that there is a big problem. Her father, his father-in-law-to-be told him to deliver to him on credit, a ring from the jeweller Mauricia Ganuman, as he has found a buyer and is hoping that a profit could be made. The diamond ring was sold, and a profit was made. However the money which is to pay for the ring was brought by her father to the cockfight-ring where he lost it all. Now, Mintong is faced with a lawsuit as it was him who asked for the ring. Tinding cries and tells him that she is sorry for what has happened. Mintong tells her and her mother not to worry as he will raise the money.

62 A month later, he still has not gathered enough. The court rules that he be sent to jail for a year. At first Tinding and her mother sends him something to ease his confinement flowers, letters and sweets sometimes. However time passed and Tinding forgets him. The day of his release, he goes straight home and meets his mother whom he embraces and who has grown sick because of the shame caused by him being sent to jail. After the meal, he regains his strength and goes on a hunt for Tinding, vowing revenge. He encounters Tinding with her mother surrounded by young men, on their way out of Teatro Junquera. Mintong bounds up to Tinding, chokes her then carves a mark on her forehead a cross-shape using a knife, saying how she has betrayed him. Mintong is then caught by the police and sent back to prison. n.d.

52. Ang Pinaakan (The Bite-Mark)

After two years of being friends, Mario develops a love for Flora. He finds it difficult to express his love for her. He writes her an anonymous letter confessing his love, sent through mail, hoping that she would divine it was him who sent it. A month passes and still no reply from Flora. He sends for an Orchestra to serenade her, while he stands far away and watches, hoping she would understand. Still getting no reply, he stops seeing her, even avoiding the street where her house is. It is Flora's mother's birthday, and there is a great festivity at their home. Mario was walking when he sees the merriment. Though not invited, he goes up the house and there sees Flora. He asks for a dance. While holding her, a strange courage comes upon him and he tells her everything the letter, the Orchestra. At first she does not believe him, but upon giving the details in the letter, she believes him and nestles her face on his shoulder. The party ends and Mario goes home happy. The next day, a friend visits and wakes him up. The friend asks why the right sleeve of Mario's shirt has blood in it. He notices, takes off his shirt and remarks that it came from a bite-mark. He is puzzled and recalls it was Flora who bit him while her face was nestled on his shoulder, while they were dancing last night. The narrator asks the reader what the bite mark could mean. n.d.

53. Ang Panumpa ni Cecilia (Cecilia's Promise)

The narrator is a friend of the sick person, Tonyo. Tonyo is dying and the narrator tells him to confess his sins and have faith in God. Tonyo replies that he does not believe in confession, that he is unafraid of death, as like Rizal, he believes that death is rest. His only sorrow however is that he is leaving his wife and their infant child. Being young, his wife can still re-marry, but where will their child find a loving father? The wife, Cecilia, tells her husband that she will not remarry. As he is about to reply, his breath falters and he expires. The funeral was a big affair. Numerous friends of Tonyo attended. His body was laid in a casket which was carried to the cemetery by a car. As he wished, no priest attended to his body nor did it even

63 spend time inside a Church. A heartbreaking scene occurred where the young wife embraced the casket and screamed about how she would never re-marry. Three months pass and the narrator is walking the street passing by the Teatro Junquera. A covered carriage passes by him where he hears a couple inside exchange sweet words. A distance from him, the carriage suddenly stops and the horse is rattled because a wheel has come off. Coming to aid the coachman, he sees that the woman inside the covered carriage is none other than Cecilia. The man she is with is a Spaniard. At first she tries to cover her face from him. Then later, as they are about to depart after replacing the damaged wheel, she requests to him to kindly keep his knowledge a secret. The narrator ends the story, saying that he will not tell anyone of Cecilia's reneging on her promise, but he is unsure that another witness, Christ, whose image was a witness to Cecilia's promise to her husband, would keep silent. n.d.