Instrumentation and Control

QualificationStandard
SEPTEMBER2009

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TableofContents

i

LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................ v
ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................ vi
PURPOSE...................................................................................................................................... 1
SCOPE........................................................................................................................................... 1
PREFACE...................................................................................................................................... 1
TECHNICAL COMPETENCIES............................................................................................... 3
1. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate a working level knowledge of
fundamental electrical theory.................................................................................................... 3
the following basic electrical equipment: ............................................................................... 12
the characteristics and applications of electrical components used in instrumentation and
control systems........................................................................................................................ 54
temperature detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems. ................................................................................................................................... 70
pressure detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems. ................................................................................................................................... 77
level detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control systems. .......... 81
flow detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control systems......... 87
position indication circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems. ................................................................................................................................... 93
radiation detection equipment................................................................................................. 97
nuclear instrumentation......................................................................................................... 113
refractometers (as applicable to their facilities).................................................................... 121
sensor characteristics and instrument loop signal types. ...................................................... 124
process control systems......................................................................................................... 128
the characteristics and applications of pneumatic/hydraulic components used in
instrumentation and control systems..................................................................................... 143
the characteristics and applications of electronic components used in instrumentation and
control systems...................................................................................................................... 148
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systems integration to achieve performance, effectiveness, and cost objectives.................. 154
basic thermodynamic concepts and theories used in the design and operation of process
control systems...................................................................................................................... 154
18. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate a familiarity level knowledge of
basic heat transfer and fluid flow concepts and theories. ..................................................... 160
mechanical engineering, theories, principles, and techniques. ............................................. 166
the geoseismic/civil engineering theories, principles, and techniques that apply to
the chemical engineering theories, principles, and techniques that apply to
22. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to read and interpret
electrical diagrams, including: .............................................................................................. 194
mechanical diagrams associated with instrumentation and control systems, including: ...... 202
engineering fabrication, construction, and architectural drawings associated with
the various uses of computers and digital devices used in instrumentation and control
systems. ................................................................................................................................. 203
analytical equipment used to measure process chemistry..................................................... 206
maintenance management practices related to instrumentation and control activities. ........ 217
28. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to evaluate the
adequacy of local compliance of I&C systems with applicable design criteria (such as
ISA 84.01, ISA 67.04.01, IEEE 603-1998, NEC or the Uniform Building Code) used by
site/facility............................................................................................................................. 225
29. I&C personnel designated as vital safety systems subject matter experts shall
demonstrate an expert level of knowledge on their level of understanding and approach
to overseeing contractor activities by using the requirements of DOE O 420.1, Facility
Safety, and the guidance in DOE-STD-1073-93, Guide for Operational Configuration
Management Program, by performing system assessments addressing the following
elements: ............................................................................................................................... 228
DOE O 430.1, Life Cycle Asset Management...................................................................... 228
adequacy of local compliance with applicable Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation
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Society (ISA) standards related to process control instrumentation and I&C systems
(consider entire instrument loops, including sensors, transmitters, controllers, final
elements). .............................................................................................................................. 240
DOE O 414.1A, Quality Assurance, as it applies to instrument and control systems. ......... 241
33. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to apply problem
analysis techniques necessary to identify problems, determine potential causes of
problems, and identify corrective action............................................................................... 253
34. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to perform technical
reviews of procedures related to instrumentation and controls. ........................................... 253
Selected Bibliography and Suggested Reading ...................................................................... 255

Figures
Figure 1. Relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance...........................................8
Figure 2. Basic chemical battery...................................................................................................13
Figure 3. Basic DC generator........................................................................................................14
Figure 4. Basic AC generator........................................................................................................15
Figure 5. Production of a DC voltage using a thermocouple........................................................16
Figure 6. A simple hydrometer .....................................................................................................19
Figure 7. Chemical action during discharge .................................................................................22
Figure 8. Chemical action during charging...................................................................................23
Figure 9. Cells connected in a series.............................................................................................28
Figure 10. Simple AC generator ...................................................................................................29
Figure 11. Developing a sine wave voltage ..................................................................................30
Figure 12. Basic operation of a DC generator ..............................................................................31
Figure 13 . Left-hand rule for generators......................................................................................32
Figure 14. Three phase stator........................................................................................................36
Figure 15. Core-type transformer..................................................................................................41
Figure 16. Cutaway view of a molded case circuit breaker ..........................................................52
Figure 17. Electric schematic symbols .........................................................................................57
Figure 18. Components of an effective electrical safety system...................................................65
Figure 19. Internal construction of a typical RTD........................................................................71
Figure 20. RTD well and terminal head........................................................................................72
Figure 21. Internal construction of a typical thermocouple..........................................................73
Figure 22. Simple thermocouple circuit........................................................................................74
Figure 23. Bridge circuit ...............................................................................................................75
Figure 24. Unbalanced bridge circuit............................................................................................76
Figure 25. Balanced bridge circuit ................................................................................................77
Figure 26. Basic metallic bellows.................................................................................................78
Figure 27. Strain gauge pressure transducer .................................................................................79
Figure 28. Block diagram of a differential pressure level detection circuit..................................85
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Figure 29. Flow nozzle..................................................................................................................90
Figure 30. Differential pressure flow detection block diagram....................................................91
Figure 31. Potentiometer valve position indicator ........................................................................94
Figure 32. Proportional counter ....................................................................................................98
Figure 33. Proportional counter circuit .......................................................................................101
Figure 34. Single channel analyzer operation.............................................................................102
Figure 35. Single channel analyzer output..................................................................................102
Figure 36. Discriminator .............................................................................................................103
Figure 37. BF
3
proportional counter circuit ................................................................................104
Figure 38. Gas ionization curve ..................................................................................................106
Figure 39. Electronic energy band of an ionic crystal ................................................................108
Figure 40. Gamma spectrometer block diagram.........................................................................110
Figure 41. Multichannel analyzer output ....................................................................................111
Figure 42. Self-powered neutron detector...................................................................................112
Figure 43. Source range channel.................................................................................................116
Figure 44. Intermediate range channel........................................................................................117
Figure 45. Power range channel..................................................................................................118
Figure 46. Light is bent going from first material to second ......................................................122
Figure 47. Light going from high index to low...........................................................................123
Figure 48. Light at critical angle for refraction...........................................................................123
Figure 49. Internal reflection of light..........................................................................................124
Figure 50. Instrumentation system examples..............................................................................127
Figure 51. Open-loop control system..........................................................................................130
Figure 52. Closed-loop control system.......................................................................................130
Figure 53. Lube oil cooler temperature control system and equivalent block diagram..............133
Figure 54. System tuned using the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method........................142
Figure 55. Pneumatic actuator: air-to-close, spring-to-open.......................................................145
Figure 56. Pneumatic actuator with controller and positioner ....................................................147
Figure 57. Venturi tube ...............................................................................................................159
Figure 58. Pressure versus depth.................................................................................................163
Figure 59. Gate valve..................................................................................................................167
Figure 60. Z-body glove valve....................................................................................................168
Figure 61. Typical butterfly valve...............................................................................................170
Figure 62. Straight-through diaphragm valve.............................................................................171
Figure 63. Relief valve...............................................................................................................172
Figure 64. Simplied centrifugal pump ........................................................................................175
Figure 65. Circuit diagram for pressure-compensated flow-control valve .................................180
Figure 66. U-tube feedwater heat exchanger ..............................................................................181
Figure 67. Basic logic symbols...................................................................................................195
Figure 68. Convention for depicting multiple inputs..................................................................196
Figure 69. Type-one time delay device.......................................................................................196
Figure 70. Type two time delay device.......................................................................................197
Figure 71. Type-three time delay device ....................................................................................198
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Figure 72. Truth tables................................................................................................................199
Figure 73. Logic gate status notation..........................................................................................200
Figure 74. Analog input ..............................................................................................................203
Figure 75. Binary input ...............................................................................................................204
Figure 76. Digital control system with analog input/output .......................................................204
Figure 77. The separation of controller and process...................................................................205
Figure 78. Relationship between conductivity and ion concentration........................................207

Tables
Table 1. Common alphas.............................................................................................................212
Table 2. Conductivity of some common solutions......................................................................212
Table 3. Critical decision authority thresholds............................................................................234

vi

ACRONYMS
AC alternating current
ACB air circuit breaker
A/D analog-to-digital
ADC analog-to-digital converter
Ah Ampere-hours
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BF
3
boron trifluoride
Btu British thermal unit
BWR boiling water reactor
C Celsius
cc cubic centimeter
CEMF counter electromotive force
CRD contractor requirements document
CSO Cognizant Secretarial Officer
D/A digital-to-analog
DAC digital-to-analog converter
DAQ data acquisition
DC direct current
DCS distributed control systems
DI&C digital instrumentation and control
DOE U.S. Department of Energy
DP or D/P differential pressure
DPD diethyl-p-phenylenediamine
DPM decades per minute
E excited state
EIA Electronics Industry Alliance
EMF electromagnetic force
EMI electromagnetic interference
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ESD electrostatic discharge
ESDA Electrostatic Discharge Association
F Fahrenheit
FAQS functional area qualification standard
ft-lbf foot-pounds force
g gravity
G ground state
G
c
gravitational constant
GFAAS graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy
G-M Geiger-Mller
H
2
hydrogen gas
HASP health and safety plan
HNO
3
nitric acid

vii

ACRONYMS
hp horsepower
HS-21 Office of Nuclear Safety Policy and Assistance
HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Hz hertz
I&C instrumentation and controls
ICP-MS inductively coupled plasmamass spectroscopy
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IFI integrated facilities and infrastructure
IGPP institutional general plant project
in. inch
I/P current-to-pneumatic
ISA International Society of Automation
K Kelvin
KCl potassium chloride
KE kinetic energy
KSA knowledge, skill, and ability
L liter
lbf Pounds-force
lbm pounds mass
LM level modifier
L/P low pressure
LPSO Lead Program Secretarial Officer
LR level recorder
LT level transmitter
LTS long-term stewardship
LVDT linear variable differential transformers
M&TE measuring and test equipment
m mass
mA milliamp
MeV million electron bolts
Mg milligram
mL milliliter
MSDS material safety data sheet
mV millivolt
MW molecular weight
N north
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NCDENR North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources
NCSL National Conference of Standards Laboratories
NCSP National Chemical Safety Program
NCTO normally closed, timed-open
NDA nondestructive assay
NEC National Electrical Code

viii

ACRONYMS
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NH
3
ammonia
NIST National Institute of Standards
nm nanometer
NNSA National Nuclear Security Administration
NOTC normally open,-timed-closed
NOTO normally open,-timed-open
NPH natural phenomena hazard
NQA nuclear quality assurance
OCB oil circuit breaker
Pb sponge lead
PC performance category
PE potential energy
P&ID piping and instrumentation diagrams
P/I pneumatic to current
PID proportional integral derivative
PLC programmable logic controller
POA pilot-operated absolute valve
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch
psia absolute pressure
psig gauge pressure
PSO Program Secretarial Officer
PT pressure transmitter
PWB printed wiring board
PWR pressurized water reactor
q heat added to or removed from a system per unit mass
Q heat
QA quality assurance
QAP quality assurance program
QC quality control
QME qualification of active mechanical equipment
R individual gas constant
RAM random access memory
ROM read only memory
rpm revolutions per minute
RTD resistance temperature detector
scfm standard cubic feet per minute
S south
SEC Secretarial Acquisition Executive
SI International System of Units

ix

ACRONYMS
SSC system, structure, and component
SSR solid-state relay
T
b
bulk temperature
TDS total dissolved solid
TEC total estimated costs
TR temperature recorder
T
s
given temperature
TT temperature transmitter
TVSS transient voltage surge suppression
TYSP ten-year site plan
UPS uninterruptible power supply
VE value engineering
VIR valve-in receiver
V volt
WBS work breakdown structure
lambda

1

PURPOSE
The purpose of this reference guide is to provide a document that contains the information
required for a Department of Energy (DOE)/National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA)
technical employee to successfully complete the Instrumentation and Control Functional Area
Qualification Standard (FAQS). Information essential to meeting the qualification requirements
is provided; however, some competency statements require extensive knowledge or skill
development. Reproducing all the required information for those statements in this document is
not practical. In those instances, references are included to guide the candidate to additional
resources.
SCOPE
This reference guide addresses the competency statements in the June 2003 edition of
DOE-STD-1162-2003, Instrumentation and Control Functional Area Qualification Standard.
The qualification standard contains 34 competency statements.
Please direct your questions or comments related to this document to the NNSA Learning and
Career Development Department.
PREFACE
Competency statements and supporting knowledge and/or skill statements from the qualification
standard are shown in contrasting bold type, while the corresponding information associated with
each statement is provided below it.
A comprehensive list of acronyms and abbreviations is found at the beginning of this document.
It is recommended that the candidate review the list prior to proceeding with the competencies,
as the acronyms and abbreviations may not be further defined within the text unless special
emphasis is required.
The competencies and supporting knowledge, skill, and ability (KSA) statements are taken
directly from the FAQS. Most corrections to spelling, punctuation, and grammar have been made
without remark, and all document-related titles, which variously appear in roman or italic type or
set within quotation marks, have been changed to plain text, also mostly without remark.
Capitalized terms are found as such in the qualification standard and remain so in this reference
guide. When they are needed for clarification, explanations are enclosed in brackets.
Every effort has been made to provide the most current information and references available as
of September 2009. However, the candidate is advised to verify the applicability of the
information provided. It is recognized that some personnel may oversee facilities that utilize
predecessor documents to those identified. In those cases, such documents should be included in
local qualification standards via the Technical Qualification Program.
In the cases where information about an FAQS topic in a competency or KSA statement is not
available in the newest edition of a standard (consensus or industry), an older version is
referenced. These references are noted in the text and in the bibliography.

2

Only significant corrections to errors in the technical content of the discussion text source
material are identified. Editorial changes that do not affect the technical content (e.g.,
grammatical or spelling corrections, and changes to style) appear without remark.

3

TECHNICALCOMPETENCIES
1. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate a working level knowledge
of fundamental electrical theory.
a. Define and discuss the following terms:
Voltage
Current
Power
Conductor
Insulator
Inductance
Capacitance
Impedance
Electromagnetic force
Electromagnetic field
Frequency
Wavelength
The following definitions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92 unless stated otherwise.
Voltage
The basic unit of measure for potential difference is the volt (symbol V), and, because the
volt unit is used, potential difference is called voltage. An objects electrical charge is
determined by the number of electrons that the object has gained or lost. Because such a
large number of electrons move, a unit called the coulomb is used to indicate the charge. One
coulomb is equal to 6.28 10
18
(billion, billion) electrons. For example, if an object gains
one coulomb of negative charge, it has gained 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 extra electrons. A
volt is defined as a difference of potential causing one coulomb of current to do one joule of
work. A volt is also defined as that amount of force required to force one ampere of current
through one ohm of resistance.
Current
The density of the atoms in copper wire is such that the valence orbits of the individual atoms
overlap, causing the electrons to move easily from one atom to the next. Free electrons can
drift from one orbit to another in a random direction. When a potential difference is applied,
the direction of their movement is controlled. The strength of the potential difference applied
at each end of the wire determines how many electrons change from a random motion to a
more directional path through the wire. The movement or flow of these electrons is called
electron current flow or just current.
Power
Electricity is generally used to do some sort of work, such as turning a motor or generating
heat. Specifically, power is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which heat is
generated. The unit commonly used to specify electric power is the watt. In equations, you
will find power

4

abbreviated with the capital letter P, and watts, the units of measure for power, are
abbreviated with the capital letter W. Power is also described as the current (I) in a circuit
times the voltage (E) across the circuit.
P = IE
Conductor
Conductors are materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms, or materials
that permit free motion of a large number of electrons. Atoms with only one valence electron,
such as copper, silver, and gold, are examples of good conductors. Most metals are good
conductors.
Insulator
Insulators, or nonconductors, are materials with electrons that are tightly bound to their
atoms and require large amounts of energy to free them from the influence of the nucleus.
The atoms of good insulators have their valence shells filled with eight electrons, which
means they are more than half filled. Any energy applied to such an atom will be distributed
among a relatively large number of electrons. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics,
glass, and dry wood.
Inductance
Inductance is defined as the ability of a coil to store energy, induce a voltage in itself, and
oppose changes in current flowing through it. The units of measurement are called henries.
One henry is the amount of inductance that permits one volt to be induced when the current
through the coil changes at a rate of one ampere per second.
Capacitance
Capacitance is defined as the ability to store an electric charge. Capacitance measured in
farads, is equal to the amount of charge that can be stored in a device or capacitor divided by
the voltage applied across the device or capacitor plates when the charge was stored.
The following is taken from DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92.
Impedance
Impedance is defined as the total opposition to current flow in a circuit.
The following is taken from Eric Weissteins World of Physics, definitions of
electromagnetic force and electromagentic.
Electromagnetic Force
Electromagnetic force is an infinite-range attractive or repulsive force that acts between
charged particles. A particle at rest feels only the force due to the electric field, called
Coulombs law.
Electromagnetic Field
Electromagnetic field is the general field consisting of superimposed electric and magnetic
fields. While properties such as the potential energy stored in the field remain invariant of the

5

observing reference frame, special relativity shows that different observers will actually see
differing strength of the constituent electric and magnetic fields. The electric and magnetic
components of an electromagnetic field are untitled in special relativity into an entity known
as the electromagnetic field tensor.

6

The following is taken from International Electrical Supplies, Electric Frequency Hertz.
Frequency
Frequency is the measurement of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit
time. To calculate the frequency, one fixes a time interval, counts the number of occurrences
of the event within that interval, and then divides this count by the length of the time interval.
In the International System of Units (SI units), the result is measured in hertz (Hz), after the
German physicist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. One Hz means that an event repeats once per
second. Other units that have been used to measure frequency include: cycles per second and
revolutions per minute (rpm). Heart rate is measured in beats per minute.
An alternative method to calculate frequency is to measure the time between two consecutive
occurrences of the event (the period) and then compute the frequency as the reciprocal of this
time: f = 1/T where T is the period.
Measuring the frequency of sound, electromagnetic waves (such as radio or light), electrical
signals, or other waves, the frequency in hertz is the number of cycles of the repetitive
waveform per second. If the wave is a sound, frequency is what characterizes its pitch.
Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of wavelength. The frequency f is equal
to the speed v of the wave divided by the wavelength (lambda) of the wave.
In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c, where c
is the speed of light in a vacuum.
The following is taken from Grafs Modern Dictionary of Electronics.
Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as the distance between points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles of a wave.
b. Discuss Ohms law.
In 1827, George Simon Ohm discovered that there was a definite relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. Ohms law defines this relationship
and can be stated in three ways.
Applied voltage equals circuit current times the circuit resistance. This is represented by the
equation:
E = I R or E = IR
Current is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit resistance. This is represented
by the equation

7

I =
R
E

Resistance of a circuit is equal to the applied voltage divided by the circuit current
R (or ) =
I
E

where
I = current (A[ampere])
E = voltage (V)
R = resistance ()
If any two of the component values are known, the third can be calculated.
c. Discuss Kirchhoffs law.
Through experimentation in 1857 the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed methods
to solve complex circuits. Kirchhoff developed two conclusions, known today as Kirchhoff's
laws.
Law 1:
The sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the voltage sources
of that loop (Kirchhoffs voltage law).
Law 2:
The current arriving at any junction point in a circuit is equal to the current leaving that
junction (Kirchhoffs current law).
Kirchhoffs laws can be related to conservation of energy and charge for a circuit with one
load and source. Since all of the power provided from the source is consumed by the load,
energy and charge are conserved. Since voltage and current can be related to energy and
charge, then Kirchhoffs laws are only restating the laws governing energy and charge
conservation.
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Kirchhoff's first law is also known as his voltage law. The voltage law gives the relationship
between the voltage drops around any closed loop in a circuit, and the voltage sources in that
loop. The total of these two quantities is always equal. In equation form:
E
source
= IR
Kirchhoffs voltage law can be applied only to closed loops. A closed loop must meet two
conditions:
1. It must have one or more voltage sources.

8

2. It must have a complete path for current flow from any point, around the loop, and
back to that point.
In a simple series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops around the circuit is equal to the
applied voltage. Actually, this is Kirchhoffs voltage law applied to the simplest case, that is,
where there is only one loop and one voltage source.
Kirchhoffs second law is called his current law and states: At any junction point in a
circuit, the current arriving is equal to the current leaving. Thus, if 15 amperes of current
arrives at a junction that has two paths leading away from it, 15 amperes will divide among
the two branches, but a total of 15 amperes must leave the junction. Normally Kirchhoffs
current law is not used by itself, but with the voltage law, in solving a problem.
d. Discuss the relationships in electrical circuits between voltage, current,
resistance, impedance, and power.
No circuit is without some resistance, whether desired or not. Resistive and reactive
components in an AC circuit oppose current flow. The total opposition to current flow in a
circuit depends on its resistance, its reactance, and the phase relationships between them.
Impedance is defined as the total opposition to current flow in a circuit. The following
equation is the mathematical representation for the magnitude of impedance in an AC circuit.
Z =
2 2
X R +
where
Z = impedance ()
R = resistance ()
X = net reactance ()
The relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance is shown in figure 1.

Source: DOE-HDBK-1011/3-92
Figure 1. Relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance

9

The current through a certain resistance is always in phase with the applied voltage.
Resistance is shown on the zero axis. The current through an inductor lags applied voltage by
90; inductive reactance is shown along the 90 axis. Current through a capacitor leads
applied voltage by 90; capacitive reactance is shown along the -90 axis. Net reactance in an
AC circuit is the difference between inductive and capacitive reactance. The following
equation is the mathematical representation for the calculation of net reactance when X
L
is
greater than X
C
.
X = X
L
- X
C
where
X = net reactance ()
X
L
= inductance reactance ()
X
C
= capacitive reactance ()
Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and net reactance (X) in a circuit, as shown in
figure 1. The angle is the phase angle and gives the phase relationship between the applied
voltage and the current. Impedance in an AC circuit corresponds to the resistance of a DC
circuit. The voltage drop across an AC circuit element equals the current times the
impedance.
The following equation is the mathematical representation of the voltage drop across an AC
circuit.
V = IZ
where
V = voltage drop (V)
I = current (A)
Z = impedance ()
The phase angle u gives the phase relationship between current and the voltage.
e. Discuss the function of the following components in an electrical circuit:
Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
Diode
Rectifier
Transformer
Relay
Contact
Fuse
Time delay relay
Overcurrent relay
Undervoltage relay
Switches
Silicon-controlled rectifiers
Underfrequency relay
The following definitions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1011/1-92 unless stated otherwise.

10

Resistor
Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to current flow.
These types of materials are also called semiconductors because they are neither good
conductors nor good insulators. Semiconductors have more than one or two electrons in their
valence shells, but less than seven or eight. Examples of semiconductors are carbon, silicon,
germanium, tin, and lead. Each has four valence electrons.
Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two electrodes or sets of electrodes in the form of plates, separated
from each other by an insulating material called a dielectric. A capacitor stores electrical
energy and blocks or permits the flow of AC depending on the capacitance and frequency.
Inductor
An inductor is a passive electrical device that stores energy in a magnetic field, typically by
combining the effects of many loops of electric current.
Diode
A diode is an electrical device that allows electron flow in only one direction. Diodes are
used in rectifiers and to convert AC to direct current (DC).
Rectifier
Most electrical power generating stations produce AC. The major reason for generating AC
is that it can be transferred over long distances with fewer losses than DC; however, many of
the devices that are used today operate only, or more efficiently, with DC.
For example, transistors, electron tubes, and certain electronic control devices require DC for
operation. If we are to operate these devices from ordinary AC outlet receptacles, they must
be equipped with rectifier units to convert AC to DC. To accomplish this conversion, we use
diodes in rectifier circuits. The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to convert AC power to DC.
The most common type of solid-state diode rectifier is made of silicon. The diode acts as a
gate that allows current to pass in one direction and blocks current in the other direction. The
polarity of the applied voltage determines if the diode will conduct. The two polarities are
known as forward bias and reverse bias.
Transformer
A transformer works on the principle that energy can be transferred by magnetic induction
from one set of coils to another set by means of a varying magnetic flux. The magnetic flux
is produced by an AC source. The coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC source
is called the primary winding (coil), and the coil that delivers this AC to the load is called the
secondary winding (coil).

11

When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an AC will flow that will
magnetize the magnetic core, first in one direction and then in the other direction. This
alternating flux flowing around the entire length of the magnetic circuit induces a voltage in
the secondary windings. The induced voltage will be the same frequency as the source.
A voltage will also be induced into the primary windings, since it is also in close proximity to
the changing magnetic field. The voltage opposes the voltage applied to the primary
windings and is counter electromotive force (CEMF).
The AC flowing through the primary windings establishes a primary magnetic field. The
primary magnetic field will build up, collapse, and change directions due to the AC. The
secondary winding is placed near the primary winding. The expanding and collapsing
magnetic field of the primary winding produces relative motion, and electrical current is
produced in the secondary winding.
Relay
A relay is an electromagnetic device with one or more sets of contacts that changes contact
positions by magnetic attraction of a coil to an armature.
Contact
A contact is the conducting part of a relay that acts as a switch that is closed or opened by the
magnetic pull of an energized relay coil of a circuit or a component.
Fuse
A fuse is an overcurrent protective device inserted in series with a circuit. It contains a metal
that will break or melt when the current exceeds a specific value for a specific time.
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Time Delay Relays.
Time Delay Relay
Some relays are constructed with a kind of shock absorber mechanism attached to the
armature that prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either energized or de-
energized. This addition gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay
relays can be constructed to delay armature motion on coil energization, de-energization, or
both.
Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally-open or normally-
closed, but whether the delay operates in the direction of closing or in the direction of
opening.
The following is taken from U.S. Motors, Terminology Pertaining to Electric Machinery.
Overcurrent Relay
An overcurrent relay operates when the current through the relay, during its operating period,
is equal to or greater than its setting.

12

Undervoltage Relay
An undervoltage relay operates when voltage that is being monitored falls below a specified
value.
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Switch Types.
Switches
An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit. Switches
are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on (closed) or completely off
(open).
The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact
with each other by the motion of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex,
containing electronic circuits able to turn on or off depending on some physical stimulus
sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be a pair of wire-connection terminals
that will be connected together by the switchs internal contact mechanism (closed), or not
connected together (open).
Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch, and they
are manufactured in several varieties.
Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers
According to the Fermilab, Accelerator Division Operations Departments Glossary f
Acelerator Terms, a silicon-controlled rectifier is a rectifier that has the ability to begin
conducting at an arbitrary phase of an AC current cycle.
Underfrequency Relay
According to Global Spec, under-frequency relays respond to a decrease in the frequency of
an alternating electrical input quantity.
of the following basic electrical equipment:
Batteries
Motors and generators
Transformers
Backup power supplies
Electrical switchgear and transmission equipment
a. Discuss the basic principle by which the following components produce current:
Battery
Direct current generator
Alternating current generator
Thermocouple
Solar panel
Fuel cell
Battery
The following is taken from DOE-HDBK1011/1-92.

13

A battery consists of two or more chemical cells connected in series. The combination of
materials within a battery is used for the purpose of converting chemical energy into
electrical energy. To understand how a battery works, we must first discuss the chemical cell.
The chemical cell is composed of two electrodes made of different types of metal or metallic
compounds that are immersed in an electrolyte solution. The chemical actions that result are
complicated, and they vary with the type of material used in cell construction. Some
knowledge of the basic action of a simple cell will be helpful in understanding the operation
of a chemical cell in general.
In the cell, electrolyte ionizes to produce positive and negative ions. Simultaneously,
chemical action causes the atoms within one of the electrodes to ionize. (See figure 2,
part A).
Due to this action, electrons are deposited on the electrode, and positive ions from the
electrode pass into the electrolyte solution (part B). This causes a negative charge on the
electrode and leaves a positive charge in the area near the electrode (part C).

Figure 2. Basic chemical battery
The positive ions, which were produced by ionization of the electrolyte, are repelled to the
other electrode. At this electrode, these ions will combine with the electrons. Because this
action causes removal of electrons from the electrode, it becomes positively charged.
Direct Current Generator
A simple DC generator consists of an armature coil with a single turn of wire. The armature
coil cuts across the magnetic field to produce a voltage output. As long as a complete path is
present, current will flow through the circuit in the direction shown by the arrows in figure 3.

14

In this coil position, commutator segment 1 is in contact with brush 1, while commutator
segment 2 is in contact with brush 2.
Rotating the armature one-half turn in the clockwise direction causes the contacts between
the commutator segments to be reversed. Now segment 1 is contacted by brush 2, and
segment 2 is in contact with brush 1.
Due to this commutator action, that side of the armature coil which is in contact with either
of the brushes is always cutting the magnetic field in the same direction. Brushes 1 and 2
have a constant polarity, and pulsating DC is delivered to the load circuit.

Figure 3. Basic DC generator
Alternating Current Generator
The elementary AC generator consists of a conductor, or loop of wire, in a magnetic field
that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings,
and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of
force, first in one direction and then the other. A basic AC generator is illustrated in figure 4.
At the instant the loop is in the vertical position the coil sides are moving parallel to the field
and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced in the loop.
As the coil rotates in a counter-clockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines
of force in opposite directions. The direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction
of movement of the coil.

15

Figure 4. Basic AC generator
The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (figure 4) positive (+) and slip ring Y
(figure 4) negative (-). The potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow from Y to
X through the resistor. This current will increase until it reaches a maximum value when the
coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force.
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device used to convert heat energy into voltage output. The
thermocouple consists of two different types of metal joined at a junction. As the junction is
heated, the electrons in one of the metals gain enough energy to become free electrons. The
free electrons will then migrate across the junction and into the other metal. This
displacement of electrons produces a voltage across the terminals of the thermocouple.
The combinations used in the makeup of a thermocouple include iron and constantan; copper
and constantan; antimony and bismuth; and chromel and alumel.
Thermocouples are normally used to measure temperature. The voltage produced causes a
current to flow through a meter, which is calibrated to indicate temperature. The production
of a DC voltage using a thermocouple is illustrated in figure 5.

16

Figure 5. Production of a DC voltage using a thermocouple
Solar Panel
The following is taken from Solar Panel Info, How do Solar Panels Work.
Solar panels collect solar radiation from the sun and actively convert that energy to
electricity. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells. These solar cells
function similarly to large semiconductors and utilize a large-area p-n junction diode. When
the solar cells are exposed to sunlight, the p-n junction diodes convert the energy from
sunlight into usable electrical energy. The energy generated from photons striking the surface
of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their orbits and released, and electric
fields in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a directional current, from which metal
contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The more solar cells in a solar panel and the
higher the quality of the solar cells, the more total electrical output the solar panel can
produce. The conversion of sunlight to usable electrical energy has been dubbed the
photovoltaic effect

17

Fuel Cell
The following is taken from the Breakthrough Technologies Institutes Fuel Cells 200
Program.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce
electricity, with water and heat as its by-product. As long as fuel is supplied, the fuel cell will
continue to generate power. Since the conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an
electrochemical process, not combustion, the process is clean, quiet, and highly efficient
two to three times more efficient than fuel burning.
b. Discuss the various types of batteries used in electronic components. Include in
the discussion the following elements of battery operation:
Method by which a direct current (DC) is produced
Specific gravity
Current capacity
Amp-hour capacity
Voltage applications
Charge and discharge characteristics
Battery life expectancy
Materials used in the battery construction
Battery physical characteristics, i.e., size, weight
Environmental requirements for safe battery operation and disposal
Specific component applications
Electrolyte precautions
Types of Batteries
The following information is taken from DOE-HDBK-1011/2-92.
The lead-acid battery is the most common type of battery in use today. There are other types
of storage batteries, each having certain advantages.
Wet and Dry Cells
Wet and dry cells are classified by the type of electrolyte the battery uses. The electrolyte of
a cell may be a liquid or a paste. If the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry
cell. If the electrolyte is a solution, the cell is called a wet cell.
Carbon-Zinc Cell
The carbon-zinc cell is one of the oldest and most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon
in the battery is in the form of a rod in the center of the cell which acts as the positive
terminal. The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode. The electrolyte for
this type of cell is a chemical paste-like mixture which is housed between the carbon
electrode and the zinc case. The cell is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in the paste
from evaporating. The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and very
inexpensive to produce. The cell voltage for this type of cell is about 1.5 volts.
Alkaline Cell
The alkaline cell is so called because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.
The negative electrode is made from zinc, and the positive electrode is made of manganese

18

dioxide. The typical alkaline cell generates 1.5 volts. The alkaline cell has the advantage of
an extended life over that of a carbon-zinc cell of the same size; however, it is usually more
expensive.
Nickel-Cadmium Cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a secondary cell, and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The
negative electrode is made of nickel hydroxide, and the positive electrode is made of
cadmium hydroxide. The nominal voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.25 volts. The nickel-
cadmium battery has the advantage of being a dry cell that is a true storage battery with a
reversible chemical reaction (i.e., it can be recharged). The nickel-cadmium battery is a
rugged, dependable battery. It gives dependable service under extreme conditions of
temperature, shock, and vibration. Due to its dependability, it is ideally suited for use in
portable communications equipment.
Edison Cell
In an edison cell the positive plate consists of nickel and nickel hydrate, and the negative
plate is made of iron. The electrolyte is an alkaline. Typical voltage output is 1.4 volts, and it
should be recharged when it reaches 1.0 volts. The edison cell has the advantage of being a
lighter and more rugged secondary cell than a lead-acid storage battery.
Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped like a button, while the other
is a cylindrical cell that looks like a regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35
volts. These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life. The mercury cell has
the advantage of maintaining a fairly constant output under varying load conditions. For this
reason, they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids, cameras, and test
instruments.
Method by Which a Direct Current is Produced
A battery consists of two or more chemical cells connected in series. The combination of
materials within a battery is used for the purpose of converting chemical energy into
electrical energy in a chemical cell.
The chemical cell is composed of two electrodes made of different types of metal or metallic
compounds that are immersed in an electrolyte solution. The chemical actions that result are
complicated, and they vary with the type of material used in cell construction.
In the cell, electrolyte ionizes to produce positive and negative ions. Simultaneously,
chemical action causes the atoms within one of the electrodes to ionize.
Due to this action, electrons are deposited on the electrode, and positive ions from the
electrode pass into the electrolyte solution. This causes a negative charge on the electrode
and leaves a positive charge in the area near the electrode.

19

The positive ions, which were produced by ionization of the electrolyte, are repelled to the
other electrode. At this electrode, these ions will combine with the electrons. Because this
action causes removal of electrons from the electrode, it becomes positively charged.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio comparing the weight of any liquid to the weight of an
equal volume of water. The specific gravity of pure water is 1.000. Lead-acid batteries use an
electrolyte that contains sulfuric acid. Pure sulfuric acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, since
it weighs 1.835 times as much as pure water per unit volume.
Since the electrolyte of a lead-acid battery consists of a mixture of water and sulfuric acid,
the specific gravity of the electrolyte will fall between 1.000 and 1.835. Normally, the
electrolyte for a battery is mixed such that the specific gravity is less than 1.350.
Specific gravity is measured with a hydrometer. A simple hydrometer consists of a glass float
inside a glass tube, as shown in figure 6. The hydrometer float is weighted at one end and
sealed at both ends. A scale calibrated in specific gravity is positioned lengthwise along the
body of the float.

Figure 6. A simple hydrometer
The float is placed inside the glass tube, and the fluid to be tested is drawn into the tube. As
the fluid is drawn into the tube, the hydrometer float will sink to a certain level in the fluid.
The extent to which the hydrometer float protrudes above the level of the fluid depends on

20

the specific gravity of the fluid. The reading on the float scale at the surface of the fluid is the
specific gravity of the fluid.
Current Capacity
The following is taken from George Washington University, School of Engineering and
Applied Sciences.
Current carrying capacity is defined as the amperage a conductor can carry before melting
either the conductor or the insulation.
Heat, caused by an electrical current flowing through a conductor, will determine the amount
of current a wire will handle. Theoretically, the amount of current that can be passed through
a single bare copper wire can be increased until the heat generated reaches the melting
temperature of the copper.
Amp-Hour Capacity
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Battery Ratings.
A battery with a capacity of 1 ampere-hour (Ah) should be able to continuously supply a
current of 1 A to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 A for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3 hours, etc.,
before becoming completely discharged. In an ideal battery, this relationship between
continuous current and discharge time is stable and absolute, but real batteries dont behave
exactly as this simple linear formula would indicate. Therefore, when amp-hour capacity is
given for a battery, it is specified at either a given current, given time, or assumed to be rated
for a time period of 8 hours (if no limiting factor is given).
For example, an average automotive battery might have a capacity of about 70 Ah, specified
at a current of 3.5 A. This means that the amount of time this battery could continuously
supply a current of 3.5 A to a load would be 20 hours (70 Ah/3.5 A). But if a lower-
resistance load were connected to that battery, drawing 70 A continuously, the battery should
hold out for exactly 1 hour (70 Ah/70 A), but this might not be true in real life. With higher
currents, the battery will dissipate more heat across its internal resistance, which has the
effect of altering the chemical reactions taking place within. Chances are, the battery would
fully discharge some time before the calculated time of 1 hour under this greater load.
Voltage Applications
The following is taken from Transtronics, Sealed Lead Acid Battery Applications.
Battery Voltage
There is much confusion about battery voltage because a battery has more than one voltage
and often the literature is lax in defining which voltage is being discussed at the time. Also,
measurements of a batterys voltage, particularly float voltage, require time for the battery to
stabilize.
Float voltage - Battery voltage at zero current. You must wait about 20 minutes for
the battery to stabilize at this voltage.
Nominal voltage - The voltage by which a battery is referred to. For example, a 12-
volt battery is made of 6 cells and has a float voltage of about 12 V.

21

Charge voltage - The voltage a battery goes to while being charged.
Discharge voltage - The voltage of a battery while discharging. This voltage is
determined by the charge state and the current flowing.
Charge voltage is usually stated as the battery capacity in ampere-hours divided by 5 (Ah/5).
Thus, a 10 Ah battery would use a 2 A charge rate to specify the battery charge voltage. This
voltage varies with the charge state of the battery, that is, it is higher when the battery has a
full charge.
In a similar manner discharge voltage is usually specified at a current that is capacity in Ah
divided by 20. A 10 Ah battery would have a load of 0.5 A on it while measuring this
voltage.
Battery Efficiency
Energy efficiency is calculated on the amount of power used from the battery while
discharging divided by the amount of power delivered to the battery while charging,
multiplied by 100 to yield a percentage. A lead-acid battery has an efficiency of only 75 to 85
percent. The energy lost appears as heat and warms the battery. Keeping the charge and
discharge rate of a battery low helps keep a battery cool and improves the battery life.
The energy losses dont include losses in the charging circuit that may have an efficiency of
anywhere from 60 percent to 80 percent. Thus, the overall- total efficiency is the product of
these efficiencies and ends up being 45 to 68 percent.
Battery Capacity
Battery capacity refers to the total amount of energy stored within a battery. Rated capacity is
in Ah, which is the product of the current times the number of hours to total discharge. The
capacity is normally compared with a time of 20 hours and a temperature of 68 F (20 C).
There are five factors that dictate the capacity of a given battery:
1. Size
2. Temperature
3. Cut off voltage
4. Discharge rate
5. History
Choosing Battery Capacity
Specifying battery capacity involves a bit more than multiplying the load current by the
backup time in hours. You must first de-rate the battery for capacity tolerance, temperature,
and discharge rate.
1. Multiply the average load current by the backup hours of operation you need.
2. Add 15 percent to cover loss of capacity from tolerance and uncycled batteries.
3. For every 10 C (18 F) below room temperature (72 F) that your worst case low
temperature is, add 10 percent.
4. If your backup time is less than 20 hours, add 10 percent for every time you have to
double your back-up time to equal more than 20 hours. For example, 20 minutes
would have to be doubled 6 times to equal more than 20 hours. Thus you would have
to add 60 percent on to your required capacity.

22

5. Add 40 percent to provide for an economic life cycle. A battery with 60 percent of its
capacity left is considered worn out.
Charge and Discharge Characteristics
In a lead-acid battery, two types of lead are acted upon electro-chemically by an electrolytic
solution of diluted sulfuric acid. As shown in figure 7, he positive plate consists of lead
peroxide, and the negative plate is sponge lead.

Figure 7. Chemical action during discharge
When a lead-acid battery is discharged, the electrolyte divides into hydrogen (H
2)
and sulfate.
The H
2
will combine with some of the oxygen that is formed on the positive plate to produce
water, and thereby reduce the amount of acid in the electrolyte. The sulfate combines with
the lead of both plates, forming lead sulfate.
As a lead-acid battery is charged in the reverse direction, the action described in the
discharge is reversed. The lead sulfate is driven out and back into the electrolyte. The return
of acid to the electrolyte will reduce the sulfate in the plates and increase the specific gravity.
This will continue to happen until all of the acid is driven from the plates and back into the
electrolyte, as shown in figure 8.

23

Figure 8. Chemical action during charging
As a lead-acid battery charge nears completion, hydrogen gas is liberated at the negative
plate, and oxygen gas is liberated at the positive plate. This action occurs since the charging
current is usually greater than the current necessary to reduce the remaining amount of lead
sulfate on the plates. The excess current ionizes the water in the electrolyte. Since hydrogen
is highly explosive, it is necessary to provide adequate ventilation to the battery whenever
charging is in progress.
The electrolyte in a lead-acid battery plays a direct role in the chemical reaction. The specific
gravity decreases as the battery discharges and increases to its normal, original value as it is
charged. Since specific gravity of a lead-acid battery decreases proportionally during
discharge, the value of specific gravity at any given time is an approximate indication of the
batterys state of charge. To determine the state of charge, compare the specific gravity, as
read using a hydrometer, with the full charge value and the manufacturers published specific
gravity drop, which is the decrease from full to nominal charge value.
Battery Life Expectancy
The following is taken from Dataweek, Battery Selection and Life Expectancy.
The formula for determining battery life expectancy is reasonably complex, requiring
proprietary data that factor in a number of variables to determine the required capacity to
deliver an expected run time. In addition to variables such as voltage, background current,
and pulse profiles, the formula also factors in how the required temperature range will affect
both the battery voltage, and, most important, the self-discharge rate of the battery.
Temperature has a significant impact on battery performance and life expectancy. If the
application is designed for cold temperatures, such requirements can prove problematic for
certain battery chemistries, since a cold electrolyte becomes less active, leading to higher
internal resistance, which may lead to battery failure. When subjected to extremely high
temperatures, certain battery chemistries and mechanical sealing techniques start to fail,
affecting both short-term performance and long-term reliability.

24

The self-discharge rate of a cell is governed by its electrolyte composition, its production
processes, and its construction. As a general rule, the greater the cells internal surface area,
the greater the self-discharge rate will be. In addition, high-rate spiral cells with large surface
areas have inherently higher self-discharge rates compared to bobbin-type cells of equal size
that utilize the same chemistry.
A lesser-known fact that impacts battery self-discharge involves impurity levels in the
electrolyte. Through years of study and fine-tuning of the electrolyte production processes,
experienced battery manufacturers have found ways to lower battery self-discharge rates by
reducing electrolyte impurities and parasitic reactions to nominal levels.
Battery life is also affected by impedance. Unfortunately, battery impedance is not a nice
stable number, but rather one that varies by time, temperature, and the mechanical
environment it must operate within.
Impedance is measured by the internal resistance developed not only in the electrolyte, but
also in the cathode and anode. Impedance can also rise as a result of electrolyte loss. Even
though the coin cells seal remains intact, being in an elevated temperature environment can
cause the electrolyte to simply diffuse through the seal.
Material Used in Battery Construction
The following is taken from DOE-HDBK-1084-95.
The active materials in a battery are those that participate in the electrochemical
charge/discharge reaction. These materials include the electrolyte and the positive and
negative electrodes. As mentioned earlier, the electrolyte in a lead-acid battery is a dilute
solution of sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
). The negative electrode of a fully charged battery is
composed of sponge lead (Pb) and the positive electrode is composed of lead dioxide (PbO
2
).
Battery Physical Characteristics
Wet and Dry Cells
Wet and dry cells are classified by the type of electrolyte the battery uses. The electrolyte of
a cell may be a liquid or a paste. If the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry
cell. If the electrolyte is a solution, the cell is called a wet cell.
Carbon-Zinc Cell
The carbon-zinc cell is one of the oldest and most widely used types of dry cells. The carbon
in the battery is in the form of a rod in the center of the cell that acts as the positive terminal.
The case is made from zinc and acts as the negative electrode. The electrolyte for this type of
cell is a chemical paste-like mixture that is housed between the carbon electrode and the zinc
case. The cell is then sealed to prevent any of the liquid in the paste from evaporating.
The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and very inexpensive to produce.
The cell voltage for this type of cell is about 1.5 volts.

25

Alkaline Cell
The alkaline cell is so called because it has an alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide.
The negative electrode is made from zinc, and the positive electrode is made of manganese
dioxide. The typical alkaline cell generates 1.5 volts. The alkaline cell has the advantage of
an extended life over that of a carbon-zinc cell of the same size; however, it is usually more
expensive.
Nickel-Cadmium Cell
The nickel-cadmium cell is a secondary cell, and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. The
negative electrode is made of nickel hydroxide, and the positive electrode is made of
cadmium hydroxide. The nominal voltage of a nickel-cadmium cell is 1.25 volts. The nickel-
cadmium battery has the advantage of being a dry cell that is a true storage battery with a
reversible chemical reaction (i.e., it can be recharged). The nickel-cadmium battery is a
rugged, dependable battery. It gives dependable service under extreme conditions of
temperature, shock, and vibration. Due to its dependability, it is ideally suited for use in
portable communications equipment.
Edison Cell
In an edison cell the positive plate consists of nickel and nickel hydrate, and the negative
plate is made of iron. The electrolyte is an alkaline. Typical voltage output is 1.4 volts, and it
should be recharged when it reaches 1.0 volt. The edison cell has the advantage of being a
lighter and more rugged secondary cell than a lead-acid storage battery.
Mercury Cell
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped like a button, while the other
is a cylindrical cell that looks like a regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about
1.35 volts. These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life. The mercury cell
has the advantage of maintaining a fairly constant output under varying load conditions. For
this reason, they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids, cameras, and test
instruments.
Environmental Requirements for Safe Battery Operation and Disposal
Because batteries store large amounts of energy, there are certain hazards that are associated
with battery operation. These hazards must be fully understood to ensure safe operation of
batteries. Hazards include shorted cells, gas generation, and battery temperature.
Shorted Cell
Cell short circuits can be caused by several conditions, which include the following: faulty
separators; lead particles or other metals forming a circuit between the positive and negative
plates; buckling of the plates; or excessive sediments in the bottom of the jar. The primary
cause of some of these occurrences is overcharging and over discharging of the battery,
which causes sediment to build up due to flaking of active material and buckling of cell
plates.

26

Overcharging and over discharging should be avoided at all costs. Short circuits cause a great
reduction in battery capacity. With each shorted cell, battery capacity is reduced by a
percentage equal to one over the total number of cells.
Gas Generation
A lead-acid battery cannot absorb all the energy from the charging source when the battery is
nearing the completion of the charge. This excess energy dissociates water by way of
electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is produced by the positive plate, and
hydrogen is produced by the negative plate. This process is known as gassing.
Gassing is first noticed when cell voltage reaches 2.302.35 volts per cell and increases as
the charge progresses. At full charge, the amount of hydrogen produced is about one cubic
foot per cell for each 63 ampere-hours input. If gassing occurs and the gases are allowed to
collect, an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen can be readily produced. It is
necessary, therefore, to ensure that the area is well ventilated and that it remains free of any
open flames or spark-producing equipment.
As long as battery voltage is greater than 2.30 volts per cell, gassing will occur and cannot be
prevented entirely. To reduce the amount of gassing, charging voltages above 2.30 volts per
cell should be minimized (e.g., 13.8 volts for a 12-volt battery).
Battery Temperature
The operating temperature of a battery should preferably be maintained in the nominal band
of 60 F80 F. Whenever the battery is charged, the current flowing through the battery will
cause heat to be generated by the electrolysis of water. The current flowing through the
battery (I) will also cause heat to be generated (P) during charge and discharge as it passes
through the internal resistance (R
i
), as illustrated using the formula for power in the equation
below.
P = I
2
R
i

Higher temperatures will give some additional capacity, but they will eventually reduce the
life of the battery. Very high temperatures, 125 F and higher, can actually do damage to the
battery and cause early failure.
Low temperatures will lower battery capacity but also prolong battery life under floating
operation or storage. Extremely low temperatures can freeze the electrolyte, but only if the
battery is low in specific gravity.
Battery Disposal
Disposal of lead-acid batteries should be performed according to all Federal, state, and local
regulations. Lead-acid batteries should be reclaimed to avoid the regulatory requirements for
hazardous waste treatment and disposal facilities. Reclamation is required by law in some
states.

27

The Federal regulations governing reclamation are found in 40 CFR 266, Standards for the
Management of Specific Hazardous Wastes and Specific Types of Hazardous Waste
Management Facilities. Persons who generate, transport, or collect spent batteries, or who
store spent batteries but do not reclaim them are not subject to regulation under parts 262
through 266 or part 270, and also are not subject to the requirements of section 3010 of the
RCRA.
Specific Component Applications
A cell has five major components: the negative electrode, the positive electrode, the
electrolyte, the separator, and the container.
The negative electrode supplies electrons to the external circuit (or load) during discharge. In
a fully charged lead-acid storage battery, the negative electrode is composed of a sponge
lead. The positive electrode accepts electrons from the load during discharge. In a fully
charged lead-acid battery the positive electrode is composed of lead dioxide. It should be
noted that the electrodes in a battery must be of dissimilar materials or the cell will not be
able to develop an electrical potential and thus conduct electrical current. The electrolyte
completes the internal circuit in the battery by supplying ions to the positive and negative
electrodes. Dilute sulfuric acid is the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries. In a fully charged
lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is approximately 25 percent sulfuric acid and 75 percent
water.
The separator is used to electrically isolate the positive and negative electrodes. If the
electrodes are allowed to come in contact, the cell will short-circuit and become useless
because both electrodes would be at the same potential. The type of separator used varies by
cell type. Materials used as separators must allow ion transfer between the electrolyte and
electrodes. Many separators are made of a porous plastic or glass fiber material. The above
components are housed in a container commonly called a jar or container.
Electrolyte Precautions
The following is taken from Concorde Battery, Battery Electrolyte Material Safety Data
Sheet.
Electrolyte is corrosive and contact may cause skin irritation and chemical burns. Electrolyte
causes severe irritation and burns of eyes, nose and throat. Ingestion can cause severe burns
and vomiting.
Repeated contact with sulfuric acid battery electrolyte fluid may cause drying of the skin that
may result in irritation, dermatitis, and skin burns. Repeated exposure to sulfuric acid mist
may cause erosion of teeth, chronic eye irritation and/or chronic inflammation of the nose,
throat and lungs.
c. Describe the relationship between voltage and current-carrying capacity for
series-connected versus parallel-connected batteries.

28

When several cells are connected in series, the total voltage output of the battery is equal to
the sum of the individual cell voltages. In the example of the battery in figure 9, the four
1.5-volt cells provide a total of 6 volts. When we connect cells in series, the positive terminal
of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the next cell. The current flow through a
battery connected in series is the same as for one cell.

Figure 9. Cells connected in a series
Cells connected in parallel give the battery a greater current capacity. When cells are
connected in parallel, all the positive terminals are connected together, and all the negative
terminals are connected together. The total voltage output of a battery connected in parallel is
the same as that of a single cell.
Cells connected in parallel have the same effect as increasing the size of the electrodes and
electrolyte in a single cell. The advantage of connecting cells in parallel is that it will
increase the current-carrying capability of the battery.
d. Discuss the basic operation of alternating current (AC) and direct current
(DC)generators. Include in the discussion the following elements of generator
operation:
Counter electromagnetic force
Generator speed vs. frequency relationship
Frequency control
Generator field strength vs. output voltage relationship
Field excitation
Generator voltage regulation
Generator protection circuitry and relaying

29

AC Generator
The elementary AC generator (figure 10) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire, in a
magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected
to slip rings, and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic
lines of force, first in one direction and then the other.

Figure 10. Simple AC generator
The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring X (in figure 10) positive (+) and slip
ring Y negative (-). The potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow from Y to X
through the resistor. This current will increase until it reaches a maximum value when the
coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force. The horizontal coil is moving perpendicular
to the field and is cutting the greatest number of magnetic lines of force. As the coil continues
to turn, the voltage and current induced decrease until they reach zero, where the coil is again in the
vertical position (figure 11). In the other half revolution, an equal voltage is produced, but the
polarity is reversed (figure 11). The current flow through R is now from X to Y (figure 10).

30

Figure 11. Developing a sine wave voltage
The periodic reversal of polarity results in the generation of a voltage, as shown in figure 11.
The rotation of the coil through 360 results in an AC sine wave output.
DC Generator
A basic DC generator has four basic parts: (1) a magnetic field; (2) a single conductor, or
loop; (3) a commutator; and (4) brushes (figure 12). The magnetic field may be supplied by
either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. For now, we will use a permanent magnet to
describe a basic DC generator.

31

Figure 12. Basic operation of a DC generator
Electromagnetic Force (EMF)
A single conductor, shaped in the form of a loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles.
As long as the loop is stationary, the magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we
rotate the loop, the loop cuts through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced
into the loop.
When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that magnetic
field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of flux, an EMF is
induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength
and the rate at which the flux lines are cut. The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut
for a given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.
The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the left-hand rule for
generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of your left hand in the direction
of the magnetic field (from north [N] to south [S]) and point the thumb in the direction of
motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the direction of current flow (figure
13). In the generator shown in figure 13, for example, the conductor closest to the N pole is
traveling upward across the field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner.
Applying the left-hand rule to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a
counter-clockwise direction in the loop.

32

Figure 13 . Left-hand rule for generators
Counter Electromagnetic Force (Counter Electromotive Force)
In a generator using a rotating armature, the conductors cut the magnetic lines of force in the
magnetic field. Voltage is induced in the armature conductors. This induced voltage opposes
the applied voltage; it counteracts some of the applied voltage, which reduces the current
flow through the armature. This induced voltage acts counter to applied voltage; therefore, it
is called counter-electromotive force.
Generator Speed vs. Frequency Relationship
The frequency of the generated voltage is dependent on the number of field poles and the
speed at which the generator is operated, as indicated in the following equation.:
f =
120
NP

where
f = frequency (Hz)
P = total number of poles
N = rotor speed (rpm)
120 = conversion from minutes to seconds and from poles to pole pairs
The 120 in the equation is derived by multiplying the following conversion factors.
pair pole
poles 2
ute min 1
onds sec 60

33

In this manner, the units of frequency (hertz or cycles/second) are derived.
Frequency Control
The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the angular
velocity of a rotating coil. The units of angular velocity are radians per second, and
2 radians is a full revolution. A radian is an angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of
a circle. One radian equals 57.3 degrees. One cycle of the sine wave is generated when the
coil rotates 2 radians.
Generator Field Strength vs. Output Voltage Relationship
The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent on the field
strength and speed of the rotor. Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore,
the generated voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.
In a DC generator, the magnitude of the induced EMF depends on the field strength and the
rate at which the flux lines are cut. The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a
given period of time, the larger the induced EMF.
Field Excitation
The signal output circuit, which controls field excitation of the AC generator, increases or
decreases field excitation to either raise or lower the AC output voltage.
The magnetic fields in DC generators are most commonly provided by electromagnets. A
current must flow through the electromagnet conductors to produce a magnetic field. In order
for a DC generator to operate properly, the magnetic field must always be in the same
direction.
Therefore, the current through the field winding must be direct current. This current is known
as the field excitation current and can be supplied to the field winding in one of two ways. It
can come from a separate DC source external to the generator or it can come directly from
the output of the generator, in which case it is called a self-excited generator.
In a self-excited generator, the field winding is connected directly to the generator output.
The field may be connected in series with the output, in parallel with the output, or in a
combination of the two.
Separate excitation requires an external source, such as a battery or another DC source. It is
generally more expensive than a self-excited generator. Separately excited generators are,
therefore, used only where self-excitation is not satisfactory. They would be used in cases
where the generator must respond quickly to an external control source or where the
generated voltage must be varied over a wide range during normal operations.

34

Generator Voltage Regulation
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain the output voltage of a generator at a
desired value. As load on an AC generator changes, the voltage will also tend to change. The
main reason for this change in voltage is the change in the voltage drop across the armature
winding caused by a change in load current. In an AC generator, there is a IR drop and an
IX
L
drop caused by the AC current flowing through the resistance and inductance of the
windings. The IR drop is dependent on the amount of the load change only. The IX
L
drop is
dependent on not only the load change, but also the power factor of the circuit. Therefore, the
output voltage of an AC generator varies with both changes in load (i.e., current) and changes
in power factor. Because of changes in voltage, due to changes in load and changes in power
factor, AC generators require some auxiliary means of regulating output voltage.
[Note: IR = voltage drop on the line due to line resistance; in phase with the current.
IX = voltage drop on the line due to line inductive resistance; leads the current by 90.]
Generator Protection Circuitry and Relaying
Protective relays are designed to cause the prompt removal of any part of a power system that
might cause damage or interfere with the effective and continuous operation of the rest of the
system. Protective relays are aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of
disconnecting faulty components or subsystems.
Protective relays can be used for types of protection other than short circuit or overcurrent.
The relays can be designed to protect generating equipment and electrical circuits from any
undesirable condition, such as undervoltage, underfrequency, or interlocking system lineups.
There are only two operating principles for protective relays: (1) electromagnetic attraction
and (2) electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by a plunger
being drawn up into a solenoid or an armature that is attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet. This type of relay can be actuated by either DC or AC systems.
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the induction motor principle whereby torque is
developed by induction in a rotor. This type of relay can be used only in AC circuits.
e. Discuss the basic operation of the various types of alternating current and direct
current motors. Include in the discussion the following elements of motor
operation as applicable to AC or DC motors:
Counter electromagnetic force
Starting current vs. running current
Starting torque slip
Current vs. load characteristics
Variable speed operation
Speed control
Motor controller circuitry
Applications of different types of motors

35

AC Motor
The principle of operation for all AC motors relies on the interaction of a revolving magnetic
field created in the stator by AC current, with an opposing magnetic field either induced on
the rotor or provided by a separate DC current source. The resulting interaction produces
usable torque, which can be coupled to desired loads throughout the facility in a convenient
manner.
DC Motor
There are two conditions that are necessary to produce a force on a conductor:
1. The conductor must be carrying current.
2. The conductor must be within a magnetic field.
When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt
to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic
theory by which all DC motors operate.
Figure 14 illustrates a three-phase stator to which a three-phase AC current is supplied.
The windings are connected in wye. The two windings in each phase are wound in the same
direction. At any instant in time, the magnetic field generated by one particular phase will
depend on the current through that phase. If the current through that phase is zero, the
resulting magnetic field is zero. If the current is at a maximum value, the resulting field is at
a maximum value. Since the currents in the three windings are 120 out of phase, the
magnetic fields produced will also be 120 out of phase. The three magnetic fields will
combine to produce one field, which will act upon the rotor. In an AC induction motor, a
magnetic field is induced in the rotor opposite in polarity of the magnetic field in the stator.
Therefore, as the magnetic field rotates in the stator, the rotor also rotates to maintain its
alignment with the stators magnetic field.

36

Figure 14. Three phase stator
Counter Electromagnetic Force (Counter Electromotive Force)
A generator action is developed in every motor. When a conductor cuts lines of force, an
EMF is induced in that conductor. Current to start the armature turning will flow in the
direction determined by the applied DC power source. After rotation starts, the conductor
cuts lines of force. By applying the left-hand rule for generators, the EMF that is induced in
the armature will produce a current in the opposite direction. The induced EMF, as a result of
motor operation, is called counter electromotive force, or CEMF.
Since the CEMF is generated by the action of the armature cutting lines of force, the value of
CEMF will depend on field strength and armature speed.
Starting Current vs. Running Current
At the moment a DC motor is started, the armature is stationary and there is no CEMF being
generated. The only component to limit starting current is the armature resistance, which in
most DC motors is a very low value (approximately 1 ohm or less) as shown in this equation:
I
a
=
a
CEMF t
R
E E

37

where
I
a
= armature current
E
t
= terminal voltage
E
CEMF
= counter EMF
R
a
= armature resistance
To reduce a very high starting current, an external resistance must be placed in series with
the armature during the starting period. To show why this is essential, consider a 10-
horsepower (hp) motor with an armature resistance of 0.4 ohms. If the motor were supplied
by a 260 volt DC source, the resulting current would be as shown in the equations below.
I
a
=
a
CEMF t
R
E E

I
a
=
O

4 . 0
0 VDC 260

I
a
= 650 amps
where
VDC = volt DC
This large current is approximately twelve times greater than actual full-load current for this
motor. This high current would, in all probability, cause severe damage to the brushes,
commutator, or windings. Starting resistors are usually incorporated into the motor design to
limit starting current to 125200 percent of full-load current.
The amount of starting resistance necessary to limit starting current to a more desirable value
is calculated using the following equation:
R
s
=
s
t
I
E
= R
a
where
R
s
= starting resistance
E
t
= terminal voltage
I
s
= desired armature starting current
R
a
= armature resistance
The starting resistors are used in a DC motor by placing them in the starting circuit of the
motor controller that is used to start the DC motor. Starting resistors are normally of variable
resistances, with the value of resistance in the circuit at any time being either manually or
automatically controlled. The maximum amount of resistance will always be inserted when
the motor is first started. As the speed of the motor increases, CEMF will begin to increase,

38

decreasing armature current. The starting resistors may then be cut out, in successive steps,
tually impossible for the rotor of an AC induction motor to turn at the same speed as
that of the rotating magnetic field. If the speed of the rotor were the same as that of the stator,
Without this induced EMF, there would be no interaction of fields to produce motion. The
The percentage difference between the speed of the rotor and the speed of the rotating
tor, as slip increases from zero to ~10%, the torque increases linearly.
As the load and slip are increased beyond full-load torque, the torque will reach a maximum

The typical induction motor breakdown torque varies from 200 to 300 percent of full-load
of torque at 100 percent slip and is normally 150 to
In general, the higher the inrush current, the lower the slip at which the motor can carry full

An increase in line voltage decreases the slip. A decrease in line voltage increases the slip.
e decreases the heating of the motor. A decrease in line voltage
ey.
e
e that corresponds to a motors rated speed are available in
certain standard voltages, which roughly increase in conjuntion with horsepower. Thus, the
until the motor reaches full running speed.
Starting Torque Slip
It is vir
no relative motion between them would exist, and there would be no induced EMF in the
rotor.
rotor must, therefore, rotate at some speed less than that of the stator if relative motion is to
exist between the two.
magnetic field is called slip. The smaller the percentage, the closer the rotor speed is to the
rotating magnetic field speed.
In an AC induction mo
value at about 25 percent slip. If load is increased beyond this point, the motor will stall and
come to a rapid stop.
torque. Starting torque is the value
200 percent of full-load torque.
Current vs. Load Characteristics
The following is taken from Industrial Motor Control by Stephen L. Herman and Walter N.
Alerich.
load, and the higher the efficiency. The lower the inrush current, the higher the slip at which
the motor can carry full load, and the lower the efficiency.
An increase in line voltag
increases the heating of the motor.
Variable Speed Control
The following is taken from Overview of Motor Types Tutorial by Brian L Bol
Controlling the speed of a brushed DC motor is simple. The higher the armature voltage, th
faster the rotation. This relationship is linear to the motors maximum speed.
The maximum armature voltag

39

smallest industrial motors are rated 90 VDC and 180 VDC. Larger units are rated at 250
VDC and sometimes higher.

to
the comparible AC
motor. This is partly due to the simplicity of control, but is also partly due to the fact that
In a brushed DC motor, torque control is also simple, since output torque is proportional to
The result of this design is that variable speed or variable torque electronics are easy to
ufacture. Varying the speed of a brushed DC motor requires little more than a
tor is varied using external devices, usually field resistors. For a
constant applied voltage to the field (E), as the resistance of the field (R
f)
is lowered, the
amount of current flow through the field (I
f)
increases as shown by Ohms law in the
following equation.
Specialty motors for use in mobile applications are rated 12, 24, or 48 VDC. Other tiny
motors may be rated 5 VDC.
Most industrial DC motors will operate reliably over a speed range of about 20:1 -- down
about 5-7 percent of base speed. This is much better performance than
most industrial DC motors are designed with variable speed operation in mind, and have
added heat dissipation features which allow lower operating speeds.
current. If you limit the current, you have just limited the torque which the motor can
achieve. This makes this motor ideal for delicate applications such as textile manufacturing.
design and man
large enough potentiometer.
Speed Control
The field of a DC mo
f
r
R
E
I
+
= |
An increase in field current will cause field flux (
f
) to increase. Conversely, if the resistan
of the field is increased, f
ce
ield flux will decrease. If the field flux of a DC motor is decreased,
the motor speed will increase. The reduction of field strength reduces the CEMF of the
motor, since fewer lines of flux are being cut by the arm ture conductors, as shown in the
following equation.
A reduction of counter EMF allows an increase in armature current as shown the following
equation.
a
+
| = + N K E
F CEMF

a
CEMF t
a
R
E E
I

= |

40

This increase in armature current causes a larger torque to be developed; the increase in
armature current more than offsets the decrease in field flux as shown in the following
equation.
This increased torque causes the motor to increase in speed.
This increase in speed will then proportionately increase the CEMF. The speed and CEMF
will continue to increase until the armature current and torque are reduced to values just large
enough to supply the load at a new constant speed.
Speed control for an AC motor is expensive. The electronics required to handle an AC
inverter drive are considerably more expensive than those required to handle a DC motor.
However, if performance requirements can be met -- meaning that the required speed range is
over 1/3rd of base speed -- AC inverters and AC motors are usually more cost-effective than
DC motors and DC drives for applications larger than about 10 horsepower, because of cost
savings in the AC motor.
Motor Controller Circuitry
A manual controller is a controller whose contact assembly is operated by mechanical
linkage from a toggle-type handle or a pushbutton arrangement. The controller is operated by
hand.
The manual controller is provided with thermal and direct-acting overload units to protect the
motor from overload conditions. The manual controller is basically an on-off switch with
overload protection.
Manual controllers are normally used on small loads such as machine tools, fans, blowers,
pumps, and compressors. These types of controllers are simple, and they provide quiet
operation. The contacts are closed simply by moving the handle to the on position or pushing
the start button. They will remain closed until the handle is moved to the off position or the
stop button is pushed. The contacts will also open if the thermal overload trips.
Manual controllers do not provide low voltage protection or low voltage release. When
power fails, the manual controller contacts remain closed, and the motor will restart when
power is restored. This feature is highly desirable for small loads because operator action is
not needed to restart the small loads in a facility; however, it is undesirable for larger loads
because it could cause a hazard to equipment and personnel.
f. Discuss the purposes of a transformer.
According to DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, transformers are used extensively for AC power
transmissions and for various control and indication circuits.
a F
I K T
+
| = |

41

g. Discuss the basic operation of the various types of transformers. Include in the
er operation and design:
nships between primary and secondary windings
Multiple secondary windings
Transformer ratings
cooling requirements
g
he core. A transformer wound such as in figure 15, will operate at a greatly
reduced efficiency due to the magnetic leakage. Magnetic leakage is the part of the magnetic
flux that passes through either one of the coils, but not through both. The larger the distance
between the primary and secondary windings, the longer the magnetic circuit and the greater
the leakage.
discussion the following elements of transform
Theory of operation
Magnetic coupling
Voltage/current relatio
Purposes of a transformer
Step-up vs. step-down transformer design
Transformer tap changers
Transformer
Current transformers vs. potential transformers
The following descriptions and definitions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92.
Theory of Operation
A transformer works on the principle that energy can be transferred by magnetic induction
from one set of coils to another set by means of a varying magnetic flux. The magnetic flux
is produced by an AC source.
The coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC source is called the primary windin
(coil), and the coil that delivers this AC to the load is called the secondary winding (coil)
(figure 15). In figure 15, the primary and secondary coils are shown on separate legs of the
magnetic circuit so that we can easily understand how the transformer works. Actually, half
of the primary and secondary coils are wound on each of the two legs, with sufficient
insulation between the two coils and the core to properly insulate the windings from one
another and t

Figure 15. Core-type transformer

42

Magnetic Coupling
The following is taken from Troubleshooting and Repairing Computer Printers by Stephen
L. Bigelow.
A transformer is actually a combination of inductors working together. It is composed of
several important parts: a primary winding, a secondary winding, and a core structure. An

AC voltage is applied across the primary winding. The AC voltage is constantly changing its
nerated in a
.
Voltage/Current Relationships between Primary and Secondary Windings

n.
wing around the entire length of the magnetic circuit induces a
voltage in both the primary and secondary windings. Since both windings are linked by the
ed per turn of the primary and secondary windings must be the
used extensively for AC power
transmissions and for various control and indication circuits.
The voltage of the windings in a transformer rtional to the number of turns
on the coils. This relationship is expressed in the following equation:
value and reversing its polarity over time. As a result, the magnetic field ge
primary coil also fluctuates. When the fluctuating magnetic field intersects a secondary
winding, an AC voltage is recreated across it. This principle is known as magnetic coupling
According to DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, the coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC
source is called the primary winding (coil), and the coil that delivers this AC to the load is
called the secondary winding (coil).
When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an alternating current will flow
that will magnetize the magnetic core, first in one direction and then in the other directio
This alternating flux flo
same flux, the voltage induc
same value and same direction. This voltage opposes the voltage applied to the primary
winding and is CEMF.
Purposes of a Transformer
According to DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, transformers are
Step-Up vs. Step-Down Transformer Design
is directly propo
s
p
V
V
=
s
p
N
N

where
V
P
= voltage on primary coil
V
s
= voltage on secondary coil
N
p
= number of turns on the primary coil
N
s
= number of turns on the secondary coil
The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as the voltage ratio. As
mentioned previously, the ratio of primary turns of wire to secondary turns of wire is known
as the turns ratio. By substituting into the equation, we find that the voltage ratio is equal to
the turns ratio.

43

A voltage ratio of 1:5 means that for each volt on the primary, there will be 5 volts on the
secondary. If the secondary voltage of a transformer is greater than the primary voltage, the
transformer is referred to as a step-up transformer. A ratio of 5:1 means that for every 5 volts
be 1 volt on the secondary. When secondary voltage is less
mer.
le
-
hich were required to supply low voltage for the tubes filaments from a nominal
primary voltage of 110 volts AC. Not only are voltages and currents of completely different
h a transformer, but all circuits are electrically isolated from one
to
imits. Tap changers offer variable control to keep the supply voltage within
these limits. About 96 percent of all power transformers today above 10 megavolts-amperes
gers generally consist of a diverter switch and a selector switch operating as
a unit to effect transfer current from one voltage tap to the next. It was more than 60 years
r transformers as a means of on load
1. Some form of impedance is present to prevent short circuiting of the tapped section.
e tap changer with a
resistive type of impedance uses high-speed switching, whereas the reactive type uses slow
on the primary, there will only
than primary voltage, the transformer is referred to as a step-down transfor
Multiple Secondary Windings
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Winding Configurations.
Transformers are very versatile devices. The basic concept of energy transfer between mutual
inductors is useful enough between a single primary and single secondary coil, but
transformers dont have to be made with just two sets of windings. In some transformer
circuits, three inductor coils share a common magnetic core, magnetically coupling or linking
them together. The relationship of winding turn ratios and voltage ratios seen with a sing
pair of mutual inductors still holds true here for multiple pairs of coils. It is entirely possible
to assemble a transformer in which one secondary winding is step-down and the other is step
up. In fact, this design of transformer was quite common in vacuum tube power supply
circuits, w
magnitudes possible with suc
another.
Transformer Tap Changers
The following is taken from Wilson Power Solutions, What a Transformer Tap ChangerIis
and What It Does.
A tap changer is a device fitted on power transformers for regulation of the output voltage
required levels. This is normally achieved by changing the ratios of the transformers on the
system by altering the number of turns in one winding of the appropriate transformer(s).
Supply authorities are under obligation to their customers to maintain the supply voltage
between certain l
incorporate on load tap changers as a means of voltage regulation. Tap changers can be on
load or off load.
On load tap chan
ago on load tap changers were introduced to powe
voltage control.
Tap changers possess two fundamental features:
2. A duplicate circuit is provided so that the load current can be carried by one circuit
whilst switching is being carried out on the other.
The impedance mentioned above can either be resistive or reactive. Th

44

moving switching. High-speed resistor switching is now the most popular method us
worldwide, and hence it is the method
ed
that is reviewed in this report.
y be located at one of the following locations,
of winding:
At the line end of the winding
The most common types of arrangements are the last two. This is because they give the least
located at either the low voltage or high voltage
nnected to the primary or secondary side windings of the
er
on of tap changer in the winding
ted with different tap changer configurations
Step voltage and circulating currents
most
power supplies, a voltage regulator is used, which provides extra ripple reduction so that an
pply designers.
condary winding varies with the type of rectifier
single-phase circuits are
full wave center tap (two diodes)
terval and the unidirectional DC current in the
transformer secondary winding require a larger transformer core to avoid saturation.
is not very popular, and the only time it may be worth
The tapped portion of the winding ma
depending upon the type
In the middle of the winding
At the star point
electrical stress between the tap changer and earth along with subjecting the tapings to less
physical and electrical stress from fault currents entering the line terminals.
At lower voltages the tap changer may be
windings. Tap changers can be co
transformer depending on
Current rating of the transformer
Insulation levels present
Type of winding within the transform
Positi
Losses associa
Cost
Physical size
Transformer Ratings
The following is taken from PowerVolt, How to Determine Power Supply Transformer
Ratings.
The transformer ratings depend upon the type of filter and rectifier configuration used. The
commonly used filter types are inductor and capacitor input filters. However, due to
increased weight and cost considerations, the inductor filter is not very popular. In
inductor-capacitor filter is not required. As a result, a capacitive filter is sufficient for a
majority of the applications and is very popular among power su
The current drawn from the transformer se
circuit used. The most commonly used
half-wave (single diode)
full wave bridge (four diodes)
dual complementary rectifier
The half-wave rectifier is simple and less costly than the other types. However, very high
current spikes during the capacitive charging in
Consequently, the half-wave rectifier
considering is for power levels below 1 watt.

45

Transformer Cooling Requirements
The following is taken from Transformers and Motors by George Patrick Shultz.
All transformers must be equipped with some method for cooling. Heat decreases the
transformers efficiency and reduces the units life expectancy. Operating the transformer
allows for a great kilovolt ampere capacity to be delivered to the
ded for the area in which the transformer is to be installed. In this event, the
ventilation system of the room should be inspected to make sure it is operating properly.
be clear of any obstructions that may prevent the heat from
to be inspected and tested to
determine if the motors operate within the preset temperature ranges. Manufacturers
ollowed for making these tests. When located in closed vaults,
e tests,
er if water is to be used to provide the
pressure. Care must be taken not to damage the coils when removing or replacing them. If the
ling system can be checked.
The coils are filled with water under pressure of 80 to 100 pounds per square inch (psi) and
A very small amount of moisture, 0.06 percent, will reduce the dielectric strength of the oil

Associated equipment with the water-cooled system also needs to be checked, including the
and the alarm system. In addition, make
pressure.
below rated temperature
load.
Dry-Type Transformers
For dry-type transformers, no particular check is necessary if conditions for ventilation have
been provi
Transformer radiator vents should
escaping.
Forced Air
If the cooling system consists of forced air for maintaining the temperature of the
transformer, the motors should be checked for proper lubrications and operation. These
motors will often be controlled by thermostats that also need
specifications are to be f
means should be provided to exchange the air in the vaults.
Water-Cooled Systems
Water-cooled systems must be tested for leaks and proper operations. To make thes
the cooling coils should be removed from the transform
coils are to be checked in the transformer, air or the type of coolant oil used by the
transformer can be used to make the pressure checks.
If the coils are removed from the transformer, the total water coo
they are checked for leaks. The coils remain under pressure for at least 1 hour to assure that
no leaks will develop. A drop in pressure would indicate a leak.
by 50 percent. Moisture content beyond this point does not cause the dielectric strength of the
oil to deteriorate much more.
water pump, pressure gauges, temperature gauges,
sure there is a water source with an adequate flow and
Current Transformers vs. Potential Transformers

46

The current transformer steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value and is used in
same types
the
of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done by constructing the
secondary coil, consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil, which contains
signed for low-magnetizing
current when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux
ucing an
The potential transformer steps down voltage of a circuit to a low value that can be
ecific transformer designs to the following types of

circuits
power
r phase configuration to another. They can include features for electrical
isolation, power distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Transformers
ple of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or
s
ts
nsing
t power voltage
falls below the predetermined threshold level, thereby assuring that certain core portions of
en the power supply goes below the predetermined threshold level
only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be
obtained.
A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external
load. Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is de
in the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, ind
excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load.
effectively and safely used for operation of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt
meters, and relays used for various protective purposes.
h. Discuss the application of sp
electrical/electronic circuitry:
Instrumentation power
Voltage sensing circuits
Current sensing
Control circuitry
Circuits requiring fault isolation protection
Instrumentation Power
According to DOE-HDBK-1011/4-92, power transformers convert power-level voltages
from one level o
typically rely on the princi
current levels.
Voltage Sensing Circuits
The following is taken from Patent Storm, US Patent 6147529 - Voltage Sensing Circuit.
Usually, voltage-sensing circuits are utilized to sense power up and power down operation
in the application of integrated circuitry applications, and, accordingly, enable other circui
to perform the corresponding actions if required. In the power up mode, the voltage-se
circuit receives an input voltage signal, generating an enable output signal when the input
voltage signal has exceeded a predetermined threshold level. Before that, when the input
voltage signal is below the predetermined threshold level, the voltage-sensing circuit
generates a disable signal to disable core portions of the integrated circuit so as to prevent
uncertain functioning due to either voltage level or system noise. In the power down mode,
the voltage-sensing circuit generates the disable output signal when the inpu
the circuit are disabled wh
and preventing uncertain functioning due to voltage level or system noise.

47

Current Sensing Circuits
The following is taken from Texas Instruments, What is a Current Sensing Circuit and How
is it Used?

onitor the current flow by measuring the voltage drop across a
rent
that is proportional to the current through the measured path.
The components of many appliances are administered by some kind of control circuitry.
.
Control circuitry power consumption depends on the complexity of the system. In general,
ver, because portions of circuitry, and even
s remain powered, even the most
complex circuitry needs a very small amount of power to respond when needed.
ted and destroyed by the current passing through it. A fuse contains a current
carrying element sized so that the heat generated by the flow of normal current through it
, when an overcurrent or short-circuit current
pes
uses and the Circuits They Protect
The plug fuse is a fuse that consists of a zinc or alloy strip, a fusible element enclosed in

The cartridge fuse is constructed with a zinc or alloy fusible element enclosed in a cylindrical
ends of the tube.
used on circuits rated at either 250 volts or 600 volts and has a
t-carrying capacity of 600 amps.
ollowing as backup power supplies:
erters
Current-sensing circuits m
resistor placed in the currents path. The current sensor outputs either a voltage or a cur
Control Circuitry Power
The following is taken from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Standby Power.
Most home appliances have very simple control circuitry, consisting of a single micro-
controller chip and its firmware. An exception to this case is the computer, which uses a
much more complex system of circuitry and integrated circuit chips to control the system
more and bigger chips need more power. Howe
portions of chips, can be shut down while other portion
Circuits Requiring Fault Isolation Protection
A fuse is a device that protects a circuit from an overcurrent condition only. It has a fusible
link directly hea
does not cause it to melt the element; however
flows through the fuse, the fusible link will melt and open the circuit. There are several ty
of fuses in use.
Types of F
porcelain or pyrex housing, and a screw base. This type of fuse is normally used on circuits
rated at 125 V or less to ground and has a maximum continuous current-carrying capacity of
30 amps.
fiber tube with the element ends attached to a metallic contact piece at the
This type of fuse is normally
maxi n mum continuous curre
i. Discuss application of the f
UPS inv
Diesel generators
Motor generators
Auto transfer switches

48

UPS Inverters
The following is taken from Technical Specifications for the Supply of an Uninterrup
Power System Composed of Thre
tible
e-Phase Modules in Parallel Configuration.
les the tolerances of different output parameters (i.e., voltage,
ed. Each inverter consists of a three-phase
frequency converter fitted with
s
ents.
pass). Once returned to a
normal state, the load is automatically supplied by the inverters. In the case of a non-
circuit, the inverters must be shut off by their electronic protection
after full battery discharge, the UPS
will restart automatically when the mains supply is restored.
and

wer diesel generator engines that
can supply emergency power to all the important and selected loads during a critical process
ese power units are used in almost all types of industries and commercial
ese needs
are fulfilled through this backup diesel generator engine.
The UPS inverter design enab
distortion rates, frequency) to be maintain
a power converter bridge with insulated gate bipolar-type transistors
a parallel series filter
control and command electronics
The operating principle is based on pulse width modulation. The oscillator provides the
frequency reference and is synchronized with the mains frequency when this is within
tolerance. It operates autonomously when the main is out of tolerance or absent.
It is also possible to desynchronize its operating when, for example, the UPS supply i
provided by a generator set, the stability of which is incompatible with the load requirem
In cases of sharp current build, and before the inverter voltage exceeds its tolerance, the load
is transferred to the mains without interruption (automatic by-
discriminated short-
without any deterioration. After the inverter has stopped
Diesel Generators
The following is taken from Diesel Generator Engine.
Diesel generator engines are basically designed to meet the power requirements of small-
medium-sized companies and heavy usage needs for larger industries. The generator is an
innovative product which brings affordable and clean standby power that can be easily
accessed by millions of industries, small businesses, and homes. The easy installation of
generators and the reduced cost of back up power have made generators in demand from
different areas of usage. There are a number of modern diesel generator engines that are
specifically engineered to fulfill emergency power requirements. These types of units
constantly monitor the electrical current, and they automatically start up when the power is
interrupted or is shut off. There are some specific high-po
of the industries. Th
sectors, whether big or small, which have uninterrupted power requirements, and th
Motor Generators
The following is taken from Encyclopedia Britannica, Motor Generator.
A motor generator is an electric motor coupled to an electric generator to convert electric
power from one from to another. The motor operates from the available electric power
source, and the generator provides power of the characteristics desired for the load. For

49

example, a set may be designed to convert commercially available alternating current to
ay provide high-frequency alternating
current power for induction heating. Such a combination has been termed a dynamotor. In

a driving motor, such as a gasoline or diesel engine.
The transfer switch has five positions that alter the mode of operation. The indication is

of operation. Also, the deviation meter indicates any deviation between
controlled variable and setpoint.
meter deflects full down for zero variable value, and full up for 100 percent
variable value.
output
is now varied by adjusting the manual output adjust knob. This adjustment is indicated on the

BAL. In many cases, controller output signals of the automatic mode and manual mode may

n
is can cause large swings in the value of the process variable and possible
gear.
The following is taken from Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Std.

A power switchgear assembly consists of a complete assembly of one or more of the above

direct current, as in some welding applications; or it m
some sets, there may be more than one coupled generator. Motor generator is also used to
denote an electric generator and
Auto Transfer Switches
provided by a deviation meter.
AUTO. This is the normal position of the transfer switch. It places the controller in the
automatic mode
0 - 100 (AUTO side). In this position, the controller is still in automatic mode. However, the
deviation meter now indicates the approximate value of the controlled variable. The
deviation
MAN. This position places the controller in the manual mode of operation. Controller
output meter. The deviation meter indicates any deviation between controlled variable and
setpoint.
0 - 100 (MAN side). The controller is still in the manual mode of operation, and the deviation
meter indicates controlled variable value as it did in the 0-100 (AUTO side) position.
not be the same. If the controller were directly transferred from automatic to manual or
manual to automatic, the controller output signal could suddenly change from one value to
another. As a result, the final control element would experience a sudden change in positio
or bump. Th
damage to the final control element.
j. Identify and discuss the operation of the different types of electrical switch
141-1993.
Switchgear is a general term that describes switching and interrupting devices, either alone
or in combination with other associated control, metering, protective, and regulating
equipment, which are assembled in one or more sections.
noted devices and main bus conductors, interconnecting wiring, accessories, supporting
structures, and enclosure. Power switchgear is applied throughout the electric power system
of an industrial plant, but is principally used for incoming line service and to control and

50

protect load centers, motors, transformers, motor control centers, panelboards, and other
secondary distribution equipment.
Outdoor switchgear assemblies can be of the non-walk-in or walk-in variety. Switchgear for
ffect of
external influences, principally the sun, wind, moisture, and local ambient temperatures,
ered in determining the suitability and current-carrying capacity of the
fect of
outdoor locations.
does not have an enclosure as part of the supporting
structure. Since open switchgear assemblies are rarely used in industrial installations,
d switchgear assembly consists of a metal-enclosed supporting structure with the
switchgear enclosed on the top and all sides with sheet metal. Access within the enclosure is
.

tal-enclosed switchgear used in industrial plants are defined as (1) metal

ng
ling primary and secondary
ol power transformers, are enclosed
, or as
cuit
opened.

industrial plants is generally located indoors for easier maintenance, avoidance of weather
problems, and shorter runs of feeder cable or bus duct. In outdoor applications the e
should be consid
switchgear.
In many locations, the use of lighter colored (non-metallic) paints will minimize the ef
solar energy loading so as to avoid derating of the equipment in
Classifications
An open switchgear assembly is one that
consideration will be given to metal-enclosed assemblies only.
An enclose
provided by doors or removable panels
Metal-enclosed switchgear is universally used throughout industry for utilization and primary
distribution voltage service, for AC and DC applications, and for indoor and outdoor
locations.
Types of Metal-Enclosed Switchgear
Specific types of me
clad switchgear, (2) low-voltage power circuit breaker switchgear, and (3) interrupter
switchgear. The metal-enclosed bus will also be discussed because it is frequently used in
conjunction with power switchgear in modern industrial power systems.
Metal-clad switchgear is metal-enclosed power switchgear characterized by the followi
necessary features:
The main circuit switching and interrupting device is of the removable type arranged
with a mechanism for moving it physically between connected and disconnected
positions, and equipped with self-aligning and self-coup
disconnecting devices.
Major parts of the primary circuit, such as the circuit switching or interrupting
devices, buses, potential transformers, and contr
by grounded metal barriers. Specifically included is an inner barrier in front of
a part of, the circuit interrupting device to ensure that no energized primary cir
components are exposed when the unit door is
All live parts are enclosed within grounded metal compartments. Automatic shutters
prevent exposure of primary circuit elements when the removable element is in the
test, disconnected, or fully withdrawn position.

51

Primary bus conductors and connections are covered with insulating material
throughout. For special configurations, insulated barriers between phases and
between phase and ground may be specified.
Mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure a proper and safe operating sequence.
d
it elements, with the exception of
r relay panel and may also provide access to a secondary
or control compartment within the housing.
an be
ar
of 1000 V and below is metal-enclosed
it breakers of 1000 V and below (fused or unfused)
Non-insulated bus and connections (insulated and isolated bus is available)
r line-side contacts when the circuit breaker is
withdrawn
y be stationary (fixed or plug-in). When
cal interlocks must be provided to ensure a
Metal-enclosed interrupter switchgear is metal-enclosed power switchgear, including the
er fuses (if required)
Non-insulated bus and connections
the
Instruments, meters, relays, secondary control devices, and their wiring are isolate
by grounded metal barriers from all primary circu
short lengths of wire associated with instrument transformer terminals.
The door through which the circuit-interrupting device is inserted into the housing
may serve as an instrument o
Auxiliary frames may be required for mounting associated auxiliary equipment, such as
potential transformers, control power transformers, etc.
All metal-clad switchgear is metal-enclosed, but not all metal-enclosed switchgear c
correctly designated as metal-clad.
Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchge
Metal-enclosed power circuit breaker switchgear
power switchgear, including the following equipment as required:
Power circu
Instrument and control power transformers
Instruments, meters, and relays
Control wiring and accessory devices
Cable and busway termination facilities
Shutters to automatically cove
The power circuit breakers of 1000 V and below are contained in individual grounded metal
compartments and controlled either remotely or from the front of the panels. The circuit
bre r ake s are usually of the drawout type, but ma
used, mechani drawout-type circuit breakers are
proper and safe operating sequence.
Interrupter Switchgear
following equipment as required:
Interrupter switches or circuit switchers
Pow
Instrument and control power transformers
Control wiring and accessory devices
The interrupter switches and power fuses may be of the stationary or removable type. For
removable type, mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure a proper and safe operating
sequence.

52

k. Identify and discuss the operation of the different types of circuit breakers.
ommonly used in place of fuses and sometimes eliminate the need for a
the arc when the
breaker contacts open.
Low-Voltage ACBs
A low-voltage ACB is one which is suited for circuits rated at 600 volts or lower. One of the
most commonly used low-voltage ACBs is the molded case circuit breaker.
A cutaway view of the molded case circuit breaker is shown in figure 16.
The purpose of a circuit breaker is to break the circuit and stop the current flow when the
current exceeds a predetermined value without causing damage to the circuit or the circuit
breaker.
Circuit breakers are c
switch. A circuit breaker differs from a fuse in that it trips to break the circuit and may be
reset, while a fuse melts and must be replaced.
Air circuit breakers (ACBs) are breakers where the interruption of the breaker contacts takes
place in an air environment. Oil circuit breakers (OCBs) use oil to quench

Figure 16. Cutaway view of a molded case circuit breaker
A circuit can be connected or disconnected using a circuit breaker by manually moving the
operating handle to the on or off position. All breakers, with the exception of very small
ones, have a linkage between the operating handle and contacts that allows a quick make

53

(quick break contact action) regardless of how fast the operating handle is moved. Th
handle is also designed so that it cannot be held shut on a short-circuit or overload condition.
If the circuit breaker opens under one of these conditions, the handle will go to the trip-free
position. The trip-free position is midway between the on and off positions and cannot be r
shut until the handle is pushed to the off position and reset.
A circuit breaker will automatically trip when the current through it exceeds a pre-
determined value. In low
e
e-
er current ratings, automatic tripping of the circuit breaker is
accomplished by use of thermal tripping devices. Thermal trip elements consist of a
oes
e
then be opened by spring action. This bimetallic
element, which is responsive to the heat produced by current flowing through it, has an

f
o
small
enched. This action extinguishes the arc rapidly, which minimizes the
chance of a fire and also minimizes damage to the breaker contacts.
are six

ize. The
continuous current rating of a breaker is governed by the trip element rating. The range of
hese circuit breakers are available in much higher continuous current and
interrupting ratings than the molded case circuit breaker. Breakers of this type have current
kers use a closing device, known as a stored energy mechanism, for
fast, positive closing action. Energy is stored by compressing large powerful coil springs that
bimetallic element that can be calibrated so that the heat from normal current through it d
not cause it to deflect. An abnormally high current, which could be caused by a short-circuit
or overload condition, will cause the element to deflect and trip the linkage that holds th
circuit breaker shut. The circuit breaker will
inverse-time characteristic. If an extremely high current is developed, the circuit breaker will
be tripped very rapidly.
For moderate overload currents, it will operate more slowly. Molded case breakers with
much larger current ratings also have a magnetic trip element to supplement the thermal trip
element. The magnetic unit utilizes the magnetic force that surrounds the conductor to
operate the circuit breaker tripping linkage.
When the separable contacts of an air circuit breaker are opened, an arc develops between the
two contacts. Different manufacturers use many designs and arrangements of contacts and
their surrounding chambers. The most common design places the moving contacts inside o
an arc chute. The construction of this arc chute allows the arc formed as the contacts open t
draw out into the arc chute. When the arc is drawn into the arc chute, it is divided into
segments and qu
Molded case circuit breakers come in a wide range of sizes and current ratings. There
frame sizes available: 100, 225, 400, 600, 800, and 2,000 amps. The size, contact rating, and
current-interrupting ratings are the same for all circuit breakers of a given frame s
voltage available is from 120 to 600 volts, and interrupting capacity ranges as high as
100,000 amps.
Much larger air circuit breakers are used in large commercial and industrial distribution
systems. T
ratings as high as 4,000 amps, and interrupting ratings as high as 150,000 amps.
Most large air circuit brea
are attached to the contact assembly of a circuit breaker. Once these springs are compressed,
the latch may be operated to release the springs, and spring pressure will shut the circuit
breaker.

54

Circuit breaker closing springs may be compressed manually or by means of a small electric
motor. This type of circuit breaker can be classified as either a manually or electrically
operated circuit breaker.
When a large air circuit breaker is closed, the operating mechanism is latched. As the circuit
operated
solenoid trip coil.
e operated at frequent intervals or when
3.
a supply voltage is converted and/or
The following is taken from the Electronics Club, Power Supplies.
There are many types of power supplies. Most are designed to convert high-voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low-voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A
power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function.
atly to
e digitally controlled power sources that provide accurate
and adjustable levels of voltage, current, and frequency. They include a processor,
s
breaker is closed, a set of tripping springs or coils are compressed, and the circuit breaker
may then be tripped by means of a trip latch. The trip latch mechanism may be
either manually or remotely by means of a
Circuit breakers may be operated either manually or electrically. Electrically operated circuit
breakers are used when circuit breakers are to b
remote operation is required.
Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate a working level knowledge
of the characteristics and applications of electrical components used in
instrumentation and control systems.
a. Discuss the various methods through which
reduced for use in an electronic circuit.
For example, consider a 5-volt regulated supply:
A transformer steps down high-voltage AC mains to low-voltage AC. A rectifier converts
AC to DC, but the DC output is varying. Smoothing stabilizes the DC from varying gre
making only a small ripple. A regulator eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed
voltage.
The following is taken from GlobalSpec, Programmable Power Supplies.
Programmable power supplies ar
voltage/current programming circuits, current shunt, and voltage/current read-back circuits.
Remote sensing functions compensate for voltage drops in the load leads by providing
feedback of the actual voltage at the load. Over-voltage and over-current protection mode

55

are also available. Comparators continuously monitor the output voltage against a program
reference value. If the output value exceeds the reference value, a trigger signal is sent to a
silicon-controlled rectifier across the output, shutting off the source to the load. Most
programmable power supplies are subjected to extensive testing and burn-in periods to
ensure long-term performance.
Programmable power supplies can provide AC, DC, or both AC and DC outputs. Typically,
C
t,

terfaces
its
lly,
that can result in undesirable outputs.
d equipment testing,
certification, and calibration applications. Devices that are capable of following complex
e
r-
ace
a
input voltage stability is not critical. Voltage multipliers can receive an
input voltage directly from a power source, but often use a transformer to minimize potential

e
tuplers
AC outputs are either single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase power is often used for low
voltage applications. Three-phase power is often used with high voltage power supplies.
Waveform outputs include sine waves, square waves, and triangular waves. Important A
output specifications include output voltage, voltage accuracy, output frequency, and output
current. Important DC output specifications include output voltage, voltage accuracy, curren
and power. Apparent power is the product of the root mean square (RMS) current and the
RMS voltage of the AC output. Efficiency is the AC output power divided by the input
apparent power.
Programmable power supplies are available a variety of special features. Computer in
provide remote monitoring and control. Overcurrent protection is internal circuitry that lim
or shuts down the current output during overcurrent conditions. Similarly, overvoltage
protection limits or shuts down the voltage output during overvoltage conditions. Typica
overvoltage protection is provided for the primary output. Pure sine output produces a very
high quality, pure sine waveform output. Short circuit protection may include electronic
current limiting and thermal resets with automatic recovery. Temperature-compensated
devices balance changes in temperature
Programmable power supplies are used in a variety of automate
output profiles are also used in highly specialized applications such as crystal growth and
differential thermal analysis at high pressures. Some programmable power supplies ar
modular, board-mounted, or include a floor-standing cabinet. Others are wall-mounted, floo
mounted, or sit on a desktop or shelf. Open-frame and enclosed units are also available.
Programmable power supplies can include a serial interface such as general-purpose interf
bus as well as integral software.
The following is taken from Global Spec, Voltage Multipliers.
Voltage multipliers are AC to DC converters that produce high-potential DC voltage from
lower voltage, AC source. They are used with constant, high-impedance loads and in
applications where
hazards. The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage determines whether a voltage
multiplier is categorized as a voltage doubler, a voltage tripler, a voltage quadrupler, or a
voltage pentupler. For example, voltage doublers are voltage multipliers whose output is
twice the peak input voltage. Half-wave voltage doublers usually contain two half-wave
voltage rectifiers. In full-wave voltage doublers, the capacitors are connected in parallel with
the output load. Voltage triplers contain additional series-aiding devices and can provid
either positive alternation or negative alteration. Voltage quadruplers and voltage pen
are also available.

56

Specifications for voltage multipliers include number of stages, AC input voltage, AC inpu
frequency, DC output voltage, DC output power, temperature range, and integrated circui
package type. Products are designated as ha
t
t
lf-wave or full-wave and series or parallel. Multi-
stage voltage multipliers can have 4, 6, 8 or 10 stages. Half wave voltage multipliers exert
llel
maximum output
ses
arry specifications for applications and approvals. Products with high-
ften used as the anode of cathode ray tubes in radar scopes,
levisions. Voltage multipliers can also be used as the primary power
nput is rectified to pulsating DC.
atic diagram of a typical instrumentation and control circuit,
ollowing electrical components in the circuit and discuss its
, and rating as applicable:
Power supplies
Solenoids
Indicating lights
This is a performance-based KSA. The Qualifying Official will evaluate its completion.
Figure 17 shows the common symbols for relays, contacts, connectors, lines, resistors, and
other miscellaneous electrical components.

uniform stress on components such as diodes and capacitors. Full wave voltage multipliers
also exert uniform stress on components, but are suitable for higher voltages. Para
multipliers require a higher voltage rating on each successive stage, but require less
capacitance per stage. The capacitors voltage capability determines the
voltage. With half wave parallel multipliers, the voltage stress on the capacitors increa
with each successive stage. IC package types for voltage multipliers include dual in-line
package and ceramic dual in-line package.
Voltage multipliers c
re o voltage outputs a
oscilloscopes and te
ent where the VAC i supply in equipm
b. Given a schem
identify each of the f
eters function, param
Resistors
Capacitors
Relays
Contacts
Fuses
Switches
Diodes

57

Figure 17. Electric schematic symbols
For additional information, refer to DOE-HDBK-1016/1-93, DOE Fundamentals Handbook:
Engineering Symbology, Prints, and Drawings, volumes 1 and 2, January 1993.

58

c. Discuss the application of the various types of circuit breakers and fuses used in
the power supplies to instrumentation and control circuits. Include in this
discussion the circuit requirements for the sizing, ratings, and characteristics of
these power-interrupting devices.
Refer to competency statement 2k for a discussion of circuit breakers. Fuses are discussed in
competency statement 2h.
d. Describe how different types of relays are used in instrumentation and control
circuits to accomplish the following functions. Include in the discussion the relay
characteristics required for each application.
Logic control
Signal isolation
Electrical protection
Electrical switching
Time delays
Alarm annunciation
Indication actuation
Logic Control
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).
Before the advent of solid-state logic circuits, logical control systems were designed and built
exclusively around electromechanical relays. Relays are far from obsolete in modern design,
but have been replaced in many of their former roles as logic-level control devices, relegated
most often to those applications demanding high current and/or high-voltage switching.
Instruments and controls requiring on/off control abound in modern commerce and industry,
but such control systems are rarely built from either electromechanical relays or discrete
logic gates. Instead, digital computers fill the need, which may be programmed to do a
variety of logical functions.
In the late 1960s an American company named Bedford Associates released a computing
device they called the MODICON. As an acronym, it meant modular digital controller. Other
engineering firms developed their own versions of this device, and it eventually came to be
known in non-proprietary terms as a PLC, or programmable logic controller. The purpose of
a PLC is to directly replace electromechanical relays as logic elements, substituting instead a
solid-state digital computer with a stored program able to emulate the interconnection of
many relays to perform certain logical tasks.
A PLC has many input terminals, through which it interprets high and low logical states from
sensors and switches. It also has many output terminals, through which it outputs high and
low signals to power lights, solenoids, instruments, controls, and other devices lending
themselves to on/off control. In an effort to make PLCs easy to program, their programming
language was designed to resemble ladder logic diagrams. Thus, an industrial electrician or
electrical engineer accustomed to reading ladder logic schematics would feel comfortable
programming a PLC to perform the same control functions.

59

PLCs are industrial computers, and as such, their input and output signals are typically
120 volts AC, just like the electromechanical control relays they were designed to replace.
Signal Isolation
The following is taken from Wilkerson Instrument Co., Signal Isolation.
Signal isolation is a method of conditioning a signal without having a galvanic connection
between the input and the output. Isolation is often also required between the input, output,
and power source. Isolation is usually achieved by converting the input into a frequency and
coupling the frequency signal to the output through a transformer or optical isolator. Typical
isolation circuits can withstand 1,000 volts or more common mode signals on the input.
Isolation is useful in breaking ground loops and providing high-voltage common mode
rejection. The need for isolation depends on the signal source wiring and the load on the
signal conditioner. If the signal conditioner is wired in a fixed system in a consistent manner,
isolation can probably be avoided through proper wiring practices. If the signal conditioner is
available for other user wiring, isolation should be considered if the other user can create
ground loops or apply high common mode signals to the conditioner.
Electrical Protection
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Protective Relays.
A special type of relay is one that monitors the current, voltage, frequency, or any other type
of electric power measurement either from a generating source or to a load for the purpose of
triggering a circuit breaker to open in the event of an abnormal condition. These relays are
referred to in the electrical power industry as protective relays.
The circuit breakers that are used to switch large quantities of electric power on and off are
actually electromechanical relays themselves. Unlike the circuit breakers found in residential
and commercial use that determine when to trip (open) by means of a bimetallic strip inside
that bends when it gets too hot from overcurrent, large industrial circuit breakers must be told
by an external device when to open. Such breakers have two electromagnetic coils inside:
one to close the breaker contacts and one to open them. The trip coil can be energized by one
or more protective relays, as well as by hand switches, connected to switch 125 volt DC
power. DC power is used because it allows for a battery bank to supply close/trip power to
the breaker control circuits in the event of a complete (AC) power failure.
Protective relays can monitor large AC currents by means of current transformers that
encircle the current-carrying conductors exiting a large circuit breaker, transformer,
generator, or other device. Current transformers step down the monitored current to a
secondary (output) range of 05 amps AC to power the protective relay. The current relay
uses this 05 amp signal to power its internal mechanism, closing a contact to switch
125 volt DC power to the breakers trip coil if the monitored current becomes excessive.
Likewise, (protective) voltage relays can monitor high AC voltages by means of voltage,
or potential, transformers that step down the monitored voltage to a secondary range of
0120 volts AC, typically. Like protective current relays, this voltage signal powers the

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internal mechanism of the relay, closing a contact to switch 125 volt DC power to the
breakers trip coil as the monitored voltage becomes excessive.
There are many types of protective relays, some with highly specialized functions. Not all
monitor voltage or current, either. They all, however, share the common feature of outputting
a contact closure signal that can be used to switch power to a breaker trip coil, close coil, or
operator alarm panel.
Electrical Switching
The following is taken from Power-IO, Solid State Relay Terminology.
There are several types of electrical switching devices.
Mechanical Relays or Mechanical Contactors
The cost of a mechanical relay or mechanical contactor is influenced by amperage and usage. As
these increase, so does the price. A mechanical device typically has two ratings: the number of
mechanical cycles (a high number) and the number of electrical cycles (a low number). Therefore,
mechanical devices should be used when the final device is activated infrequently. Mechanical
relays are seldom used for heater applications since the cycle time is too slow and the overall
product life is often too short. A mechanical device turns on or off when the coil is energized,
which can result in noise spikes or surges since this is not at the zero crossing point. An ideal
cycle time for a mechanical device is often 3060 seconds or more. Some applications will
require snubbers across the power terminals to help to suppress the voltage surge upon
opening at the non-zero point.
Mercury Contactors or Mercury Displacement Relays
A mercury contactor uses a pool of mercury, inside a glass sealed tube, to electrically
connect two contacts. This pool may contain more than 100 grams of mercury for a single
contactor. Since mercury is considered a cancer hazard in the United States and is banned in
some countries, there are restrictions on shipping, storing, or clean up if a contactor should
leak or explode. A mercury contactor is not a zero crossing device, so there will be noise
spikes or surges that may affect nearby electrical products or PLCs. An ideal on/off cycle
time for a mercury contactor is often 1020 seconds, with 38 million overall cycles.
Mercury contactors are used frequently for industrial heater control of resistive heaters.
When used 24 hours a day in a heater application, there may be 3 million on/off cycles in a
single year. Therefore, the mercury contactors might be replaced many times during the life
of the machine.
Solid State Relays (SSRs)
SSR devices are usually packaged in the familiar cube shape and are frequently referred to as
hockey puck relays. SSRs can use internal triacs, but the better SSRs will use internal a
pair of silicon controlled rectifiers. SSRs turn on and off at the zero crossing mark on a
sinewave, so electrical surges and noise spikes are greatly reduced. Since there are no
moving parts in SSRs, they can be cycled on and off many times per second. SSRs can be
ideal products if you pay attention to three important application items: avoid over voltage
(surges), over current, and over temperature.

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Solid-State Contactors
When an industrially hardened SSR is assembled onto a properly sized heat sink, the final
product is frequently called a solid-state contactor. As a finished contactor, the device
provides the fastest and most convenient way to install a complete solid-state switching
product.
For heater control, solid-state contactors are typically used with programmable logic
controllers, program controllers, or network input/output controllers that generate the pulsing
control signal. This may be called a time proportional output, or pulse wave modulation.
When used with some PLCs, it may be easier to reduce programming time by using an
analog output.

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Time Delays
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Time Delays.
Some relays are constructed with a kind of shock absorber mechanism attached to the
armature that prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either energized or de-
energized. This addition gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay
relays can be constructed to delay armature motion on coil energization, de-energization, or
both.
Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally open or normally
closed, but whether the delay operates in the direction of closing or in the direction of
opening. The following is a description of the four basic types of time-delay relay contacts.
First we have the normally open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of contact is
normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed by the
application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously powered
for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contacts motion (either
to close or to open) is identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a delay in closing
direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, this type of contact
is alternatively known as a normally open, on-delay.
Next we have the normally open, timed-open (NOTO) contact. Like the NOTC contact, this
type of contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized), and closed by
the application of power to the relay coil. However, unlike the NOTC contact, the timing
action occurs upon de-energization of the coil rather than upon energization. Because the
delay occurs in the direction of coil de-energization, this type of contact is alternatively
known as a normally open, off-delay.
Next we have the normally closed, timed-open (NCTO) contact. This type of contact is
normally closed when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is opened with the
application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously powered
for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contacts motion (either
to close or to open) is identical to a regular NC contact, but there is a delay in the opening
direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization, this type of contact
is alternatively known as a normally closed, on-delay.
Finally we have the normally closed, timed-closed contact. Like the NCTO contact, this type
of contact is normally closed when the coil is unpowered (de-energized), and opened by the
application of power to the relay coil. However, unlike the NCTO contact, the timing action
occurs upon de-energization of the coil rather than upon energization. Because the delay
occurs in the direction of coil de-energization, this type of contact is alternatively known as a
normally closed, off-delay.
Alarm Annunciation
The following is taken from EM 1110-2-3006.
Every power plant should be provided with an annunciation system providing both audible
and visual signals in the event of trouble or abnormal conditions.

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Audio Signals. Howler horns and intermittent gongs are used for audible signal devices. An
intermittent gong is provided in the plant control room. Howler horns are used in the unit
area and in areas where the background noise is high or in areas remote from the unit.
Visual Signals. Visual signals are provided by lighted, lettered window panels of the
annunciator. In larger plants, the annunciator panel indication is augmented by unit trouble
lamps located in a readily visible position close to the unit. The plant sequence of events
recorder is normally located in the control room. Separate annunciators (when provided) for
station service systems and switchyards should be located on associated control panels of the
station service switchgear or on the switchyard control panels.
All remote contacts used for trouble annunciation should be electrically independent of
contacts used for other purposes so annunciator circuits are separated from other DC circuits.
Auxiliary relays should be provided where electrically independent contacts cannot otherwise
be obtained. The annunciator equipment should use solid-state logic units, lighted window
type, designed and tested for surge withstanding capability in accordance with American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) C37.90.1, and manufactured in accordance with
ANSI/International Society of Automation (ISA) S18.1.
Indication Actuation
The following is taken from National Chemical Safety Program (NCSP) DOE Report 2000-
ID-0001.
Hardware alarms should be based on positive indication of actuation or barrier failure (e.g.,
switch actuation, solenoid position, gas pressure, detection of radiation, or fluid flow), rather
than perceived status based on a software command.
e. Describe the methods and devices used in instrumentation and control circuits to
provide for protection against electrical transients.
The following is taken from National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
Electrical Transients: Keeping the Enemy Out of Your Facility.
To safeguard todays facilities, designers often use a combination of several systems to divert
electrical transients. Structural lightning protection systems are engineered and installed to
protect the facility. Usually mounted on rooftops, these systems are designed to attract
lightning and provide a path to ground on which the current can flow.
Another device, often installed at the service entrance, is the lightning arrestor. Lightning
arrestors are designed to limit the surge current magnitude to a level that is not damaging to
transformers, switchgear, or other service entrance equipment; in other words, they must
reduce high-magnitude events to 2,0003,000 volts. While this voltage range is within the
withstand capability of most service entrance equipment, it will likely still be damaging to
electronic loads within the facility.
To properly protect both service entrance equipment and electronic loads located deeper
within a facility, a device that will clamp service entrance surges to an acceptable level of
several hundred volts is required. Suppression filter systems and other transient voltage surge

64

suppression (TVSS) devices are designed to do exactly this. While some TVSS offerings
provide basic clamping and require module replacement after a given number of transient
episodes, suppression filter systems that deliver long-term, repeated impulse protection
without requiring component replacement are a more reliable, more cost-effective solution.
Installing surge protection at electrical service entrances has often been compared to
protecting the forts of the Old West. In pioneer times, the most feared enemies were the bad
guys outside the walls. As long as these dangerous elements were kept at bay, everyone
inside was protected.
Transferring this philosophy to todays modern facilities, the primary goal of electrical
transient disturbance protection is to keep lightning and the other externally generated bad
guys from getting inside by installing protective devices at the service entrance. But just like
in the Old West, a secondary plan to attack internal transients is also essential to total facility
protection.
f. Identify and discuss the use of electrical test equipment used to troubleshoot and
analyze instrumentation and control circuit performance.
The following is taken from GlobalSpec, Logic Analyzers.
Logic analyzers are used to characterize and debug hardware, design and test firmware and
software, and perform synthesis integration. General-purpose logic analyzers allow the user
to specify the width and depth of the data window that is captured, the width being the
number of points captured simultaneously, and the depth being the total time slices that the
captured data represent. Most logic analyzers combine two instruments: a state analyzer and
a timing analyzer. The timing analyzer approximates an oscilloscopes time-interval-
measurement capabilities. The state analyzer provides the type of information you would
expect to see in a well-behaved, clock-driven sequential digital unit under test logic ones and
zeros; it does not show glitches, clock skew, or path delays. Basically, the state analyzer is
used to show what happened on the bus, while the timing analyzer demonstrates when it
happened.
Timing analyzers are the part of logic analyzers that are analogous to oscilloscopes. The
timing analyzer displays information in the same general form as a scope, with the horizontal
axis representing time, and the vertical axis representing high and low logic levels. Because
the waveforms on both instruments are time-dependent, the displays are said to be in the time
domain.
State analyzers are used to track logic events in a synchronous form. They trace values on a
bus or track functional problems and code flow. They can also be used to analyze the
execution of computer programs.
When selecting between logic analyzers, there are a number of important features to
consider: the number of input channels, the number of patterns generated, memory depth,
sampling rate, and channel bandwidth.
The number of patterns generated refers to the number of patterns (per channel) that logic
analyzers can measure. These patterns can be time, temperature, power, etc.

65

Memory depth is an expression of the analyzers ability to capture and analyze relatively
complex data.
Sampling rate, also called the sampling speed, refers to the speed at which sampling
information is tracked, extracted, and displayed. Many manufacturers differentiate between
state speed and timing speed.
Channel bandwidth, in a general sense, describes the logic analyzers information-carrying
capacity. It can apply to telephone or network wiring as well as system buses, radio
frequency signals, and monitors. Bandwidth is most accurately measured in cycles per
second, or hertz, which is the difference between the lowest and highest frequencies
transmitted. But it is also common to use bits or bytes per second instead.
g. Describe the requirements for electrical safety class systems.
The following is taken from NEMA, The Strengths of an Effective Electrical Safety System.
An effective electrical safety system has three distinct but interconnected components. Figure
18 is an illustration of the system.

Source: NEMA, The Strengths of an Effective Electrical Safety System
Figure 18. Components of an effective electrical safety system
Each portion of the system has to be capable of meeting the diverse needs of the segments of
the electrical community. The segments of concern include users, consumers, electrical
contractors (designers/installers), electrical inspectors, testing laboratories, manufacturers,
electrical workers (maintenance), and insurers.
The system has to represent a consensus among the various segments. Not all segments will
be satisfied with all elements of the system. A better level of overall acceptance and safety
can be achieved by using a consensus-based approach that draws upon the expertise offered
by each of the concerned segments.
In order to be effective, each of the three system elements must have the following key
features.

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Installation Codes
The installation code is the key driver for the system. It provides the fundamental safety
principles and installation rules that will provide a safe electrical system. The following key
elements must be included in an installation code:
Compatibility with Product Standards. Although installation code rules are generally
the driver, the development of those rules must take into account the standards
requirements for products being considered for installation in the system. The
installation code and the product standard must be compatible. This compatibility
ensures that products support the safety objectives and are used and installed in a
manner as contemplated by the manufacturer. It is erroneous to assume that one can
simply select an electrical product built to any standard and safely install it in any
system. Electrical code rules are written with the expectation that products comply
with established requirements that are compatible with the code. Improper or vague
code rules increase the potential for misapplication of products and the installation of
incompatible system components that can lead to increased hazards for persons and
property.
Enforceable Prescriptive Language. An installation code must be written in
enforceable language with rules that clearly set out the installation parameters for a
product. One key to standardization is to have everyone working from the same basic
level of safety. Enforceable rules must be measurable and are often necessarily
prescriptive. Without this basic prescriptive level, the benefits to standardization
(both economical and safety related) are lost.
For years, there has been discussion of a performance-based or objective-based approach
to codes. A performance-based approach makes sense for some areas of building design.
Design of fire protection systems is a good example. There are sophisticated models for
determining the required level of protection for various fire scenarios, and use of these
models can help establish the system design. However, this type of approach does not work
for determining the basic levels of electrical safety. Conductors have to be protected,
disconnects have to be readily available and working space must be provided. These cannot
be modeled; they are fundamental safety principles that manifest themselves in rules based
on extensive experience.
In addition, electrical codes have already embraced a performance design where it may be
appropriate. This can best be shown by using an example from the National Electrical Code
(NEC). NEC 310.15 recognizes a methodology for determining the ampacity of a conductor
using the Nehr-McGrath formulas. A designer can certainly use this to determine the
ampacity of a conductor in a specific application. However, that conductor has to terminate
in some type of electrical device. The terminations on this device are designed to operate at a
maximum temperature. This maximum temperature is established by the product standards
and covers many parameters that must be considered in product design. The relationship to
the product standard is critical since this is an element that cannot be modeled in the field.
Selection of a conductor that is too small results in overheating of the device terminations. In
order to avoid this problem, there are specific prescriptive rules that establish the minimums
for the conductor sizing that are consistent with the design of the product.

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Product Standards and Certification
Product standards establish the minimum level of safety and associated reliability for a
product. Key areas for an effective product standard are as follows:
Compatibility with the installation code. Like an electrical code, product standards
cannot exist in a vacuum. Product standards must be directly compatible with the
electrical installation code that covers electrical products used in the electrical system.
In order to properly test and certify a product there have to be established ground
rules for the installation of the product. These ground rules are set forth in the form
of an electrical code as outlined above.
Active Development Process. Product standards need to be developed with wide input
and review from various electrical community segments. It is also critical that there
not be multiple conflicting product standards. The best way to accomplish this
objective is to process standards through a nationally recognized process that
provides for wide participation of the electrical community. This wide review ensures
that the product standard reflects the level of safety and the necessary infrastructure
compatibility for the system within the defined scope of the standard. Designers,
installers, or other users should not make the mistake of assuming that they can select
a product built to any standard and expect that product to perform safely within their
defined system. It is the formal review and adoption for the standards that establish
them as the minimum requirements in a country. Despite their appearance and
traditional use, standards are not purely technical. They reflect social objectives. They
articulate what a society agrees are acceptable levels of risk. This is one reason for
striving for balanced membership on standards making bodies. One example of the
society driving product standards requirements can be found in the area of warnings and
cautions used to prevent foreseeable accidents. These are a large part of many product
standards. In societies where tort law reaches into standards writing, these considerations
are paramount.
Support of Consistent Certification. Regardless of the method of certification used,
product standards must be written in a manner that allows for consistent interpretation
and enforcement. Inadequate testing protocols and vague language can lead to
inconsistent application and could result in missing key safety elements of a product.
Furthermore, it is critical to avoid having multiple product standards that cover the same
product differently within a given safety system. Multiple standards lead to inefficiencies
for the manufacturer, installer, inspector, and user.
Review and Enforcement
Most often overlooked in an effective safety system is the need to have an efficient and
effective system of enforcement for compliance. Having solid electrical inspection programs
that utilize qualified inspectors provides the needed controls for the system. There is a
growing concern associated with the quality assurance based inspection approach. These
systems rely on review of the plans and limited auditing in lieu of thorough and timely on-
site inspections throughout the course of the construction. The majority of the electrical
community welcomes a system of inspections that provides needed checks and balances. By
contrast, taking a quality assurance approach only serves to keep the revenue from permit
fees flowing without adding any value.
h. Discuss the factors to be considered when selecting electrical components for
use in instrumentation and control circuits. Include in the discussion any

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consideration that must be given to the environment in which the circuit is
required to perform its design function.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of temperature
detection instrumentation. Variations in ambient temperature can directly affect the
resistance of components in a bridge circuit and the resistance of the reference junction for a
thermocouple. In addition, ambient temperature variations can affect the calibration of
electric/electronic equipment. The effects of temperature variations are reduced by the design
of the circuitry and by maintaining the temperature detection instrumentation in the proper
environment.
The presence of humidity will also affect most electrical equipment, especially electronic
equipment. High humidity causes moisture to collect on the equipment. This moisture can
cause short circuits, grounds, and corrosion, which in turn may damage components. The
effects due to humidity are controlled by maintaining the equipment in the proper environment.
i. Discuss the effects of electromagnetic interference and electrostatic discharge on
the performance of components in a typical instrumentation and control circuit.
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
The following is taken from Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory Guide
1.180.
Existing instrumentation and control (I&C) equipment in nuclear facilities is currently being
replaced with computer-based digital I&C systems or advanced analog systems. However,
these technologies may exhibit greater vulnerability to the nuclear facility EMI environment
than existing I&C systems. NRC Regulatory Guide 1.180 provides an acceptable method for
qualifying digital and advanced analog systems for the projected electromagnetic
environment in nuclear facilities.
The typical environment in a nuclear facility includes many sources of electrical noise, for
example, hand-held two-way radios, arc welders, switching of large inductive loads, high
fault currents, and high-energy fast transients associated with switching at the generator or
transmission voltage levels.
The increasing use of advanced analog- and microprocessor-based I&C systems in safety-
related plant systems has introduced concerns with respect to the creation of additional noise
sources and the susceptibility of this equipment to the electrical noise already present in the
nuclear facility environment.
Digital technology is constantly evolving, and manufacturers of digital systems are
incorporating increasingly higher clock frequencies and lower logic level voltages into their
designs. However, these performance advancements may have an adverse impact on the
operation of digital systems with respect to EMI and power surges because of the increased
likelihood of extraneous noise being misinterpreted as legitimate logic signals. With recent
advances in analog electronics, many of the functions presently being performed by several
analog circuit boards could be combined into a single analog circuit board operating at

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reduced voltage levels, thereby making analog circuitry more susceptible to EMI and power
surges as well. Hence, operational and functional issues related to safety in the nuclear
facility environment must address the possibility of upsets and malfunctions in I&C systems
caused by EMI and power surges.
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
The following is taken from Electrostatic Discharge Association (ESDA), Electrostatic
Discharge Technology Roadmap.
In the late 1970s, electrostatic discharge, or ESD, became a problem in the electronics
industry. Low-level ESD events from people were causing device failures and yield losses.
As the industry learned about this phenomenon, both device design improvements and
process changes were made to make the devices more robust and processes more capable of
handling these devices.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, device engineers were able to create protection structures
that made the devices less sensitive to ESD events. Technology changes during this time also
helped design engineers to develop more robust devices.
In the mid to late 1990s however, the requirements for increased performance (devices that
operate in the gigahertz range) and the increase in the density of circuits on a device caused
problems for traditional ESD protection circuits. To achieve the performance and density
numbers required by industry, the devices have become more sensitive to ESD events since
the late 1990s. The current trend, which is expected to continue, is circuit performance at the
expense of ESD protection levels.
j. Discuss the design requirements for I&C system grounds.
Circuit and system grounding consists of connecting the grounded conductor, the equipment
grounding conductor, the grounding bus bars, and all noncurrent-carrying metal parts to
ground.
This is accomplished by connecting a properly sized, unspliced grounding electrode
conductor between the grounding bus bar and the grounding electrode system. There are
three fundamental purposes for grounding an electrical system:
1. To limit excessive voltage from lightning, line surges, and crossovers with higher
voltage line
2. To keep conductor enclosures and noncurrent-carrying metal enclosures and
equipment at zero potential to ground
3. To facilitate the opening of overcurrent protection devices in case of insulation
failures because of faults, short circuits, etc.
Equipment grounding systems, which consist of interconnected networks of equipment
grounding conductors, are used to perform the following functions:
Limit the hazard to personnel (shock voltage) from the noncurrent-carrying metal
parts of equipment raceways and other conductor enclosures in case of ground faults

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Safely conduct ground-fault current at sufficient magnitude for fast operation of the
circuit overcurrent protection devices
To ensure the performance of the above functions, equipment grounding conductors are
required to
be permanent and continuous,
have ample capacity to safely conduct ground-fault current likely to be imposed on
them, and
have impedance sufficiently low to limit the voltage to ground to a safe magnitude
and to facilitate the operation of the circuit overcurrent protection devices.
of temperature detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and
control systems.
a. Discuss the basic functions of temperature detectors.
Although the temperatures that are monitored vary slightly depending on the details of
facility design, temperature detectors are used to provide three basic functions: indication,
alarm, and control. The temperatures monitored may normally be displayed in a central
location, such as a control room, and may have audible and visual alarms associated with
them when specified preset limits are exceeded. These temperatures may have control
functions associated with them so that equipment is started or stopped to support a given
temperature condition or so that a protective action occurs.
Because temperature is one of the most important parameters of a material, many instruments
have been developed to measure it. One type of detector used is the resistance temperature
detector (RTD). The RTD is used at many DOE nuclear facilities to measure temperatures of
the process or materials being monitored.
b. Describe the construction of a basic Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).
The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as temperature
increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases. RTDs act
somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to voltage signals
by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are
pure, of uniform quality, stable within a given range of temperature, and able to give
reproducible resistance-temperature readings. Only a few metals have the properties
necessary for use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals are best
suited for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-temperature characteristics,
their high coefficient of resistance, and their ability to withstand repeated temperature cycles.

71

The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature,
usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must be
capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be easily constructed.
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in
a sheath of metal. Figure 19 shows the internal construction of an RTD.

Figure 19. Internal construction of a typical RTD
This particular design has a platinum element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator. The
insulator prevents a short circuit between the wire and the metal sheath.
Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy, is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath
because of its inherent corrosion resistance. When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the
Inconel sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. The change in temperature
will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool, resulting in a proportional change in resistance.
This change in resistance is then measured by a precision resistance-measuring device that is
calibrated to give the proper temperature reading. This device is normally a bridge circuit.

72

Figure 20 shows an RTD protective well and terminal head. The well protects the RTD from
damage by the gas or liquid being measured. Protecting wells are normally made of stainless
steel, carbon steel, Inconel, or cast iron, and they are used for temperatures up to 1100 C.

Figure 20. RTD well and terminal head
c. Explain how Resistance Temperature Detector resistance varies with changes in
sensed temperature.
The resistance of an RTD varies directly with temperature:
As temperature increases, resistance increases.
As temperature decreases, resistance decreases.
RTDs are constructed using a fine, pure, metallic, spring-like wire surrounded by an insulator
and enclosed in a metal sheath.
d. Explain how a Resistance Temperature Detector provides an output
representative of the measured temperature.
A change in temperature will cause an RTD to heat or cool, producing a proportional change
in resistance. The change in resistance is measured by a precision device that is calibrated to
give the proper temperature reading.
e. Describe the construction of a basic thermocouple, including the materials used.
A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. When one
end of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument, the thermocouple becomes a

73

sensitive and highly accurate measuring device. Thermocouples may be constructed of
several different combinations of materials. The performance of a thermocouple material is
generally determined by using that material with platinum. The most important factor to be
considered when selecting a pair of materials is the thermoelectric difference between the
two materials. A significant difference between the two materials will result in better
thermocouple performance.
Figure 21 shows the internal construction of a typical thermocouple. The leads of the
thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath. The measuring junction is normally formed
at the bottom of the thermocouple housing. Magnesium oxide surrounds the thermocouple
wires to prevent vibration that could damage the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer
between the measuring junction and the medium surrounding the thermocouple.

Figure 21. Internal construction of a typical thermocouple
f. Explain how a thermocouple provides an output representative of the measured
temperature.
Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit when subjected to
changes in temperature. The amount of current that will be produced is dependent on the
temperature difference between the measurement and reference junction, the characteristics
of the two metals used, and the characteristics of the attached circuit. Figure 22 illustrates a
simple thermocouple circuit.

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Figure 22. Simple thermocouple circuit
Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage that is greater than
the voltage across the reference junction. The difference between the two voltages is
proportional to the difference in temperature and can be measured on the voltmeter (in
millivolts). For ease of operator use, some voltmeters are set up to read out directly in
temperature through use of electronic circuitry.
g. Describe the environmental conditions that can affect the accuracy and reliability
of temperature detection instrumentation.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of temperature
detection instrumentation. Variations in ambient temperature can directly affect the
resistance of components in a bridge circuit and the resistance of the reference junction for a
thermocouple. In addition, ambient temperature variations can affect the calibration of
of the circuitry and by maintaining the temperature detection instrumentation in the proper
environment.
h. Given a diagram of a basic temperature instrumentation detection and control
system, describe the function of the following components:
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
Bridge circuit
Direct current-alternating current converter

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Amplifier
Balancing motor/mechanical linkage
i. Describe the temperature instrument indications for the following faults:
Short circuit
Open circuit
According to DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92, if the RTD becomes open in either the unbalanced or
balanced bridge circuits, the resistance will be infinite, and the meter will indicate a very
high temperature. If it becomes shorted, the resistance will be zero, and the meter will
indicate a very low temperature.
j. Explain the methods of bridge circuit compensation for changes in ambient
temperature.
The bridge operates by placing R
x
in the circuit, as shown in figure 23, and then adjusting R
3

so that all current flows through the arms of the bridge circuit. When this condition exists,
there is no current flow through the ammeter, and the bridge is said to be balanced. When the
bridge is balanced, the currents through each of the arms are exactly proportional. They are
equal if R
1
= R
2
. Most of the time the bridge is constructed so that R
1
= R
2
. When this is the
case, and the bridge is balanced, then the resistance of R
x
is the same as R
3
, or R
x
= R
3
.
When balance exists, R
3
will be equal to the unknown resistance, even if the voltage source is
unstable or is not accurately known. A typical Wheatstone bridge has several dials used to
vary the resistance. Once the bridge is balanced, the dials can be read to find the value of R
3
.

Figure 23. Bridge circuit

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Bridge circuits can be used to measure resistance to tenths or even hundredths of a percent
accuracy. When used to measure temperature, some Wheatstone bridges with precision
resistors are accurate to about + 0.1F.
Two types of bridge circuits (unbalanced and balanced) are utilized in resistance thermometer
temperature detection circuits. The unbalanced bridge circuit in figure 24 uses a millivoltmeter
that is calibrated in units of temperature that correspond to the RTD resistance.

Figure 24. Unbalanced bridge circuit
The battery in figure 24 is connected to two opposite points of the bridge circuit. The
millivoltmeter is connected to the two remaining points. The rheostat regulates bridge
current. The regulated current is divided between the branch with the fixed resistor and range
resistor R
1
, and the branch with the RTD and range resistor R. As the electrical resistance of
the RTD changes, the voltage at points X and Y changes. The millivoltmeter detects the
change in voltage caused by unequal division of current in the two branches. The meter can
be calibrated in units of temperature because the only changing resistance value is that of the
RTD.
The balanced bridge circuit (figure 25) uses a galvanometer to compare the RTD resistance
with that of a fixed resistor. The galvanometer uses a pointer that deflects on either side of
zero when the resistance of the arms is not equal. The resistance of the slide wire is adjusted
until the galvanometer indicates zero. The value of the slide resistance is then used to
determine the temperature of the system being monitored.

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Figure 25. Balanced bridge circuit
A slidewire resistor is used to balance the arms of the bridge. The circuit will be in balance
whenever the value of the slidewire resistance is such that no current flows through the
galvanometer. For each temperature change, there is a new value; therefore, the slider must
be moved to a new position to balance the circuit.
of pressure detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems.
a. Discuss the basic functions of pressure detectors.
Although the pressures that are monitored vary slightly depending on the details of facility
design, all pressure detectors are used to provide up to three basic functions: indication,
alarm, and control. Since the fluid system may operate at both saturation and subcooled
conditions, accurate pressure indication must be available to maintain proper cooling. Some
pressure detectors have audible and visual alarms associated with them when specified preset
limits are exceeded. Some pressure detector applications are used as inputs to protective
features and control functions.
b. Explain how a bellows pressure detector produces an output signal representative
of the measured pressure.

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The need for a pressure-sensing element that was extremely sensitive to low pressures and
that would provide power to activate recording and indicating mechanisms resulted in the
development of the metallic bellows pressure-sensing element. The metallic bellows is most
accurate when measuring pressures from 0.5 to 75 psig, or gauge pressure. However, when
used in conjunction with a heavy range spring, some bellows can be used to measure pressures
of over 1000 psig. Figure 26 shows a basic metallic bellows pressure-sensing element.

Figure 26. Basic metallic bellows
The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds formed
from very thin-walled tubing. The diameter of the bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may
have as many as 24 folds. System pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows.
As the inlet pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows will expand or contract. The
moving end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical linkage assembly. As the bellows
and linkage assembly move, either an electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure
indication is provided. The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a
helical, coiled compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows, the relation between
increments of load and deflection is linear. However, this relationship exists only when the
bellows is under compression. It is necessary to construct the bellows such that all of the
travel occurs on the compression side of the point of equilibrium. Therefore, in practice, the
bellows must always be opposed by a spring, and the deflection characteristics will be the
resulting force of the spring and bellows.
c. Explain how a bourdon tube pressure detector produces an output signal
representative of the measured pressure.
The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure-sensing instruments in use
today. The bourdon tube consists of a thin-walled tube that is flattened diametrically on
opposite sides to produce a cross-sectional area elliptical in shape, having two long, flat sides
and two short, round sides. The tube is bent lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to 300
degrees. Pressure applied to the inside of the tube causes distention of the flat sections and
tends to restore its original round cross-section. This change in cross-section causes the tube
to straighten slightly. Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube
traces a curve that is the result of the change in angular position with respect to the center.

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Within limits, the movement of the tip of the tube can then be used to position a pointer or to
develop an equivalent electrical signal to indicate the value of the applied internal pressure.
d. Explain how a strain gauge pressure transducer produces an output signal
representative of the measured pressure.
A strain gauge measures the external force (pressure) applied to a fine wire. The fine wire is
usually arranged in the form of a grid. The pressure change causes a resistance change due to
the distortion of the wire. The value of the pressure can be found by measuring the change in
resistance of the wire grid.
The equation below shows the pressure to resistance relationship:
R = K
A
L

where
R = resistance of the wire grid in ohms
K = resistivity constant for the particular type of wire grid
L = length of wire grid
A = cross-sectional area of wire grid
As the wire grid is distorted by elastic deformation, its length is increased, and its cross-
sectional area decreases. These changes cause an increase in the resistance of the wire of the
strain gauge. This change in resistance is used as the variable resistance in a bridge circuit
that provides an electrical signal for indication of pressure. Figure 27 illustrates a strain
gauge pressure transducer.

Figure 27. Strain gauge pressure transducer

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An increase in pressure at the inlet of the bellows causes the bellows to expand. The
expansion of the bellows moves a flexible beam to which a strain gauge has been attached.
The movement of the beam causes the resistance of the strain gauge to change. The
temperature-compensating gauge compensates for the heat produced by current flowing
through the fine wire of the strain gauge.
An exciter that is used in place of a battery to eliminate the need for a galvanometer provides
AC. When a change in resistance in the strain gauge causes an unbalanced condition, an error
signal enters the amplifier and actuates the balancing motor. The balancing motor moves the
slider along the slidewire, restoring the bridge to a balanced condition. The sliders position
is noted on a scale marked in units of pressure.
e. Describe the environmental concerns that can affect the accuracy and reliability of
pressure detection instrumentation.
Pressure instruments are sensitive to variations in the atmospheric pressure surrounding the
detector. This is especially apparent when the detector is located within an enclosed space.
Variations in the pressure surrounding the detector will cause the indicated pressure from the
detector to change. This will greatly reduce the accuracy of the pressure instrument and
should be considered when installing and maintaining these instruments.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of pressure detection
instrumentation. Variations in ambient temperature can directly affect the resistance of
components in the instrumentation circuitry, and therefore, affect the calibration of electric/
electronic equipment. The effects of temperature variations are reduced by the design of the
circuitry and by maintaining the pressure detection instrumentation in the proper environment.
f. Given a diagram of a basic pressure detection device, describe the function of the
following components:
Sensing element
Transducer
Pressure detection circuitry
Pressure indication
This is a performance-based KSA. The Qualifying Official will evaluate its completion. The
following information taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92 may be helpful.
The sensing element senses the pressure of the monitored system and converts the pressure to
a mechanical signal. The sensing element supplies the mechanical signal to a transducer. The
transducer converts the mechanical signal to an electrical signal that is proportional to system
pressure. If the mechanical signal from the sensing element is used directly, a transducer is
not required and therefore not used. The detector circuitry will amplify and/or transmit this

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signal to the pressure indicator. The electrical signal generated by the detection circuitry is
proportional to system pressure. The exact operation of detector circuitry depends on the type
of transducer used. The pressure indicator provides remote indication of the system pressure
being measured.
g. Discuss the failure modes of the various types of pressure indication instruments.
If a pressure instrument fails, spare detector elements may be utilized if installed. If spare
detectors are not installed, the pressure may be read at an independent local mechanical
gauge, if available, or a precision pressure gauge may be installed in the system at a
convenient point. If the detector is functional, it may be possible to obtain pressure readings
by measuring voltage or current values across the detector leads and comparing this reading
with calibration curves.
level detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control systems.
a. Identify the principle of operation of the following types of level instrumentation:
Gauge glass
Ball float
Chain float
Magnetic bond
Conductivity probe
Differential pressure
Sonic probes
Capacitance probes
Bubblers
Radar level sensors
The following definitions and descriptions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92.
Gauge Glass
In gauge glass operation, a transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top of a tank that is
monitored. The height of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of water in the tank.
Ball Float
The ball float is a direct reading liquid level mechanism. The most practical design for the
float is a hollow metal ball or sphere. However, there are no restrictions to the size, shape, or
material used. The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in turn is connected
to a rotating shaft that indicates level on a calibrated scale. The operation of the ball float is
simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the liquid level changes, the float will
follow and change the position of the pointer attached to the rotating shaft.
The travel of the ball float is limited by its design to be within 30 degrees from the
horizontal plane that results in optimum response and performance. The actual level range is
determined by the length of the connecting arm.

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Chain Float
The chain float gauge has a float ranging in size up to 12 inches in diameter and is used
where small level limitations imposed by ball floats must be exceeded. The range of level
measured will be limited only by the size of the vessel. The operation of the chain float is
similar to the ball float except in the method of positioning the pointer and in its connection
to the position indication. The float is connected to a rotating element by a chain with a weight
attached to the other end to provide a means of keeping the chain taut during changes in level.
Magnetic Bond
The magnetic bond method was developed to overcome the problems related to cages and
stuffing boxes. The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a magnetic float that rises and falls
with changes in level. The float travels outside a non-magnetic tube that houses an inner
magnet connected to a level indicator. When the float rises and falls, the outer magnet will
attract the inner magnet, causing the inner magnet to follow the level within the vessel.
Conductivity Probe
A conductivity probe consists of one or more level detectors, an operating relay, and a
controller. When the liquid makes contact with any of the electrodes, an electric current will
flow between the electrode and ground. The current energizes a relay that causes the relay
contacts to open or close depending on the state of the process involved. The relay in turn
will actuate an alarm, a pump, a control valve, or all three. A typical system has three probes:
a low-level probe, a high-level probe, and a high-level alarm probe.
Differential Pressure
The differential pressure (DP) detector method of liquid level measurement uses a DP
detector connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher pressure, caused by
the fluid in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure (usually atmospheric). This
comparison takes place in the DP detector.
Sonic Probes
Devices such as ultrasonic flow equipment use the Doppler frequency shift of ultrasonic
signals reflected from discontinuities in the fluid stream to obtain flow measurements. These
discontinuities can be suspended solids, bubbles, or interfaces generated by turbulent eddies
in the flow stream. The sensor is mounted on the outside of the pipe, and an ultrasonic beam
from a piezoelectric crystal is transmitted through the pipe wall into the fluid at an angle to
the flow stream. Signals reflected off flow disturbances are detected by a second piezoelectric
crystal located in the same sensor. Transmitted and reflected signals are compared in an electrical
circuit, and the corresponding frequency shift is proportional to the flow velocity.
Capacitance Probes
Capacitance probes consist of two flexible conductive plates and a dielectric. In this case, the
dielectric is the fluid. As pressure increases, the flexible conductive plates will move farther
apart, changing the capacitance of the transducer. This change in capacitance is measurable
and is proportional to the change in pressure.

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Bubblers
The following is taken from Transactions in Measurement and Control, volume , Flow and
Level Measurement.
Bubbler tubes provide a simple and inexpensive, but less accurate (12 percent), level
measurement system for corrosive or slurry-type applications. Bubblers use compressed air
or an inert gas (usually nitrogen) introduced through a dip pipe. Gas flow is regulated at a
constant rate (usually at about 500 cc/min). A DP regulator across a rotameter maintains
constant flow, while the tank level determines the back-pressure. As the level drops, the
back-pressure is proportionally reduced and is read on a pressure gauge calibrated in percent
level or on a manometer or transmitter. The dip pipe should have a relatively large diameter
(about 2 in.) so that the pressure drop is negligible. The bottom end of the dip pipe should be
located far enough above the tank bottom so that sediment or sludge will not plug it. Also, its
tip should be notched with a slot or V to ensure the formation of a uniform and continuous
flow of small bubbles. An alternative to locating the dip pipe in the tank is to place it in an
external chamber connected to the tank.
In pressurized tanks, two sets of dip pipes are needed to measure the level. The two back-
pressures on the two dip pipes can be connected to the two sides of a U-tube manometer, a
DP gauge, or a DP cell/transmitter. The pneumatic piping or tubing in a bubbler system
should be sloped toward the tank so that condensed process vapors will drain back into the
tank if purge pressure is lost. The purge gas supply should be clean, dry, and available at a
pressure at least 10 psi greater than the expected maximum total pressure required (when the
tank is full and the vapor pressure is at its maximum). An alternative to a continuous bubbler
is to use a hand pump (similar to a bicycle tire pump) to provide purge air only when the
level is being read.
Bubblers do consume inert gases, which can later accumulate and blanket processing
equipment. They also require maintenance to ensure that the purge supply is always available
and that the system is properly adjusted and calibrated. When all factors are considered,
DPcells typically are preferred to bubblers in the majority of applications.
Radar Level Sensors
The following is taken from Sensors Magazine, Level Sensing in Harsh Environments with
Guided-Wave Radar.
Radar works by measuring the time of flight of a transmitted signal. Known more accurately
as time domain reflectometry, the process entails sending microwave pulses down through
the material of interest and all the way to the bottom of the vessel. When a pulse reaches the
product, the beam undergoes a change in impedance caused by the products dielectric. Part
of the pulse is reflected back to the receiver, which then measures the exact duration of time
between the departing and the returning signal, analyzes it, and displays the product level as
a distance in feet, meters, or other units.

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b. Explain the process of density compensation in level detection systems.
Before examining an example that shows the effects of density, the unit specific volume
must be defined. Specific volume is defined as volume per unit of mass. Specific volume is
the standard unit used when working with vapors and steam that have low values of density.
For the applications that involve water and steam, specific volume can be found using
saturated-steam tables, which list the specific volumes for water and saturated steam at
different pressures and temperatures.
The density of steam (or vapor) above the liquid level will have an effect on the weight of the
steam or vapor bubble and the hydrostatic head pressure. As the density of the steam or vapor
increases, the weight increases and causes an increase in hydrostatic head even though the
actual level of the tank has not changed. The larger the steam bubble, the greater the change
in hydrostatic head pressure.
A condensing pot at the top of the reference leg is incorporated to condense the steam and to
keep the reference leg filled. The effect of the steam vapor pressure is cancelled at the DP
transmitter due to the fact that this pressure is equally applied to both the low- and high-
pressure sides of the transmitter.
Density compensation may also be accomplished through electronic circuitry. Some systems
compensate for density changes automatically through the design of the level detection
circuitry. Other applications compensate for density by manually adjusting inputs to the
circuit as the pressurizer cools down and depressurizes, or during heatup and pressurization.
Calibration charts are also available to correct indications for changes in reference leg
temperature.
c. Given a basic diagram of a differential pressure detector level instrument, discuss
the functions of the following:
Differential pressure (D/p) transmitter
Amplifier
Indication
Remote indication is necessary to provide transmittal of vital level information to a central
location, such as the control room, where all level information can be coordinated and
evaluated.
There are three major reasons for using remote level indication:
1. Level measurements may be taken at locations far from the main facility
2. The level to be controlled may be a long distance from the point of control
3. The level being measured may be in an unsafe/radioactive area.

85

Figure 28 illustrates a block diagram of a typical differential pressure detector. It consists of a
differential pressure (DP) transmitter (transducer), an amplifier, and level indication. The DP
transmitter consists of a diaphragm with the high-pressure and low-pressure inputs on
opposite sides. As the differential pressure changes, the diaphragm will move.
The transducer changes this mechanical motion into an electrical signal. The electrical signal
generated by the transducer is then amplified and passed on to the level indicator for level
indication at a remote location. Using relays, this system provides alarms on high and low
level. It may also provide control functions such as repositioning a valve and protective
features such as tripping a pump.

Figure 28. Block diagram of a differential pressure level detection circuit
d. Describe the operation and applications of the following types of differential
pressure detector level instruments:
Open tank differential pressure transmitter
Closed tank, dry reference leg
Closed tank, wet reference leg
The following descriptions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92.
Open Tank Differential Pressure Transmitter
When a tank is open to the atmosphere, it is necessary to use the high-pressure connection on
the DP transmitter. The low-pressure side is vented to the atmosphere; therefore, the pressure
differential is the hydrostatic head, or weight, of the liquid in the tank.
The maximum level that can be measured by the DP transmitter is determined by the
maximum height of liquid above the transmitter. The minimum level that can be measured is
determined by the point where the transmitter is connected to the tank.

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Closed Tank, Dry Reference Leg
Many tanks are totally enclosed to prevent vapors or steam from escaping, or to allow
pressurizing the contents of the tank. When measuring the level in a tank that is pressurized,
or the level that can become pressurized by vapor pressure from the liquid, both the high-
pressure and low-pressure sides of the DP transmitter must be connected.
The high-pressure connection is connected to the tank at or below the lower range value to be
measured. The low-pressure side is connected to a reference leg that is connected at or above
the upper range value to be measured. The reference leg is pressurized by the gas or vapor
pressure, but no liquid is permitted to remain in the reference leg. The reference leg must be
maintained dry so that there is no liquid head pressure on the low-pressure side of the transmitter.
The high-pressure side is exposed to the hydrostatic head of the liquid plus the gas or vapor
pressure exerted on the liquids surface. The gas or vapor pressure is equally applied to the
low- and high-pressure sides. Therefore, the output of the DP transmitter is directly
proportional to the hydrostatic head pressure, that is, the level in the tank.
Closed Tank, Wet Reference Leg
Where the tank contains a condensable fluid, such as steam, a slightly different arrangement
is used. In applications with condensable fluids, condensation is greatly increased in the
reference leg. To compensate for this effect, the reference leg is filled with the same fluid as
the tank. The liquid in the reference leg applies a hydrostatic head to the high-pressure side
of the transmitter, and the value of this level is constant as long as the reference leg is
maintained full. If this pressure remains constant, any change in DP is due to a change on the
low-pressure side of the transmitter.
The filled reference leg applies a hydrostatic pressure to the high-pressure side of the
transmitter, which is equal to the maximum level to be measured. The DP transmitter is
exposed to equal pressure on the high- and low-pressure sides when the liquid level is at its
maximum; therefore, the DP is zero. As the tank level goes down, the pressure applied to the
low-pressure side goes down also, and the DP increases. As a result, the DP and the
transmitter output are inversely proportional to the tank level.
level detection instrumentation.
Density of the fluid whose level is to be measured can have a large effect on level detection
instrumentation. It primarily affects level-sensing instruments that utilize a wet reference leg.
In these instruments, it is possible for the reference leg temperature to be different from the
temperature of the fluid whose level is to be measured. An example of this is the level
detection instrumentation for a boiler steam drum. The water in the reference leg is at a lower
temperature than the water in the steam drum. Therefore, it is denser, and must be
compensated for to ensure the indicated steam drum level is accurately indicated.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of level-detection

87

components in the instrumentation circuitry, and, therefore, affect the calibration of
of the circuitry and by maintaining the level-detection instrumentation in the proper
environment.
effects due to humidity are controlled by maintaining the equipment in the proper
environment.
f. Discuss the failure modes of the various types of level indication instruments.
When the level to be measured is in a pressurized tank at elevated temperatures, a number of
consequences must be considered. As the temperature of the fluid in the tank is increased, the
density of the fluid decreases. As the fluids density decreases, the fluid expands, occupying
more volume. Even though the density is less, the mass of the fluid in the tank is the same.
The problem encountered is that, as the fluid in the tank is heated and cooled, the density of
the fluid changes, but the reference leg density remains relatively constant, which causes the
indicated level to remain constant. The density of the fluid in the reference leg is dependent
on the ambient temperature of the room in which the tank is located; therefore, it is relatively
constant and independent of tank temperature. If the fluid in the tank changes temperature,
and therefore density, some means of density compensation must be incorporated to have an
accurate indication of tank level. This is the problem encountered when measuring pressurizer
water level or steam generator water level in pressurized water reactors, and when measuring
reactor vessel water level in boiling water reactors.
of flow detection circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems.
a. Describe the basic construction and theory of operation of the following types of
head flow detectors:
Orifice plates
Venturi tube
Dall flow tube
Pitot tube
Rotameter
Nutating disk
Electromagnetic flow meter
Ultrasonic flow detector
The following definitions and descriptions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92.

88

Orifice Plates
Orifice plates are flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 inch thick. They are normally mounted between a
pair of flanges and are installed in a straight run of smooth pipe to avoid disturbance of flow
patterns from fittings and valves.
Three kinds of orifice plates are used: concentric, eccentric, and segmental. The concentric
orifice plate is the most common of the three types. The orifice is equidistant (concentric) to
the inside diameter of the pipe. Flow through a sharp-edged orifice plate is characterized by a
change in velocity. As the fluid passes through the orifice, the fluid converges, and the
velocity of the fluid increases to a maximum value. At this point, the pressure is at a
minimum value. As the fluid diverges to fill the entire pipe area, the velocity decreases back
to the original value. The pressure increases to about 6080 percent of the original input
value. The pressure loss is irrecoverable; therefore, the output pressure will always be less
than the input pressure. The pressures on both sides of the orifice are measured, resulting in a
DP that is proportional to the flow rate.
Segmental and eccentric orifice plates are functionally identical to the concentric orifice. The
circular section of the segmental orifice is concentric with the pipe. The segmental portion of
the orifice eliminates damming of foreign materials on the upstream side of the orifice when
mounted in a horizontal pipe. Depending on the type of fluid, the segmental section is placed
on either the top or bottom of the horizontal pipe to increase the accuracy of the
measurement.
Eccentric orifice plates shift the edge of the orifice to the inside of the pipe wall. This design
also prevents upstream damming and is used in the same way as the segmental orifice plate.
Venturi Tube
The venturi tube is the most accurate flow-sensing element when properly calibrated. The
venturi tube has a converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery
cone. It has no projections into the fluid, no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in contour.
The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream, causing the velocity to increase and
the pressure to decrease. The low pressure is measured in the center of the cylindrical throat
since the pressure will be at its lowest value, and neither the pressure nor the velocity is
changing. The recovery cone allows for the recovery of pressure such that total pressure loss
is only 1025 percent. The high pressure is measured upstream of the entrance cone.
Dall Flow Tube
The dall flow tube has a higher ratio of pressure developed to pressure lost than the venturi
tube. It is more compact and is commonly used in large flow applications. The tube consists
of a short, straight inlet section followed by an abrupt decrease in the inside diameter of the
tube. This section, called the inlet shoulder, is followed by the converging inlet cone and a
diverging exit cone. The two cones are separated by a slot or gap between the two cones. The
low pressure is measured at the slotted throat (area between the two cones). The high
pressure is measured at the upstream edge of the inlet shoulder.

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Pitot Tube
The pitot tube is another primary flow element used to produce a DP for flow detection. In its
simplest form, it consists of a tube with an opening at the end. The small hole in the end is
positioned such that it faces the flowing fluid. The velocity of the fluid at the opening of the
tube decreases to zero. This provides for the high-pressure input to a DP detector. A pressure
tap provides the low-pressure input.
The pitot tube actually measures fluid velocity instead of fluid flow rate. Pitot tubes must be
calibrated for each specific application, as there is no standardization. This type of instrument
can be used even when the fluid is not enclosed in a pipe or duct.
Rotameter
The rotameter is an area flow meter so named because a rotating float is the indicating
element. The rotameter consists of a metal float and a conical glass tube, constructed such
that the diameter increases with height. When there is no fluid passing through the rotameter,
the float rests at the bottom of the tube. As fluid enters the tube, the higher density of the
float will cause the float to remain on the bottom. The space between the float and the tube
allows for flow past the float. As flow increases in the tube, the pressure drop increases.
When the pressure drop is sufficient, the float will rise to indicate the amount of flow. The
higher the flow rate, the greater the pressure drop. The higher the pressure drop, the farther
up the tube the float rises.
The float should stay at a constant position at a constant flow rate. With a smooth float,
fluctuations appear even when flow is constant. By using a float with slanted slots cut in the
head, the float maintains a constant position with respect to flow rate. This type of flow meter
is usually used to measure low flow rates.
Nutating Disk
The most common type of displacement flow meter is the nutating disk, or wobble plate
meter. This type of flow meter is normally used for water service, such as raw water supply
and evaporator feed. The movable element is a circular disk that is attached to a central ball.
A shaft is fastened to the ball and held in an inclined position by a cam or roller. The disk is
mounted in a chamber that has spherical side walls and conical top and bottom surfaces. The
fluid enters an opening in the spherical wall on one side of the partition and leaves through
the other side. As the fluid flows through the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a
nutating motion. Since the volume of fluid required to make the disc complete one revolution
is known, the total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the number
of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.
Electromagnetic Flow Meter
The electromagnetic flowmeter is similar in principle to the generator. The rotor of the
generator is replaced by a pipe placed between the poles of a magnet so that the flow of the
fluid in the pipe is normal to the magnetic field. As the fluid flows through this magnetic
field, an EMF is induced in it that will be mutually normal (perpendicular) to the magnetic
field and the motion of the fluid. This EMF may be measured with the aid of electrodes
attached to the pipe and connected to a galvanometer or an equivalent. For a given magnetic

90

field, the induced voltage will be proportional to the average velocity of the fluid. However,
the fluid should have some degree of electrical conductivity.
Ultrasonic Flow Detector
Devices such as ultrasonic flow equipment use the Doppler frequency shift of ultrasonic
signals reflected from discontinuities in the fluid stream to obtain flow measurements. These
discontinuities can be suspended solids, bubbles, or interfaces generated by turbulent eddies
in the flow stream. The sensor is mounted on the outside of the pipe, and an ultrasonic beam
from a piezoelectric crystal is transmitted through the pipe wall into the fluid at an angle to
the flow stream. Signals reflected off flow disturbances are detected by a second piezoelectric
crystal located in the same sensor. Transmitted and reflected signals are compared in an electrical
circuit, and the corresponding frequency shift is proportional to the flow velocity.
b. Describe density compensation of a steam flow instrument. Include a discussion
of the reason for density compensation and the parameters used.
Steam flow detection is normally accomplished through the use of a steam flow nozzle. The
flow nozzle is commonly used for the measurement of steam flow and other high-velocity
fluid flow measurements where erosion may occur. It is capable of measuring approximately
60 percent higher flow rates than an orifice plate with the same diameter. This is due to the
streamlined contour of the throat, which is a distinct advantage for the measurement of high-
velocity fluids. The flow nozzle requires less straight run piping than an orifice plate. However, the
pressure drop is about the same for both. A typical flow nozzle is shown in figure 29.
Figure 29. Flow nozzle
c. Given a basic diagram of a typical flow detection device, discuss the functions of
the following:
Differential pressure (D/P) transmitter
Extractor
Indication

91

This is a performance-based KSA. The Qualifying Official will evaluate its completion.. The
Figure 30 shows a block diagram of a typical differential pressure flow detection circuit. The
DP transmitter operation is dependent on the pressure difference across an orifice, venturi, or
flow tube. This differential pressure is used to position a mechanical device such as a
bellows. The bellows acts against spring pressure to reposition the core of a differential
transformer. The transformers output voltage on each of two secondary windings varies with
a change in flow.

Figure 30. Differential pressure flow detection block diagram
d. Describe the environmental concerns that can affect the accuracy and reliability of
flow sensing instrumentation.
The density of the fluid whose flow is to be measured can have a large effect on flow-sensing
instrumentation. The effect of density is most important when the flow-sensing
instrumentation is measuring gas flows, such as steam. Since the density of a gas is directly
affected by temperature and pressure, any changes in either of these parameters will have a
direct effect on the measured flow. Therefore, any changes in fluid temperature or pressure
must be compensated for to achieve an accurate measurement of flow.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of flow-sensing
components in the instrumentation circuitry and, therefore, affect the calibration of
of the circuitry and by maintaining the flow-sensing instrumentation in the proper
environment.

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cause short circuits, grounds, and corrosion, which in turn may damage components. The effects
due to humidity are controlled by maintaining the equipment in the proper environment.

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e. Discuss the failure modes of the various types of flow indication instruments.
The DP transmitter operation is dependent on the pressure difference across an orifice,
venturi, or flow tube. This DP is used to position a mechanical device such as a bellows. The
bellows acts against spring pressure to reposition the core of a differential transformer. The
transformers output voltage on each of two secondary windings varies with a change in
flow.
A loss of DP integrity of the secondary element, the DP transmitter, will introduce an error
into the indicated flow. This loss of integrity implies an impaired or degraded pressure
boundary between the high-pressure and low-pressure sides of the transmitter. A loss of DP
boundary is caused by anything that results in the high- and low-pressure sides of the DP
transmitter being allowed to equalize pressure.
of position indication circuitry and components used in instrumentation and control
systems.
a. Describe the basic construction and theory of operation of synchro position
indicators.
Remote indication or control may be obtained by the use of self-synchronizing motors, called
synchro equipment. Synchro equipment consists of synchro units that electrically govern or
follow the position of a mechanical indicator or device. An electrical synchro has two distinct
advantages over mechanical indicators: (1) greater accuracy, and (2) simpler routing of
remote indication.
There are five basic types of synchros that are designated according to their function. The
basic types are: transmitters, differential transmitters, receivers, differential receivers, and
control transformers. If the power required to operate a device is higher than the power
available from a synchro, power amplification is required. Servomechanism is a term that
refers to a variety of power amplifiers. These devices are incorporated into synchro systems
for automatic control rod positioning in some reactor facilities.
The transmitter, or synchro generator, consists of a rotor with a single winding and a stator
with three windings placed 120 degrees apart. When the mechanical device moves, the
mechanically attached rotor moves. The rotor induces a voltage in each of the stator windings
based on the rotors angular position. Since the rotor is attached to the mechanical device, the
induced voltage represents the position of the attached mechanical device. The voltage
produced by each of the windings is utilized to control the receiving synchro position.

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b. Describe the basic construction and theory of operation of the following variable
output position indicators:
Potentiometers
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
Potentiometers
Potentiometer valve position indicators (figure 31) provide an accurate indication of position
throughout the travel of a valve or control rod. The extension is physically attached to a
variable resistor. As the extension moves up or down, the resistance of the attached circuit
changes, changing the amount of current flow in the circuit. The amount of current is
proportional to the valve position.

Figure 31. Potentiometer valve position indicator
Linear Variable Differential Transformers LVDT
An LVDT is a device that provides accurate position indication throughout the range of valve
or control rod travel. Unlike the potentiometer position indicator, no physical connection to
the extension is required.
The extension valve shaft, or control rod, is made of a metal suitable for acting as the
movable core of a transformer. Moving the extension between the primary and secondary
windings of a transformer causes the inductance between the two windings to vary, thereby
varying the output voltage proportional to the position of the valve or control rod extension.

95

If the open and shut positions are all that are desired, two small secondary coils could be used
at each end of the extensions travel.
c. Describe the basic construction and theory of operation of the following switch
position indicators:
Limit switches
Reed switches
Limit Switches
A limit switch is a mechanical device that can be used to determine the physical position of
equipment. For example, an extension on a valve shaft mechanically trips a limit switch as it
moves from open to shut or shut to open. The limit switch gives on/off output that corresponds to
valve position. Normally, limit switches are used to provide full open or full shut indications.
Reed Switches
Reed switches are more reliable than limit switches, due to their simplified construction. The
switches are constructed of flexible ferrous strips (reeds) and are placed near the intended
travel of the valve stem or control rod extension.
When using reed switches, the extension used is a permanent magnet. As the magnet
approaches the reed switch, the switch shuts. When the magnet moves away, the reed switch
opens. This on/off indicator is similar to mechanical limit switches. By using a large number
of magnetic reed switches, incremental position can be measured. This technique is
sometimes used in monitoring a reactors control rod position.
d. Given a basic diagram of a position indicator, discuss the functions of the
following:
Detection device
Indicator and control circuit
Position detection devices provide a method to determine the position of a valve or control
rod. The four types of position indicators are limit switches, reed switches, potentiometer
valve position indicators, and LVDTs. Reed and limit switches act as on/off indicators to
provide open and closed indications and control functions.
Reed switches can also be used to provide coarse, incremental position indication.
Potentiometer and LVDT position indicators provide accurate indication of valve and rod
position throughout their travel. In some applications, LVDTs can be used to indicate open
and closed positions when small secondary windings are used at either end of the valve stem
stroke.
The indicating and control circuitry provides for remote indication of valve or rod position
and/or various control functions. Position indications vary from simple indications, such as a
light to meter indications showing exact position.

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Control functions are usually in the form of interlocks. Pump isolation valves are sometimes
interlocked with the pump. In some applications, these interlocks act to prevent the pump
from being started with the valves shut. The pump/valve interlocks can also be used to
automatically turn off the pump if one of its isolation valves shut or to open a discharge valve
at some time interval after the pump starts.
Valves are sometimes interlocked with each other. In some systems, two valves may be
interlocked to prevent both of the valves from being opened at the same time. This feature is
used to prevent undesirable system flowpaths.
Control rod interlocks are normally used to prevent outward motion of certain rods unless
certain conditions are met. One such interlock does not allow outward motion of control rods
until the rods used to scram the reactor have been withdrawn to a predetermined height. This
and all other rod interlocks ensure that the safety of the reactor remains intact.
position indication instrumentation.
Ambient temperature variations can affect the accuracy and reliability of certain types of
position indication instrumentation. Variations in ambient temperature can directly affect the
resistance of components in the instrumentation circuitry and therefore, affect the calibration
of electric/electronic equipment. The effects of temperature variations are reduced by the
design of the circuitry and by maintaining the position indication instrumentation in the
proper environment, where possible.
environment, where possible.
f. Discuss the failure modes of the various types of position indication instruments.
Potentiometer valve position indicator failures are normally electrical in nature. An electrical
short or open will cause the indication to fail at one extreme or the other. If an increase or
decrease in the potentiometer resistance occurs, erratic indicated valve position occurs.
LVDTs are extremely reliable. As a rule, failures are limited to rare electrical faults that
cause erratic or erroneous indications. An open primary winding will cause the indication to
fail to some predetermined value equal to zero differential voltage. This normally
corresponds to mid-stroke of the valve. A failure of either secondary winding will cause the
output to indicate either full open or full closed.
Failures are normally limited to a reed switch which is stuck open or stuck shut. If a reed
switch is stuck shut, the open (closed) indication will be continuously illuminated. If a reed

97

switch is stuck open, the position indication for that switch remains extinguished regardless
of valve position.
g. Discuss the functions and operation of position indication switches in motor
operated valves.
The indicating and control circuitry provides for remote indication of valve or rod position
and/or various control functions. Position indications vary from simple indications, such as a
light, to meter indications showing exact position.
Control functions are usually in the form of interlocks. Pump isolation valves are sometimes
interlocked with the pump. In some applications, these interlocks act to prevent the pump
from being started with the valves shut. The pump/valve interlocks can also be used to
automatically turn off the pump if one of its isolation valves shut or to open a discharge valve
at some time interval after the pump starts.
Valves are sometimes interlocked with each other. In some systems, two valves may be
interlocked to prevent both of the valves from being opened at the same time. This feature is
used to prevent undesirable system flow paths.
h. Describe the methods used to test and adjust the position indication switches in
motor operated valves.
Refer to the local maintenance manuals for methods used to test and adjust the position
indication switches in motor-operated valves.
of radiation detection equipment.
a. Describe the operation of a proportional counter. Include the following elements
in this discussion:
Radiation detection
Quenching
Voltage variations
Radiation Detection
A proportional counter is a detector that operates in the proportional region. Figure 32
illustrates a simplified proportional counter circuit.

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Figure 32. Proportional counter
To be able to detect a single particle, the number of ions produced must be increased. As
voltage is increased into the proportional region, the primary ions acquire enough energy to
cause secondary ionizations (gas amplification) and increase the charge collected. These
secondary ionizations may cause further ionization.
In this region, there is a linear relationship between the number of ion pairs collected and
applied voltage. A charge amplification of 10
4
can be obtained in the proportional region. By
proper functional arrangements, modifications, and biasing, the proportional counter can be
used to detect alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron radiation in mixed radiation fields.
To a limited degree, the fill-gas will determine what type of radiation the proportional
counter will be able to detect. Argon and helium are the most frequently used fill gases and
allow for the detection of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. When detection of neutrons is
necessary, the detectors are usually filled with boron-triflouride gas.
The simplified circuit, illustrated in figure 32, shows that the detector wall acts as one
electrode, while the other electrode is a fine wire in the center of the chamber with a positive
voltage applied.
Voltage Variations
When a single gamma ray interacts with the gas in the chamber, it produces a rapidly moving
electron that produces secondary electrons. About 10,000 electrons may be formed
depending on the gas used in the chamber. The applied voltage can be increased until the
amount of recombination is very low. However, further increases do not appreciably increase
the number of electrons collected. This region in which all 10,000 electrons are collected is
the ionization region.
As applied voltage is increased above 1000 V, the number of electrons becomes greater than
the initial 10,000. The additional electrons that are collected are due to gas amplification. As
voltage is increased, the velocity of the 10,000 electrons produced increases. However,

99

beyond a certain voltage, the 10,000 electrons are accelerated to such speeds that they have
enough energy to cause more ionization. This phenomenon is called gas amplification.
As an example, if the 10,000 electrons produced by the gamma ray are increased to 40,000
by gas amplification, the amplification factor would be 4. Gas amplification factors can range
from unity in the ionization region to 10
3
or 10
4
in the proportional region. The high
amplification factor of the proportional counter is the major advantage over the ionization
chamber. The internal amplification of the proportional counter is such that low energy
particles (< 10 KeV) can be registered, whereas the ion chamber is limited by amplifier noise
to particles of > 10 KeV energy.
Proportional counters are extremely sensitive, and the voltages are large enough so that all of
the electrons are collected within a few tenths of a microsecond. Each pulse corresponds to
one gamma ray or neutron interaction. The amount of charge in each pulse is proportional to
the number of original electrons produced. The proportionality factor in this case is the gas
amplification factor. The number of electrons produced is proportional to the energy of the
incident particle.
For each electron collected in the chamber, there is a positively charged gas ion left over.
These gas ions are heavy compared to an electron and move much more slowly. Eventually
the positive ions move away from the positively charged central wire to the negatively
charged wall and are neutralized by gaining an electron. In the process, some energy is given
off, which causes additional ionization of the gas atoms. The electrons produced by this
ionization move toward the central wire and are multiplied en route. This pulse of charge is
unrelated to the radiation to be detected and can set off a series of pulses. These pulses must
be eliminated or quenched.
Quenching
One method for quenching these discharges is to add a small amount (~ 10%) of an organic
gas, such as methane, in the chamber. The quenching gas molecules have a weaker affinity
for electrons than the chamber gas does; therefore, the ionized atoms of the chamber gas
readily take electrons from the quenching gas molecules. Thus, the ionized molecules of
quenching gas reach the chamber wall instead of the chamber gas. The ionized molecules of
the quenching gas are neutralized by gaining an electron, and the energy liberated does not
cause further ionization, but causes dissociation of the molecule. This dissociation quenches
multiple discharges. The quenching gas molecules are eventually consumed, thus limiting the
lifetime of the proportional counter. There are, however, some proportional counters that
have an indefinite lifetime because the quenching gas is constantly replenished. These
counters are referred to as gas flow counters.
b. Describe the operation of an ionization chamber. Include the following elements in
this discussion:
Radiation detection
Quenching
Gamma sensitivity reduction

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Radiation Detection
Ionization chambers are electrical devices that detect radiation when the voltage is adjusted
so that the conditions correspond to the ionization region. The charge obtained is the result of
collecting the ions produced by radiation. This charge will depend on the type of radiation
being detected. Ionization chambers have two distinct disadvantages when compared to
proportional counters: they are less sensitive, and they have a slower response time.
There are two types of ionization chambers: the pulse-counting ionization chamber and the
integrating ionization chamber. In the pulse-counting ionization chamber, the pulses are
detected due to particles traversing the chamber. In the integrating chamber, the pulses add,
and the integrated total of the ionizations produced in a predetermined period of time is
measured. The same type of ionization chamber may be used for either function. However, as
a general rule, the integrating type ionization chamber is used.
Flat plates or concentric cylinders may be used in the construction of an ionization chamber.
The flat plate design is preferred because it has a well-defined active volume and ensures that ions
will not collect on the insulators and cause a distortion of the electric field. The concentric cylinder
design does not have a well-defined active volume because of the variation in the electric field as
the insulator is approached. Ionization chamber construction differs from the proportional
counter (flat plates or concentric cylinders vice a cylinder and central electrode) to allow for
the integration of pulses produced by the incident radiation. The proportional counter would
require such exact control of the electric field between the electrodes that it would not be practical.
Quenching
Refer to element a of this competency for a discussion of quenching.
Gamma Sensitivity Reduction
When using an ionization chamber for detecting neutrons, beta particles can be prevented
from entering the chamber by walls thick enough to shield out all of the beta particles.
Gamma rays cannot be shielded from the detector; therefore, they always contribute to the
total current read by the ammeter. This effect is not desired because the detector responds not
only to neutrons, but also to gamma rays. Several ways are available to minimize this
problem.
Discrimination is possible because the ionizations produced by the alpha particles differ in
energy levels from those produced by gamma rays. A 1 MeV alpha particle moving through
the gas loses all of its energy in a few centimeters. Therefore, all of the secondary electrons
are produced along a path of only a few centimeters. A 1 MeV gamma ray produces a 1 MeV
electron, and this electron has a long range and loses its energy over the entire length of its
range. If we make the sensitive volume of the chamber smaller without reducing the area of
the coated boron, the sensitivity to gamma rays is reduced.
c. Given a basic diagram of a proportional counter circuit, discuss the functions of
the following:
Proportional counter
Preamplifier/amplifier
Single channel analyzer/discriminator
Scaler

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Timer
Proportional counters measure the charge produced by each particle of radiation. To make
full use of the counters capabilities, it is necessary to measure the number of pulses and the
charge in each pulse. Figure 33 shows a typical circuit used to make such measurements.

Figure 33. Proportional counter circuit
The capacitor converts the charge pulse to a voltage pulse. The voltage is equal to the amount
of charge divided by the capacitance of the capacitor, as given in the following equation:
V =
C
Q

where
V = voltage pulse (volts)
Q = charge (coulombs)
C = capacitance (farads)
The preamplifier amplifies the voltage pulse. Further amplification is obtained by sending the
signal through an amplifier circuit (typically about 10 volts maximum). The pulse size is then
determined by a single channel analyzer. Figure 34 shows the operation of a single channel
analyzer.

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Figure 34. Single channel analyzer operation
The single channel analyzer has two dial settings: a level dial and a window dial. For
example, when the level is set at 2 volts, and the window at 0.2 volts, the analyzer will give
an output pulse only when the input pulse is between 2 and 2.2 volts. The output pulse is
usually a standardized height and width logic pulse, as shown in figure 35.

Figure 35. Single channel analyzer output
Since the single channel analyzer can be set so that an output is only produced by a certain
pulse size, it provides for the counting of one specific radiation in a mixed radiation field.
This output is fed to a scaler that counts the number of pulses it receives. A timer gates the
scaler so that the scaler counts the pulses for a predetermined length of time. Knowing the

103

number of counts per a given time interval allows calculation of the count rate (number of
counts per unit time).
Proportional counters can also count neutrons by introducing boron into the chamber. The
most common means of introducing boron is by combining it with trifluoride gas to form
boron trifluoride (BF
3
). When a neutron interacts with a boron atom, an alpha particle is
emitted.The BF
3
counter can be made sensitive to neutrons and not to gamma rays.
Gamma rays can be eliminated because the neutron-induced alpha particles produce more
ionizations than gamma rays produce. This is due mainly to the fact that gamma ray-induced
electrons have a much longer range than the dimensions of the chamber; the alpha particle
energy is, in most cases, greater than gamma rays produced in a reactor. Therefore, neutron
pulses are much larger than gamma ray-produced pulses.
By using a discriminator, the scaler can be set to read only the larger pulses produced by the
neutron. A discriminator is basically a single channel analyzer with only one setting. Figure
36 illustrates the operation of a discriminator.

Figure 36. Discriminator
If the discriminator is set at 2 volts, then any input pulse > 2 volts causes an output pulse.
Figure 37 shows a typical circuit used to measure neutrons with a BF
3
proportional counter.

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Figure 37. BF
3
proportional counter circuit
The BF
3
proportional counter is used to monitor low power levels in a nuclear reactor. It is
used in the startup or source range channels. Proportional counters cannot be used at high
power levels because they are pulse-type detectors. Typically, it takes 10 to 20 microseconds
for each pulse to go from 10 percent of its peak, to its peak, and back to 10 percent. If
another neutron interacts in the chamber during this time, the two pulses are superimposed.
The voltage output would never drop to zero between the two pulses, and the chamber would
draw a steady current as electrons are being produced.
d. Describe how a compensated ion chamber compensates for gamma radiation.
Compensating for the response to gamma rays extends the useful range of the ionization
chamber. Compensated ionization chambers consist of two separate chambers: one chamber
is coated with boron, and one chamber is not. The coated chamber is sensitive to both gamma
rays and neutrons, while the uncoated chamber is sensitive only to gamma rays. Instead of
having two separate ammeters and subtracting the currents, the subtraction of these currents
is done electrically, and the net output of both detectors is read on a single ammeter. If the
polarities are arranged so that the two chambers currents oppose one another, the reading
obtained from the ammeter indicates the difference between the two currents. One plate of
the compensated ion chamber is common to both chambers; one side is coated with boron,
while the other side is not.
The boron coated chamber is referred to as the working chamber; the uncoated chamber is
called the compensating chamber. When exposed to a gamma source, the battery for the
working chamber will set up a current flow that deflects the meter in one direction. The
compensating chamber battery will set up a current flow that deflects the meter in the
opposite direction. If both chambers are identical, and both batteries are of the same voltage,

105

the net current flow is exactly zero. Therefore, the compensating chamber cancels the current
due to gamma rays.
The two chambers of a compensated ion chamber are never truly identical; in fact, they are
often purposely constructed in different shapes. The chambers are normally constructed as
concentric cylinders.
The use of concentric cylinders has an advantage because both chambers are exposed to
nearly the same radiation field. Even though the chambers are not identical, proper selection
of the operating voltage eliminates the gamma current. Working chamber operating voltage
is given by the manufacturer and is selected to cause operation on the flat portion of the
response curve, where very little recombination occurs. If working chamber voltage is
increased to operating voltage, and compensating voltage is left at zero, the measured current
will be due to gammas only in the working chamber. For this reason, compensating voltage is
set while the reactor is shutdown (a minimum number of neutrons are present).
As the compensating chamber voltage is raised, the measured current will decrease as more
of the current from the working chamber is canceled by the current from the compensating
chamber. Eventually, the voltage becomes large enough so that the two currents cancel. When
the currents cancel, the chamber is said to be 100 percent compensated, and the measured
current is zero. At 100 percent compensation, the detector will respond to neutrons alone.
The compensating chamber usually has a slightly larger sensitive volume than the working
chamber. Increasing the compensating current to a value greater than the working chamber
current results in a net negative current. In this condition, the chamber is considered to be
over-compensated. The compensating chamber cancels too much current from the working
chamber, and the meter reads low. In this case, the compensating chamber cancels out all of
the gamma current and some of the neutron current.
Percent compensation of a compensated ion chamber gives the percentage of the gamma rays
that are canceled out. Percent compensation may be calculated based on measured current
when the detector is exposed to gamma rays.
e. Describe the operation of an electroscope ionization chamber.
The gold-leaf electroscope has been widely used in the past to study ionizing radiation. The
first measurement of the properties of ionizing radiation was accomplished with this instrument.
A microscope containing a graduated scale in the eyepiece is used to observe the gold leaf.
The newest electroscope uses a quartz fiber and has many advantages over the gold-leaf type.
It is portable, less dependent on position, much smaller in size, and more sensitive. The
capacity of the quartz fiber electroscope is about 0.2 pico-farads, and its voltage sensitivity is
about one volt per division on the scale. The sensitive element is a fine gold-plated quartz
fiber mounted on a parallel metal support.
A small piece of quartz fiber is mounted across the end of the gold-plated quartz fiber and
serves as an index that is viewed through a microscope equipped with an eyepiece scale. The

106

quartz fiber is charged by a battery pressing the charging key. As the quartz fiber is being
charged, it is deflected from the support. It takes approximately 200 volts to produce full-
scale deflection of the fiber. A glass window at the end of the ionization chamber allows for
exposure of the fiber. As the gas (air) is ionized by the incident radiation, the fiber moves
toward the position of zero charge.
Due to the electroscopes dependability, simplicity, accuracy, and sensitivity, it is widely
used in gamma radiation measurement. A self-reading pocket dosimeter is an example of an
electroscope ionization chamber. Pocket dosimeters provide personnel with a means of
monitoring their radiation exposure. The dosimeters are available in many ranges of gamma
exposures from 0 through 200 milliroentgens to 0 through 1000 roentgens. The sensitivity of
the instrument is determined at the time of manufacture. Appropriate scale markings are
provided with each dose range.
f. Describe the operation of a Geiger-Mller (G-M) detector. Include the following
elements in this discussion:
Radiation detection
Quenching
Positive ion sheath
Radiation Detection
The Geiger-Mller or G-M detector is a radiation detector that operates in region V, or G-M
region, as shown in figure 38. G-M detectors produce larger pulses than other types of
detectors. However, discrimination is not possible, since the pulse height is independent of
the type of radiation. Counting systems that use G-M detectors are not as complex as those
using ion chambers or proportional counters.

Figure 38. Gas ionization curve

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The number of electrons collected by a gas-filled detector varies as applied voltage is
increased. Once the voltage is increased beyond the proportional region, another flat portion
of the curve is reached; this is known as the G-M region. The G-M region has two important
characteristics:
1. The number of electrons produced is independent of applied voltage.
2. The number of electrons produced is independent of the number of electrons
produced by the initial radiation.
This means that the radiation producing one electron will have the same size pulse as
radiation producing hundreds or thousands of electrons. The reason for this characteristic is
related to the way in which electrons are collected.
When a gamma produces an electron, the electron moves rapidly toward the positively
charged central wire. As the electron nears the wire, its velocity increases. At some point its
velocity is great enough to cause additional ionizations. As the electrons approach the central
wire, the additional ionizations produce a larger number of electrons in the vicinity of the
central wire.
Positive Ion Sheath and Quenching
For each electron produced, there is a positive ion produced. As the applied voltage is
increased, the number of positive ions near the central wire increases, and a positively
charged cloud (called a positive ion sheath) forms around the central wire. The positive ion
sheath reduces the field strength of the central wire and prevents further electrons from
reaching the wire. It might appear that a positive ion sheath would increase the effect of the
positive central wire, but this is not true; the positive potential is applied to the very thin
central wire that makes the strength of the electric field very high. The positive ion sheath
makes the central wire appear much thicker and reduces the field strength. This phenomenon
is called the detectors space charge. The positive ions will migrate toward the negative
chamber picking up electrons. As in a proportional counter, this transfer of electrons can
release energy, causing ionization and the liberation of an electron. To prevent this secondary
pulse, a quenching gas is used, usually an organic compound.
The G-M counter produces many more electrons than does a proportional counter; therefore,
it is a much more sensitive device. It is often used in the detection of low-level gamma rays
and beta particles for this reason. Electrons produced in a G-M tube are collected very
rapidly, usually within a fraction of a microsecond. The output of the G-M detector is a pulse
charge and is often large enough to drive a meter without additional amplification. Because
the same size pulse is produced regardless of the amount of initial ionization, the G-M counter
cannot distinguish radiation of different energies or types. This is the reason G-M counters
are not adaptable for use as neutron detectors. The G-M detector is mainly used for portable
instrumentation due to its sensitivity, simple counting circuit, and ability to detect low-level
radiation.
g. Describe the operation of a scintillation counter. Include the following elements in
this discussion:
Radiation detection
Three classes of phosphors
Photomultiplier tube operation

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Scintillation Counter
The scintillation counter is a solid-state radiation detector that uses a scintillation crystal
(phosphor) to detect radiation and produce light pulses. Figure 39 is important in the
explanation of scintillation counter operation.

Figure 39. Electronic energy band of an ionic crystal
Radiation Detection
As radiation interacts in the scintillation crystal, energy is transferred to bound electrons of
the crystals atoms. If the energy that is transferred is greater than the ionization energy, the
electron enters the conduction band and is free from the binding forces of the parent atom.
This leaves a vacancy in the valence band and is termed a hole. If the energy transferred is
less than the binding energy, the electron remains attached, but exists in an excited energy
state. Once again, a hole is created in the valence band. By adding impurities during the
growth of the scintillation crystal, the manufacturer is able to produce activator centers with
energy levels located within the forbidden energy gap. The activator center can trap a mobile
electron, which raises the activator center from its ground state (G) to an excited state (E).
When the center de-excites, a photon is emitted. The activator centers in a scintillation crystal
are referred to as luminescence centers. The emitted photons are in the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

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Scintillation counters are constructed by coupling a suitable scintillation phosphor to a light-
sensitive photo-multiplier tube.
Three Classes of Phosphors
There are three classes of solid state scintillation phosphors: organic crystals, inorganic
crystals, and plastic phosphors.
Inorganic crystals include lithium iodide, sodium iodide, cesium iodide, and zinc sulfide.
Inorganic crystals are characterized by high density, high atomic number, and pulse decay
times of approximately one microsecond. Thus, they exhibit high efficiency for detection of
gamma rays and are capable of handling high count rates.
Organic scintillation phosphors include naphthalene, stilbene, and anthracene. The decay
time of this type of phosphor is approximately 10 nanoseconds. This type of crystal is
frequently used in the detection of beta particles.
Plastic phosphors are made by adding scintillation chemicals to a plastic matrix. The decay
constant is the shortest of the three phosphor types, approaching one or two nanoseconds.
The plastic has a high hydrogen content; therefore, it is useful for fast neutron detectors.
Photomultiplier Tube Operation
The photomultiplier is a vacuum tube with a glass envelope containing a photocathode and a
series of electrodes called dynodes. Light from a scintillation phosphor liberates electrons
from the photocathode by the photoelectric effect. These electrons are not of sufficient
number or energy to be detected reliably by conventional electronics. However, in the
photomultiplier tube, they are attracted by a voltage drop of about 50 volts to the nearest
dynode.
The photoelectrons strike the first dynode with sufficient energy to liberate several new
electrons for each photoelectron. The second-generation electrons are, in turn, attracted to the
second dynode where a larger third-generation group of electrons is emitted. This
amplification continues through 10 to 12 stages. At the last dynode, sufficient electrons are
available to form a current pulse suitable for further amplification by transistor circuits. The
voltage drops between dynodes are established by a single external bias, approximately
1000 volts DC, and a network of external resistors to equalize the voltage drops.
The advantages of a scintillation counter are its efficiency and the high precision and
counting rates that are possible. These latter attributes are a consequence of the extremely
short duration of the light flashes, from about 10
-9
to 10
-6
seconds. The intensity of the light
flash and the amplitude of the output voltage pulse are proportional to the energy of the
particle responsible for the flash. Consequently, scintillation counters can be used to
determine the energy, as well as the number, of the exciting particles (or gamma photons).
The photomultiplier tube output is very useful in radiation spectrometry (determination of
incident radiation energy levels).

110

h. Describe the operation of a gamma spectrometer. Include the following elements
in this discussion:
Type of detector used
Multichannel analyzer operation
Type of Detector Used
Gamma spectroscopy is a radiochemistry measurement method that determines the energy
and count rate of gamma rays emitted by radioactive substances. Gamma spectroscopy is an
extremely important measurement. A detailed analysis of the gamma ray energy spectrum is
used to determine the identity and quantity of gamma emitters present in a material.
The equipment used in gamma spectroscopy includes a detector, a pulse sorter (multichannel
analyzer), and associated amplifiers and data readout devices. The detector is normally a
sodium iodide scintillation counter. Figure 40 shows a block diagram of a gamma
spectrometer.

Figure 40. Gamma spectrometer block diagram
Multichannel Analyzer Operation
The multichannel pulse height analyzer is a device that will separate pulses based on pulse
height. Each energy range of pulse height is referred to as a channel. The pulse height is
proportional to the energy lost by a gamma ray. Separation of the pulses, based on pulse
height, shows the energy spectrum of the gamma rays that are emitted. Multichannel
analyzers typically have 100 or 200 channels over an energy range of 0 to 2 MeV. The output
is a plot of pulse height and gamma activity as shown in figure 41. By analyzing the

111

spectrum of gamma rays emitted, the user can determine the elements that caused the gamma
pulses.

Figure 41. Multichannel analyzer output
i. Describe how the following detect neutrons:
Self-powered neutron detector
Wide range fission chamber
Flux wire

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Self-Powered Neutron Detector
In very large reactor plants, the need exists to monitor neutron flux in various portions of the
core on a continuous basis. This allows for quick detection of instability in any section of the
core. This need brought about the development of the self-powered neutron detector that is
small, inexpensive, and rugged enough to withstand the in-core environment. The self-
powered neutron detector requires no voltage supply for operation. Figure 42 illustrates a
simplified drawing of a self-powered neutron detector.

Figure 42. Self-powered neutron detector
The central wire of a self-powered neutron detector is made from a material that absorbs a
neutron and undergoes radioactive decay by emitting an electron (beta decay). Typical
materials used for the central wire are cobalt, cadmium, rhodium, and vanadium. A good
insulating material is placed between the central wire and the detector casing. Each time a
neutron interacts with the central wire it transforms one of the wires atoms into a radioactive
nucleus. The nucleus eventually decays by the emission of an electron. Because of the
emission of these electrons, the wire becomes more and more positively charged. The
positive potential of the wire causes a current to flow in the resistor. A millivoltmeter
measures the voltage drop across the resistor. The electron current from beta decay can also
be measured directly with an electrometer.
There are two distinct advantages of the self-powered neutron detector: (1) very little
instrumentation is requiredonly a millivoltmeter or an electrometer, and (2) the emitter
material has a much greater lifetime than boron or
235
U lining (used in wide range fission
chambers).
One disadvantage of the self-powered neutron detector is that the emitter material decays
with a characteristic half-life. In the case of rhodium and vanadium, which are two of the
most useful materials, the half-lives are 1 minute and 3.8 minutes, respectively. This means
that the detector cannot respond immediately to a change in neutron flux, but takes as long as
3.8 minutes to reach 63 percent of steady-state value. This disadvantage is overcome by

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using cobalt or cadmium emitters that emit their electrons within 1014 seconds after neutron
capture. Self-powered neutron detectors that use cobalt or cadmium are called prompt self-
powered neutron detectors.
Wide Range Fission Chamber
Fission chambers use neutron-induced fission to detect neutrons. The chamber is usually
similar in construction to that of an ionization chamber, except that the coating material is
highly enriched
235
U. The neutrons interact with the
235
U, causing fission. One of the two
fission fragments enters the chamber, while the other fission fragment embeds itself in the
chamber wall.
One advantage of using
235
U coating rather than boron is that the fission fragment has a much
higher energy level than the alpha particle from a boron reaction. Neutron-induced fission
fragments produce many more ionizations in the chamber per interaction than do the neutron-
induced alpha particles. This allows the fission chambers to operate in higher gamma fields
than an uncompensated ion chamber with boron lining. Fission chambers are often used as
current indicating devices and pulse devices simultaneously. They are especially useful as
pulse chambers, due to the very large pulse size difference between neutrons and gamma
rays. Because of the fission chambers dual use, it is often used in wide range channels in
nuclear instrumentation systems. Fission chambers are also capable of operating over the
source and intermediate ranges of neutron levels.
Flux Wire
Whenever it is necessary to measure reactor neutron flux profiles, a section of wire or foil is
inserted directly into the reactor core. The wire or foil remains in the core for the length of
time required for activation to the desired level. The cross-section of the flux wire or foil
must be known to obtain an accurate flux profile. After activation, the flux wire or foil is
rapidly removed from the reactor core and the activity counted. Activated foils can also
discriminate energy levels by placing a cover over the foil to filter out (absorb) certain
energy level neutrons. Cadmium covers are typically used for this purpose. The cadmium
cover effectively filters out all of the thermal neutrons.
of nuclear instrumentation.
a. Define the following terms:
Signal-to-noise ratio
Discriminator
Analog
Logarithm
Period
Decades per minute (DPM)
Scalar
The following definitions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/2-92.

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of the electrical output signal to the electrical noise generated
in the cable run or in the instrumentation.
Discriminator
Discrimination in radiation detection circuits refers to the process of distinguishing between
different types of radiation on the basis of pulse height. A discriminator circuit selects the
minimum or maximum pulse height that is to be counted.
Analog
Analog is defined as a mechanism in which data is represented by continuously variable
physical quantities. As it applies to the intermediate range, the output of the intermediate
range is an analog current. Due to the wide range of the flux measured, use of logarithmic
circuitry is required for indication on a single scale instrument. Analog is used in contrast to
digital to refer to circuits in which the magnitude of the signal carries the information.
Logarithm
Logarithm is defined as the exponent that indicates the power to which a number is raised to
produce a given number (i.e., the logarithm of 100 to the base 10 is 2). When discussing
nuclear instrumentation, this term refers to the electronic circuitry of the source and
intermediate ranges. These ranges utilize logarithms due to the wide range of measured flux
and the necessity to measure that flux on a single meter scale.
Period
In many applications it is essential to know the rate of change of power. This rate normally
increases or decreases exponentially with time. The time constant for this change is referred
to as the period. A period of 5 seconds means that the value changes by a factor of e (2.718)
in 5 seconds.
Decades per Minute
Rate circuits are important in the source and intermediate ranges. Rate information is
displayed on a meter in decades per minute. These meters indicate how fast reactor power is
changing in decades (power of 10) each minute.
Scalar
The scalar refers to a measurement or quantity that is capable of being represented on a
scale (i.e., neutron flux on source range, intermediate range, and power range meters).
b. Describe the operation of the detectors used in each of the following nuclear
instrument applications:
Source range
Intermediate range
Power range

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Source Range
Source range instrumentation normally consists of two redundant count rate channels, each
composed of a high-sensitivity proportional counter and associated signal measuring
equipment. These channels are typically used over a counting range of 0.1 to 106 counts per
second, but vary based on reactor design. Their outputs are displayed on meters in terms of
the logarithm of the count rate.
Source range instrumentation also measures the rate of change of the count rate. The rate of
change is displayed on meters in terms of the startup rate from -1 to +10 decades per minute.
Protective functions are not normally associated with source range instrumentation because
of inherent limitations in this range. However, interlocks may be incorporated.
Many reactor plants have found it necessary to place source range proportional counters in
lead shielding to reduce gamma flux at the detectors. This serves two functions: (1) it
increases the low-end sensitivity of the detector, and (2) it adds to detector life. Another
means by which detector life is extended is to disable the high-voltage power supply to the
detector and short the signal lead when neutron flux has passed into the intermediate range.
There are some reactor plants that have made provisions for moving the source range
detectors from their operating positions to a position of reduced neutron flux level once the
flux level increases above the source range.
Intermediate Range
Intermediate-range nuclear instrumentation consists of a minimum of two redundant
channels. Each of these channels is made up of a boron-lined or boron gas-filled
compensated ion chamber and associated signal measuring equipment of which the output is
a steady current produced by the neutron flux.
The compensated ion chamber is used in the intermediate range because the current output is
proportional to the relatively stable neutron flux, and it compensates for signals from gamma
flux. This range of indication also provides a measure of the rate of change of neutron level.
This rate of change is displayed on meters in terms of startup rate in decades per minute
(-1 to +10 decades per minute). High startup rate on either channel may initiate a protective
action. This protective action may be in the form of a control rod withdrawal inhibit and
alarm, or a high startup rate reactor trip.
Power Range
Power range nuclear instrumentation normally consists of four identical linear power level
channels that originate in eight uncompensated ion chambers. The output is a steady current
produced by the neutron flux. Uncompensated ion chambers are used in the power range
because gamma compensation is unnecessary; the neutron-to-gamma flux ratio is high.
Having a high neutron-to-gamma flux ratio means that the number of gammas is insignificant
compared to the number of neutrons.
The output of each power range channel is directly proportional to reactor power and
typically covers a range from 0 to 125 percent of full power, but varies with each reactor.
The output of each channel is displayed on a meter in terms of power level in percent of full
rated power. The gain of each instrument is adjustable, which provides a means for

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calibrating the output. This adjustment is normally determined by using a plant heat balance.
Protective actions may be initiated by high power level on any two channels; this is termed
coincidence operation.
c. Given a basic diagram of a typical source range instrument, discuss the functions
of the following components:
Linear amplifier
Discriminator
Pulse integrator
Log count rate amplifier
Differentiator
Figure 43 shows a typical source range channel in functional form.

Figure 43. Source range channel
B
10
lined or BF
3
gas-filled proportional counters are normally used as source range detectors.
Proportional counter output is in the form of one pulse for every ionizing event; therefore,
there is a series of random pulses varying in magnitude representing neutron and gamma
ionizing events.
The pulse height may only be a few millivolts, which is too low to be directly used without
amplification. The linear amplifier amplifies the input signal by a factor of several thousand
to raise the pulse height to several volts.

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The discriminator excludes passage of pulses that are less than a predetermined level. The
function of the discriminator is to exclude noise and gamma pulses that are lower in
magnitude than neutron pulses. The pulses are then sent to the pulse integrator where they are
integrated to give a signal that is proportional to the logarithm of the count rate.
The log count rate amplifier then amplifies the signal, which varies directly as the logarithm
of the pulse rate, in the detector. The logarithmic count rate is then displayed on a meter with
a logarithmic scale in counts per second.
The logarithmic count rate signal is differentiated to measure the rate of change in neutron
flux. The differentiator output is proportional to reactor period. The value of reactor period is
inversely proportional to the actual rate of change of reactor power and relates to power
changes by factors of e (2.718). The power rate change based on factors of 10, in decades per
minute, is more meaningful to the reactor operator. Therefore, the output of the differentiator
is converted from reactor period to decades per minute through the meter scale used.
d. Given a basic diagram of a typical intermediate range instrument, discuss the
functions of the following components:
Log amplifier
Differentiator
Reactor protection interface
Figure 44 shows a typical intermediate-range channel.

Figure 44. Intermediate range channel

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e. Discuss the reason gamma compensation is not required in the power range.
Power range nuclear instrumentation normally consists of four identical linear power level
channels that originate in eight uncompensated ion chambers. The output is a steady current
produced by the neutron flux. Uncompensated ion chambers are utilized in the power range
because gamma compensation is unnecessary; the neutron-to-gamma flux ratio is high.
Having a high neutron-to-gamma flux ratio means that the number of gammas is insignificant
compared to the number of neutrons.
f. Given a basic diagram of a typical power range instrument, discuss the functions
of the following components:
Linear amplifier
Reactor protection interface
This is a performance-based KSA. The Qualifying Official will evaluate its completion.. The
Figure 45 shows a typical power range channel.

Figure 45. Power range channel
Two detectors in each channel are functionally connected in parallel so that the measured
signal is the sum of the two detectors. This output drives a linear amplifier that amplifies the
signal to a useful level.
The reactor protective interface provides signals for protective actions. Examples of
protective action signals provided by the power range include
a signal to the reactor protection system at a selected value (normally 10 percent
reactor power) to disable the high startup rate reactor trip
a signal to protective systems when reactor power level exceeds predetermined values

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a signal for use in the reactor control system
a signal to the power-to-flow circuit
g. Discuss the failure modes of fission chambers, ion chambers, and proportional
counters.
Fission Chambers
The following is taken from Freepatentsonline, Integral Multi-Sensor Radiation Detector.
The neturon detector types presently available consist of ion chambers, fission counters, and
self-powered detectors of the prompt and slow response types.
Present ion and fission chamber designs fail at one-third or less of the required life. Available
experimental evidence indicates several modes of failure. The majority of ion chamber
failures due to radiation damage can be attributed to either cable failure at the normal
operating bias voltages (150200 volts) or seal failure resulting in loss or contamination of
the chamber fill gas.
The slow response self-powered detectors in addition to being susceptible to radiation
damage are unacceptable due to slow response and poor sensitivity.
The prompt self-powered detectors have been unsuccessful due to sensitivity to spurious
electrical signals that render the output unreliable.
Ion Chambers
When using an ionization chamber for detecting neutrons, beta particles can be prevented
from entering the chamber by walls thick enough to shield out all of the beta particles.
Gamma rays cannot be shielded from the detector; therefore, they always contribute to the
total current read by the ammeter. This effect is not desired because the detector responds not
only to neutrons, but also to gamma rays.
Proportional Counters
The following is taken from Patentstorm, Proportional Counter.
Known proportional counters typically include a substantially cylindrical cathode, and an
anode wire extends through the cathode. The cathode is sealed at both ends, and may be
filled with a gas, such as helium-3 gas. The anode wire, of course, is insulated from the
cathode. For example, a support insulator is secured to the anode at one end of the cathode
and insulates the one end of the anode from the cathode. At the other end of the cathode, the
wire is electrically connected to a lead wire, and the lead wire extends through a seal tube
positioned at the end of the cathode.
To ensure accurate neutron counting, it is important to maintain the anode wire taut.
However, particularly in some applications and due to temperature variations, keeping the
anode wire taut is a significant challenge. For example, in an extremely hot operating
environment, the cathode expands more than the anode. As the cathode expands, the tension

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on the anode wire is increased. Such expansion would stretch or break the anode. A spring is
required to maintain anode wire tension.
In the past, a tension spring coupled at one end to the anode wire and coupled at its other end
to the lead wire has been used to keep the anode wire taut in a variety of operating
conditions. Although such an assembly of the anode wire, spring, and lead wire provides
satisfactory results, the assembly is susceptible to vibration failure. Particularly, if the
counter is subjected to prolonged vibration, the spot welds between the spring, anode wire,
and lead wire have been found to sometimes fail.
Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a proportional counter that provides consistent and
accurate readings in a wide range of temperature conditions and during vibration. It also
would be desirable to provide such a proportional counter in which the anode wire is
maintained substantially taut in a wide variety of applications and is less susceptible to
vibration failure, without significantly increasing the costs of the proportional counter.
h. Discuss the various nondestructive assay (NDA) instruments (e.g., gamma
counters, neutron multiplicity counters, etc.) available for measuring isotopic
content, fissile material content, activity concentration for materials accountability
of special nuclear materials and/or nuclear waste.
The following is taken from NUREG/CR-5550.
The term nondestructive assay (NDA) is applied to a series of measurement techniques for
nuclear fuel materials. The techniques measure radiation induced or emitted spontaneously
from the nuclear material. The measurements are nondestructive in that they do not alter the
physical or chemical state of the nuclear material. In some cases, the emitted radiation is
unique to the isotope of interest, and the radiation intensity can often be related to the mass of
the isotopes. Other techniques to measure nuclear material involve sampling the material and
analyzing the sample with destructive chemical procedures. NDA obviates the need for
sampling, reduces operator exposure, and is much faster than chemical assay. Unfortunately,
however, NDA is usually less accurate than chemical assay. The development of NDA
reflects a trend toward automation and workforce reduction that is occurring throughout our
society. NDA measurements are applied in all fuel-cycle facilities for material accounting,
process control, criticality control, and perimeter monitoring.
The original impetus for NDA development was the need for increased nuclear material
safeguards. As safeguard agencies throughout the world needed more nuclear material
measurements, it became clear that rapid measurement methods were required that would not
alter the state of nuclear material items. Development efforts to address these needs were
supported by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the DOE, and the International
Atomic Energy Agency. Rapid nondestructive measurement techniques are required by the
safeguards inspectors who must verify the inventories of nuclear material held throughout the
world.
NDA techniques are characterized as passive or active depending on whether they measure
radiation from the spontaneous decay of the nuclear material or radiation induced by an

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external source. The principal NDA techniques are classified as gamma-ray assay, neutron
assay, and calorimetry.
of refractometers (as applicable to their facilities).
a. Discuss the use of refractometers in various facility applications.
The following is taken from the Cole Parmer Technical Library, Refractometers.
A refractometer is a simple instrument used for measuring concentrations of aqueous
solutions. It requires only a few drops of liquid, and is used throughout the food, agricultural,
chemical, and manufacturing industries.
The use and application of refractometers varies. This is a facility-based knowledge
requirement. The local Qualifying Official will evaluate the completions of this KSA.
b. Discuss how the refractive index of a solution varies with the density of the
solution.
The following is taken from the Cole-Parmer Technical Library, Refractometers.
When light enters a liquid. it changes direction; this is called refraction. Refractometers
measure the degree to which the light changes direction, called the angle of refraction. A
refractometer takes the refraction angles and correlates them to refractive index values that
have been established. The concentrations of solutions can be determined using these values.
For example, solutions have different refractive indexes depending on their concentration.
The prism in the refractometer has a greater refractive index than the solution. Measurements
are read at the point where the prism and solution meet. With a low-concentration solution,
the refractive index of the prism is much greater than that of the sample, creating a large
refraction angle and a low reading. The reverse would happen with a high-concentration
solution.
c. Discuss critical angle of refraction and how fully reflected light rays and partially
reflected light rays form an image to derive the measurement.
The following is taken from the School of Champions, Snells Law for the Reflection of
Light.
When visible light enters a transparent material, such as glass, at an angle, the direction of
the light is refracted or bent at a different angle. The angle is determined by the initial angle
and the index of refraction of the two materials. Snells law is an equation that determines the
angle at which a ray or beam of light is refracted. When the light passes from a material of
high index of refraction to low index of refraction, there is an angle at which the light starts
to be reflected at the interface of the materials. This is called the critical angle for refraction.
If A in figure 46 is the index of refraction of the first material and a is the angle of the
incoming ray or beam of light with respect to the perpendicular or normal to the surface, then

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b will be the angle to the normal of the ray in the second material where B is its index of
refraction.

Source: School of Champions, Snells Law for the Refraction of Light
Figure 46. Light is bent going from first material to second
The index of refraction in material B equals the speed of light in a vacuum (c) divided by the
speed of light in the material (c
B
).
B =
B
c
c

Since index B is greater than index A, the speed of light in material B is less than the speed
in material A. Thus, according to Snells law, the angle b is less than the angle a.
Snells law is written as
A*sin(a) = B*sin(b)
where
sin(a) = the sine of angle a
sin(b) = the sine of angle b
Typically, you want to find angle b or how much the light will be bent in the second material.
Using some algebra, Snells law can be rewritten as
sin(b) = A*sin(a)/B
or
b = arcsin[A*sin(a)/B]
where arcsin[A*sin(a)/B] is the arcsine or angle whose sine is A*sin(a)/B.
Thus, if the first material is air (index approximately = 1), the incoming angle is 30
o
and the
second material is glass with an index = 1.5, you can calculate the angle of the light in glass.
sin(b) = A*sin (a)/B
sin(b) = 1*sin (30
o
)/ 1.5

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sin(b) = 0.5/ 1.5 = 0.33
b = arcsine (0.33) = 19.5
o

Thus, if light hits glass at 30
o
, its angle will change to 19.5
o
within the glass. Of course, if it
is a glass plate, you will then use the opposite to obtain the exit angle of 30
o
back into air.
An interesting thing happens when light is going from a material with higher index of
refraction to a lower index, such as going from water to air. There is an angle at which the
light will not pass into the other material and will start to be reflected at the surface. This is
called the critical angle of refraction.

Figure 47. Light going from high index to low
In figure 47 you can see that angle b is larger than angle a when index A is larger than index
B. At some angle a, angle b will equal 90 degrees as shown in figure 48.

Figure 48. Light at critical angle for refraction

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Using Snells law, we can calculate this critical angle. Let the first material be water with
index of refraction = 1.33, and let the second material be air with index = 1.
We want to find angle a:
sin(a) = B*sin(b)/A
sin(a) = 1*sin(90
o
)/1.33
since sin(90
o
) = 1,
sin(a) = 1/1.33 = 0.75
a = arcsin(0.75) = 48.6
o

This is the critical angle. When angle a is greater than that angle, the light will be reflected.
At angles greater than the critical angle for refraction, the light demonstrates an internal
reflection as shown in figure 49.

Figure 49. Internal reflection of light
When a is greater than the critical angle for refraction as in figure 49, the light is reflected off
the interface of the two materials just like a mirror.
The law of reflection holds where the incident angle equals the reflected angle.
Thus, b = 180
o
- a.
of sensor characteristics and instrument loop signal types.
a. Define and discuss the following sensor characteristics:
Range
Response time
Accuracy
Precision
Sensitivity
Dead-band

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The following definitions are taken from Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc, Sensor
Characteristics,unless stated othewise.
Range
Two factors limit the useful range of a sensor. First, the physical phenomena responsible for
the temperature dependence of the property being measured must occur at a measurable level
in absolute signal and sensitivity to temperature change. Second, the materials used in
construction of the temperature sensor must be appropriate to the temperature range of use.
Materials such as epoxies, solders, and insulators that are very useful at low temperatures can
break down at higher temperatures. Exposure to extreme temperatures (either high or low)
can induce strains in the sensor due to changes in the packaging materials or in the leads; the
resulting strain can cause a shift in the low temperature calibration for that sensor.
Response Time
Thermal response times are determined by physical construction material and mass of the
temperature-sensing element. Strain-free mounted sensors tend to have longer thermal
response times. Diode sensors that are mounted directly on a sapphire substrate will be in very
good thermal contact with the surroundings and hence have short thermal response times.
Accuracy
The term accuracy has been almost universally used in literature when presenting
specifications, and is often used interchangeably with uncertainty. However, from a strict
metrology viewpoint, a distinction does exist between accuracy and uncertainty. Accuracy
refers to the closeness of agreement between the measurement and the true value of the
measured quantity. Accuracy is a qualitative concept and should not have numbers associated
with it. This can be understood since, in practice, one does not have a prior knowledge of the
true value of the measured quantity. What one knows is the measured value and its
uncertainty, i.e., the range of values that contains the true value of the measured quantity.
The uncertainty is a quantitative result and the number typically presented in specifications.
In any proper measurement, an estimate of the measurement uncertainty should be given with
the results of the measurement. There are often many sources that contribute uncertainties in
a given measurement, and rigorous mathematical methods exist for combining the individual
uncertainties into a total uncertainty for the measurement. Temperature sensors, installation,
environment, instrumentation, thermal cycling, and thermal EMFs can all contribute to the
measurement uncertainty.
A sensor calibration is a method to assign voltage or resistance measurements to a defined
temperature scale. The level of confidence at which this can be done is defined by the
uncertainty of the calibration.
It is possible to degrade the accuracy specification by as much as one or two orders of
magnitude with improper installation and/or poor shielding and measurement techniques.
Precision
The following is taken from Wright State University, Intelligent Sensor Systems.

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Precision is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions. Precision
implies agreement between successive readings, not closeness to the true value. Precision is a
necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy. Two terms closely related to precision are
repeatability, which is the precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time
interval, and reproducibility, which is the precision of a set of measurements but taken over
a long time interval, or performed by different operators, or with different instruments, or in
different laboratories.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity can be presented in a variety of ways. Typically, it is given in terms of the signal
sensitivity, which is the change in a measured parameter per change in temperature
(/Kelvin (K) or V/K). These sensitivities can be a very strong function of temperature.
Diodes have sensitivities that range from 2 millivolt (mV)/K to 180 mV/K. Resistor
sensitivities can range from less than 0.001 /K to 1,000,000 /K, depending on the device
type and temperature.
Dead-Band
The following is taken from Transtronics, Understanding Dead Band.
Dead-band is most easily understood as a thermostat that keeps a house warm. When it is
cold, the heat comes on until the house is warm, at which point the heat goes off. This is the
stop point. Then, as time goes by, the house cools off and the furnace needs to restart. This
would be the start point.
If the start and stop points have the same value, the furnace would go on and off every
30 seconds, causing wear and tear on the fan and wasting fuel. By spreading the start and
stop points, the furnace runs longer. The difference between the start and stop points is the
dead-band of the control loop.
Instrument Loop Signal Types
Figure 50 shows two examples of simple instrument loops. Figure 50 (A) shows a
temperature transmitter (TT) that generates two electrical signals. One signal goes to a board-
mounted temperature recorder (TR) for display. The second signal is sent to a proportional-
integral-derivative (PID) controller, the output of which is sent to a current-to-pneumatic
(I/P) modifier. In the I/P modifier, the electric signal is converted into a pneumatic signal,
commonly 3 psi to 15 psi, which in turn operates the valve. The function of the complete
loop is to modify flow based on process fluid temperature. Note that there is not enough
information to determine how flow and temperature are related and what the setpoint is, but
in some instances the setpoint is stated on a piping and instrumentation diagram. Knowing
the setpoint and purpose of the system will usually be sufficient to allow the operation of the
instrument loop to be determined.

127

Figure 50. Instrumentation system examples
b. Discuss the following signal types used in instrumentation loops:
Pneumatic (315 pounds)
Electrical (420 milliamps)
Electrical (15 volts)
Pneumatic (3-15 pounds)
The pneumatic level transmitter (LT) illustrated in figure 50 (B) senses tank level. The
output of the level transmitter is pneumatic and is routed to a board-mounted level modifier
(LM). The level modifier conditions the signal and uses the modified signal for two purposes.
The modifier drives a board-mounted recorder (LR) for indication, and it sends a modified
pneumatic signal to the diaphragm-operated level control valve.

128

Electrical (420 milliamps)
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Current Signal Systems.
It is possible, through the use of electronic amplifiers, to design a circuit outputting a
constant amount of current rather than a constant amount of voltage. This collection of
components is collectively known as a current source. A current source generates as much or
as little voltage as needed across its leads to produce a constant amount of current through
the electronic amplifier. This is just the opposite of a voltage source (an ideal battery), which
will output as much or as little current as demanded by the external circuit in maintaining its
output voltage constant.
The most common current signal standard in modern use is the 4 to 20 milliamp (mA) loop,
with 4 milliamps representing 0 percent of measurement, 20 milliamps representing
100 percent, 12 milliamps representing 50 percent, and so on. A convenient feature of the 4
20 mA standard is its ease of signal conversion to 15 volt indicating instruments.
Electrical (15 volts)
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Voltage Signal Systems.
DC voltage can be used as an analog signal to relay information from one location to another.
A major disadvantage of voltage signaling is the possibility that the voltage at the indicator
(voltmeter) will be less than the voltage at the signal source, due to line resistance and
indicator current draw. This drop in voltage along the conductor length constitutes a
measurement error from transmitter to indicator.
Despite this inherent disadvantage, voltage signals are still used in many applications
because of their extreme design simplicity. One common signal standard is 010 volts,
meaning that a signal of 0 volts represents 0 percent of measurement, 10 volts represents
100 percent of measurement, 5 volts represents 50 percent of measurement, and so on. A
more common voltage range is 15 volts, which makes use of the live zero concept for
circuit fault indication.
of process control systems.
a. Define and discuss the following process control terms:
Control system
Control system input
Control system output
Open loop system
Closed loop system
Feedback
Controlled variable
Manipulated variable

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Control System
A control system is a system of integrated elements whose function is to maintain a process
variable at a desired value or within a desired range of values. The control system monitors a
process variable or variables, then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired system
parameter. For example in a central heating unit, the system monitors the temperature of the
house using a thermostat. When the temperature of the house drops to a preset value, the
furnace turns on, providing a heat source. The temperature of the house increases until a
switch in the thermostat causes the furnace to turn off. Two terms which help define a control
system are input and output.
Control System Input
Control system input is the stimulus applied to a control system from an external source to
produce a specified response from the control system. In the case of the central heating unit,
the control system input is the temperature of the house as monitored by the thermostat.
Control System Output
Control system output is the actual response obtained from a control system. In the example
above, the temperature dropping to a preset value on the thermostat causes the furnace to turn
on, providing heat to raise the temperature of the house.
In the case of nuclear facilities, the input and output are defined by the purpose of the control
system. Knowledge of the input and the output of the control system enables the components
of the system to be identified. A control system may have more than one input or output.
Control systems are classified by the control action, which is the quantity responsible for
activating the control system to produce the output. The two general classifications are open-
loop and closed-loop control systems.
Open Loop System
An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output.
An example of an open-loop control system is a chemical addition pump with a variable
speed control (figure 51).
The feed rate of chemicals that maintain proper chemistry of a system is determined by an
operator, who is not part of the control system. If the chemistry of the system changes, the
pump cannot respond by adjusting its feed rate (speed) without operator action.
Closed Loop System
A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is dependent on the output.
Figure 52 is an example of a closed-loop system.
The control system maintains the water level in a storage tank. The system performs this task
by continuously sensing the level in the tank and adjusting a supply valve to add more or less
water to the tank. The desired level is preset by an operator, who is not part of the system.

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Source: DOE-HDBK-1013/2-92.
Figure 51. Open-loop control system

Figure 52. Closed-loop control system

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Feedback
Feedback is information in a closed-loop control system about the condition of a process
variable. This variable is compared with a desired condition to produce the proper control
action on the process. Information is continually fed back to the control circuit in response to
control action. In the previous example, the actual storage tank water level, sensed by the
level transmitter, is feedback to the level controller. This feedback is compared with a desired
level to produce the required control action that will position the level control as needed to
maintain the desired level.
Controlled Variable
According to DOE-HDBK-1013/2-92, a controlled variable is the process variable that is
maintained at a specified value or within a specified range. In the previous example, the
storage tank level is the controlled variable.
Manipulated Variable
According to DOE-HDBK-1013/2-92, a manipulated variable is the process variable that is
acted on by the control system to maintain the controlled variable at the specified value or
within the specified range. In the previous example, the flow rate of the water supplied to the
tank is the manipulated variable.
b. Given a diagram of a process control system, describe its operation including the
function of the following basic components:
Controller
Controlled device
Feedback elements and signal
Setpoint/reference signal
Actuating signal
Manipulated variable
Controller
The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal
applied to the plant. These elements are also called the controller.
Controlled Device
The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is
controlled. This is also called the controlled device.
Feedback Elements and Signal
The feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship
between the feedback signal and the controlled output.

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Setpoint/Reference Signal
The reference signal is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control system
to cause the plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired value of a
controlled variable and is also called the setpoint.
Actuating Signal
The actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is equal to the
algebraic sum of the reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also called the error
signal.
Manipulated Variable
The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the plant
output (controlled variable) at the desired value.
Figure 53 shows a typical application of a block diagram to identify the operation of a
temperature control system for lubricating oil. Diagram(A) in figure 53 shows a schematic
diagram of the lube oil cooler and its associated temperature control system.

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Figure 53. Lube oil cooler temperature control system and equivalent block diagram

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c. Discuss the factors in a process control system that contribute to process control
time lags.
Process control time lags are caused by three properties of the process: capacitance,
resistance, and transportation time.
Capacitance is the ability of a process to store energy. In figure 53, for example, the walls of
the tubes in the lube oil cooler, the cooling water, and the lube oil can store heat energy. This
energy-storing property provides the ability to retard change. Even if the cooling water flow
rate is increased, it will take a period of time for more energy to be removed from the lube oil
to reduce its temperature.
Resistance is that part of the process that opposes the transfer of energy between capacities.
In figure 53, the walls of the lube oil cooler oppose the transfer of heat from the lube oil
inside the tubes to the cooling water outside the tubes.
Transportation time is time required to carry a change in a process variable from one point to
another in the process. If the temperature of the lube oil (figure 53) is lowered by increasing
the cooling water flow rate, some time will elapse before the lube oil travels from the lube oil
cooler to the temperature transmitter. If the transmitter is moved farther from the lube oil
cooler, the transportation time will increase. This time lag is not just a slowing down or
retardation of a change. It is an actual time delay during which no change occurs.
d. Discuss stability in a process control system. Include in the discussion an
explanation of converging and diverging oscillations and hunting.
All control modes can return a process variable to a steady value following a disturbance.
This characteristic is called stability.
Stability is the ability of a control loop to return a controlled variable to a steady, non-cyclic
value, following a disturbance.
Control loops can be either stable or unstable. Instability is caused by a combination of
process time lags, discussed earlier (i.e., capacitance, resistance, and transport time), and
inherent time lags within a control system. This results in slow response to changes in the
controlled variable.
Consequently, the controlled variable will continuously cycle around the setpoint value.
Oscillation is the term used to describe this cyclic characteristic. There are three types of
oscillations that can occur in a control loop: decreasing amplitude, constant amplitude, and
increasing amplitude.

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Decreasing Amplitude. These oscillations decrease in amplitude and eventually stop with a
control system that opposes the change in the controlled variable. This is the condition
desired in an automatic control system.
Constant Amplitude. Action of the controller sustains oscillations of the controlled variable.
The controlled variable never reaches a stable condition; therefore, this condition is not desired.
Increasing Amplitude. The control system not only sustains oscillations but also increases
them. The control element reaches its full travel limits and causes the process to go out of
control.
e. Discuss the following process control system characteristics and terms:
Reset control
Rate control
Proportional band
Offset
Span
Deviation
Cascading
The following descriptions are taken from DOE-HDBK-1013/2-92 unless stated otherwise.
Reset Control
Reset, or integral, control describes a controller in which the output rate of change is
dependent on the magnitude of the input. Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a
slower rate of change of the output. This controller is called an integral, or reset, controller
because it approximates the mathematical function of integration.
The major advantage of reset controllers is that they have the unique ability to return the
controlled variable back to the exact setpoint following a disturbance.
Disadvantages of the reset control mode are that it responds relatively slowly to an error
signal and that it can initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is produced. This
can lead to system instability and cyclic operation. For this reason, the reset control mode is
not normally used alone, but is combined with another control mode.
Rate Control (Derivative Control)
A device that produces a derivative signal is called a differentiator. The differentiator
provides an output that is directly related to the rate of change of the input and a constant that
specifies the function of differentiation. The derivative constant is expressed in units of
seconds and defines the differential controller output.
The differentiator acts to transform a changing signal to a constant magnitude signal. As long
as the input rate of change is constant, the magnitude of the output is constant. A new input
rate of change would give a new output magnitude.
Derivative control cannot be used alone as a control mode. This is because a steady-state
input produces a zero output in a differentiator. If the differentiator were used as a controller,
the input signal it would receive would be the error signal. A steady-state error signal

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corresponds to any number of necessary output signals for the positioning of the final control
element. Therefore, derivative action is combined with proportional action in a manner such
that the proportional section output serves as the derivative section input.
Proportional Band
Proportional band is the change in value of the controlled variable that causes full travel of
the final control element. The proportional band of a particular instrument is expressed as a
percent of full range. For example, if full range of an instrument is 200 F and it takes a 50 F
change in temperature to cause full valve travel, the percent proportional band is 50 F in
200 F, or 25 percent. Proportional bands may range from less than 1 percent to well over
200 percent. However, proportional bands over 100 percent cannot cause full valve travel
even for full range change of the controlled variable.
Offset
Offset, also called droop, is deviation that remains after a process has stabilized. Offset is an
inherent characteristic of the proportional mode of control. In other words, the proportional
mode of control will not necessarily return a controlled variable to its setpoint.
Span
Span is the algebraic difference between limits of the pressure range.
Deviation
Deviation is the difference between the setpoint of a process variable and its actual value.
This is a key term used when discussing various modes of control.
Cascading
The following is taken from Learncontrol.com, Cascade Control.
Cascade control uses the output of the primary controller to manipulate the setpoint of the
secondary controller as if it were the final control element.
Reasons for cascade control:
Allow faster secondary controller to handle disturbances in the secondary loop.
Allow secondary controller to handle non-linear valve and other final control element
problems.
Allow operator to directly control secondary loop during certain modes of operation
(such as startup).
Requirements for cascade control:
Secondary loop process dynamics must be at least four times as fast as primary loop
process dynamics.
Secondary loop must have influence over the primary loop.
Secondary loop must be measured and controllable.
f. Describe the operation of the following types of automatic control systems:
Two-position control system
Proportional control system
Integral control system

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Proportional plus reset control system
Proportional plus reset plus rate control system
Two-Position Control System
A two-position controller is a device that has two operating conditions: completely on or
completely off. This device provides an output determined by whether the error signal is
above or below the setpoint. The magnitude of the error signal is above or below the setpoint.
The magnitude of the error signal past that point is of no concern to the controller.
Proportional Control System
In the proportional control system, there is a continuous linear relation between the value of
the controlled variable and the position of the final control element. In other words, the
amount of valve movement is proportional to the amount of deviation.
Integral Control System
Integral control describes a controller in which the output rate of change is dependent on the
magnitude of the input. Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower rate of change of
the output. This controller is called an integral controller because it approximates the
mathematical function of integration. The integral control method is also known as reset control.
Proportional Plus Reset Control System
Proportional plus reset control is actually a combination of proportional and integral controls.
Combining the two modes results in gaining the advantages and compensating for the
disadvantages of the two individual modes.
The main advantage of the proportional control mode is that an immediate proportional
output is produced as soon as an error signal exists at the controller. The proportional
controller is considered a fast-acting device. This immediate output change enables the
proportional controller to reposition the final control element within a relatively short period
of time in response to the error.
The main disadvantage of the proportional control mode is that a residual offset error exists
between the measured variable and the setpoint for all but one set of system conditions.
The main advantage of the integral control mode is that the controller output continues to
reposition the final control element until the error is reduced to zero. This results in the
elimination of the residual offset error allowed by the proportional mode.
The main disadvantage of the integral mode is that the controller output does not
immediately direct the final control element to a new position in response to an error signal.
The controller output changes at a defined rate of change, and time is needed for the final
control element to be repositioned.
The combination of the two control modes is called the proportional plus reset control mode.
It combines the immediate output characteristics of a proportional control mode with the zero
residual offset characteristics of the integral mode.

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Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate Control System
Proportional plus rate describes a control mode in which a derivative section is added to a
proportional controller. This derivative section responds to the rate of change of the error
signal, not the amplitude. This derivative action responds to the rate of change the instant it
starts. This causes the controller output to be initially larger in direct relation with the error
signal rate of change. The higher the error signal rate of change, the sooner the final control
element is positioned to the desired value. The added derivative action reduces initial
overshoot of the measured variable, and therefore aids in stabilizing the process sooner.
This control mode is called proportional plus rate control because the derivative section
responds to the rate of change of the error signal.
g. Discuss the function and operation of the following components of a typical
control station:
Setpoint indicator
Setpoint adjustment
Deviation indicator
Output meter
Manual-automatic transfer switch
Manual output adjust knob
Setpoint Indicator
The setpoint indicator indicates the setpoint (desired value) selected for the controller. The
scale may be marked from 0 to 100 percent or it may correspond directly to the controlled
variable (e.g., 01000 psig or -20 F to +180 F).
Setpoint Adjustment
The setpoint adjustment is a thumbwheel type adjustment dial that allows the operator to
select the setpoint value. By rotating the thumbwheel, the scale moves under the setpoint
index line.
Deviation Indicator
The deviation indicator displays any error (from -10 to +10 percent) between the setpoint value
and the actual controlled variable value. With no error, the deviation pointer stays at mid-
scale, in line with the setpoint index mark. If the controlled variable is lower than the
setpoint, the deviation indicator deflects downward, and if it is higher, the indicator deflects
upward.
Output Meter
The output meter indicates controller output signal in percent. This particular controller
ranges from 0 to 100 percent current. However, this will correspond to an air signal for
pneumatic controllers.
Manual-Automatic Transfer Switch
The manual-automatic transfer switch selects the operating mode of the controller.

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Manual Output Adjust Knob
The manual output adjust knob varies the controller output signal in the manual mode of
operation. The knob is rotated clockwise to increase the signal and counterclockwise to
decrease the signal.
h. Describe the operation of a self-balancing control station.
The self-balancing control station has several controls and indicators that are the sam as those
on a manual automatic control station. However, there are some controls and indicators that
differ. In addition, the controller does not require a balancing procedure prior to shifting from
one mode (manual or automatic) to another.
Self-balancing describes a control station in which the non-operating mode output signal
follows (tracks) the operating mode output signal. When the control station is in the
automatic mode, the manual output signal will follow the automatic output signal. Once the
controller is transferred to the manual mode, the output signal will remain at its previous
value until one of the manual push buttons is depressed. Then, the output will vary. When the
controller is in manual mode, the automatic output signal will track the manual output signal.
Once the controller is transferred from the manual to automatic mode, the automatic output
signal will initially remain at the manual mode value. If a deviation did exist in the manual
mode, the automatic output signal would change slowly and return the controlled variable to
the setpoint.
i. Describe the operation of the following types of actuators:
Pneumatic
Hydraulic
Solenoid
Electric motor
Pneumatic
A pneumatic actuator operates by a combination of force created by air and spring force. The
actuator positions a control valve by transmitting its motion through the stem.
A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper
chamber receives supply air through an opening in the top of the housing. The bottom
chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops in the upper
chamber. Finally, a local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position of the
valve.
The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper chamber.
This results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the
spring forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully
open. As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins
to overcome the opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to move downward

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and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm will
continue to move downward and compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed.
Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will begin to force the diaphragm
upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some
value between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an intermediate position.
Therefore, the valve can be positioned anywhere between fully open and fully closed in
response to changes in supply air pressure.
A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It does
this by comparing the actuators demanded position with the control valves actual position.
The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control signal from a
controller to the positioner.
The controller generates an output signal that represents the demanded position. This signal
is sent to the positioner. Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for the
control signal, a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air vent
connection, and a feedback linkage. Internally, it contains an intricate network of electrical
transducers, air lines, valves, linkages, and necessary adjustments. Other positioners may also
provide controls for local valve positioning and gauges to indicate supply air pressure and
control air pressure (for pneumatic controllers).
Hydraulic
Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes requiring quick and accurate
response, as they do not require a large amount of motive force. However, when a large
amount of force is required to operate a valve (for example, the main steam system valves),
hydraulic actuators are normally used. Although hydraulic actuators come in many designs,
piston types are most common.
A typical piston-type hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder, piston, spring, hydraulic
supply and return line, and stem. The piston slides vertically inside the cylinder and separates
the cylinder into two chambers. The upper chamber contains the spring and the lower
chamber contains hydraulic oil.
The hydraulic supply and return line is connected to the lower chamber and allows hydraulic
fluid to flow to and from the lower chamber of the actuator. The stem transmits the motion of
the piston to a valve. Initially, with no hydraulic fluid pressure, the spring force holds the
valve in the closed position. As fluid enters the lower chamber, pressure in the chamber
increases. This pressure results in a force on the bottom of the piston opposite to the force
caused by the spring. When the hydraulic force is greater than the spring force, the piston
begins to move upward, the spring compresses, and the valve begins to open. As the
hydraulic pressure increases, the valve continues to open. Conversely, as hydraulic oil is
drained from the cylinder, the hydraulic force becomes less than the spring force, the piston
moves downward, and the valve closes. By regulating the amount of oil supplied or drained
from the actuator, the valve can be positioned between fully open and fully closed.
Solenoid
An electric solenoid actuator consists of a coil, armature, spring, and stem. The coil is
connected to an external current supply. The spring rests on the armature to force it

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downward. The armature moves vertically inside the coil and transmits its motion through
the stem to the valve. When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field forms around the
coil. The magnetic field attracts the armature toward the center of the coil. As the armature
moves upward, the spring collapses and the valve opens. When the circuit is opened and
current stops flowing to the coil, the magnetic field collapses. This allows the spring to
expand and shut the valve.
A major advantage of solenoid actuators is their quick operation. Also, they are much easier
to install than pneumatic or hydraulic actuators. However, solenoid actuators have two
disadvantages. First, they have only two positions: fully open and fully closed. Second, they
do not produce much force, so they usually only operate relatively small valves.
Electric Motor
Electric motor actuators vary widely in their design and applications. Some electric motor
actuators are designed to operate in only two positions (fully open or fully closed). Other
electric motors can be positioned between the two positions. An electric motor actuators
major parts include an electric motor, clutch and gear box assembly, manual handwheel, and
stem connected to a valve.
The motor moves the stem through the gear assembly. The motor reverses its rotation to
either open or close the valve. The clutch and clutch lever disconnect the electric motor from
the gear assembly and allow the valve to be operated manually with the handwheel. Most
electric motor actuators are equipped with limit switches, torque limiters, or both. Limit
switches de-energize the electric motor when the valve has reached a specific position.
Torque limiters de-energize the electric motor when the amount of turning force has reached
a specified value. The turning force normally is greatest when the valve reaches the fully
open or fully closed position. This feature can also prevent damage to the actuator or valve if
the valve binds in an intermediate position.
j. Discuss controller tuning.
The following is taken from the University of Michigan, Engineering, PID Tuning Classical.
Types of controller tuning methods include the trial and error method and process reaction
curve methods. The most common classical controller tuning methods are the Ziegler-
Nichols and Cohen-Coon methods. These methods are often used when the mathematical
model of the system is not available. The Ziegler-Nichols method can be used for both closed
and open loop systems, while Cohen-Coon is typically used for open loop systems. A closed-
loop control system is a system that uses feedback control. In an open-loop system, the
output is not compared to the input.
Ziegler-Nichols Method
The Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method allows you to use the ultimate gain value,
K
u
, and the ultimate period of oscillation, P
u
, to calculate K
c
. It is a simple method of tuning
PID controllers and can be refined to give better approximations of the controller. You can
obtain the controller constants K
c
, T
i
, and T
d
in a system with feedback. The Ziegler-Nichols
closed-loop tuning method is limited to tuning processes that cannot run in an open-loop
environment.

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Determining the ultimate gain value, K
u
is accomplished by finding the value of the
proportional-only gain that causes the control loop to oscillate indefinitely at steady state.
This means that the gains from the I and D controller are set to zero so that the influence of P
can be determined. It tests the robustness of the K
c
value so that it is optimized for the
controller. Another important value associated with this proportional-only control tuning
method is the ultimate period (P
u
). The ultimate period is the time required to complete one
full oscillation while the system is at steady state. These two parameters, K
u
and P
u
, are used
to find the loop-tuning constants of the controller. To find the values of these parameters, and
to calculate the tuning constants, use the following procedure:
Closed Loop (Feedback Loop)
1. Remove integral and derivative action. Set integral time (T
i
) to 999 or its largest value
and set the derivative controller (T
d
) to zero.
2. Create a small disturbance in the loop by changing the set point. Adjust the
proportional, increasing and/or decreasing, the gain until the oscillations have
constant amplitude.
3. Record the gain value (K
u)
and period of oscillation (P
u
).
Source: University of Michigan, Engineering, PID Tuning Classical
Figure 54. System tuned using the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop tuning method
4. Plug these values into the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop equations and determine the
necessary settings for the controller.
Cohen-Coon Method
The Cohen-Coon method of controller tuning corrects the slow, steady-state response given
by the Ziegler-Nichols method when there is a large dead time (process delay) relative to the
open loop time constant; a large process delay is necessary to make this method practical
because otherwise unreasonably large controller gains will be predicted. This method is only

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used for first-order models with time delay, due to the fact that the controller does not
instantaneously respond to the disturbance (the step disturbance is progressive instead of
instantaneous).
The Cohen-Coon method is classified as an off-line method for tuning, meaning that a step
change can be introduced to the input once it is at steady-state. Then the output can be
measured based on the time constant and the time delay and this response can be used to
evaluate the initial control parameters.
There exists a pre-determined list of recommended settings to get minimum offset and a
desired standard decay ratio of 1/4, meaning that the second oscillation will have 1/4 the
amplitude of the first.
of the characteristics and applications of pneumatic/hydraulic components used in
[Note: The standard has two competency statements numbered 13.]
a. Describe the operation of a basic pneumatic transmitter.
The following is taken from the International Society of Automation, Sensors.
A pneumatic transmitter converts the value of the measurement into an air pressure signal
that is sent through tubing to the controller. The connecting tubing carries the transmitted
pressure to a receiver, which is a component located in the controller housing. The tubing is
almost always one-quarter inch in outside diameter and may be copper, aluminum, or plastic.
The receiver is simply a pressure gauge element, and the transmitted air pressure is converted
into the movement of a bellows or diaphragm (that is, pressure is transduced into a position
or force that is used by the controller).
b. Given a diagram of a typical pneumatic control circuit, describe the operation of
the control system and explain the function of its components.
c. Explain the term live zero as it applies to pneumatic control circuits.
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Analog and Digital Signals.
Live zero is a standard way of scaling a signal so that an indication of 0 percent can be
discriminated from the status of a dead system. Take the pneumatic signal system as an
example. If the signal pressure range for transmitter and indicator was designed to be
0 to 12 psi, with 0 psi representing 0 percent of process measurement and 12 psi representing
100 percent, a received signal of 0 percent could be a legitimate reading of 0 percent
measurement or it could mean that the system was malfunctioning (an air compressor
stopped, tubing is broken, a transmitter is malfunctioning, etc.). With the 0 percent point
represented by 0 psi, there would be no easy way to distinguish one from the other.

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If, however, the instruments were scaled to use a scale of 3 to 15 psi, with 3 psi representing
0 percent and 15 psi representing 100 percent, any kind of a malfunction resulting in zero air
pressure at the indicator would generate a reading of -25 percent (0 psi), which is clearly a
faulty value. The person looking at the indicator would then be able to immediately tell that
something was wrong.
d. Discuss the function and application of the following types of signal converters:
I/P converter
P/I converter
I/P Converter
The following is taken from the University of Washington, Baneyx, chapter 2, Contorl
Loop Hardware.
The I/P converter uses a source of instrument air to change the air pressure (3-15 psig)
applied to the control valve corresponding to the value of the analog signal. That is, if I is
the value of the analog signal and P is the instrument air pressure delivered to the control
valve,
16
4 I
=
12
3 P

since a 4 to 20 mA range in the analog signal corresponds to a 3 to 15 psig range in the
instrument air pressure and the zero of the analog signal is 4 mA and the zero of the
pneumatic signal is 3 psig. Changes of instrument air pressure to the control valve cause
changes in the stem position of the control valve, which result in changes in the flow rate
to the process. These changes in the flow rate to the process cause changes in the
temperature of the mixer, which are measured by the sensor, completing the feedback
control loop. The final control element consists of the I/P converter, the instrument air
system, and the control valve.
P/I Converter
The following is taken from Samson, Electropneumatic Converters for Pneumatic Signals.
P/I converters serve as interface between pneumatic and electric measuring and control units, being
used for example to connect pneumatic transmitters to electric controllers, computers and process
control systems. The input variable is a pneumatic signal and the output variable an electric DC
current signal or DC voltage signal.
e. Describe the operation of a pneumatic actuator used in the following applications:
Air-operated open/close valve
Air-operated throttle valve
Air-operated damper

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A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in figure 55. The actuator operates by
a combination of force created by air and spring force. The actuator positions a control valve
by transmitting its motion through the stem.
A rubber diaphragm separates the actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper
chamber receives supply air through an opening in the top of the housing.

Figure 55. Pneumatic actuator: air-to-close, spring-to-open
The bottom chamber contains a spring that forces the diaphragm against mechanical stops in
the upper chamber. Finally, a local indicator is connected to the stem to indicate the position
of the valve.
The position of the valve is controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper chamber.
This results in a varying force on the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the
spring forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully
open. As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm begins

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to overcome the opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to move downward
and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the diaphragm will
continue to move downward and compress the spring until the control valve is fully closed.
Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will begin to force the diaphragm
upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if supply pressure is held constant at some
value between zero and maximum, the valve will position at an intermediate position.
Therefore, the valve can be positioned anywhere between fully open and fully closed in
response to changes in supply air pressure.
A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic actuator. It does
this by comparing the actuators demanded position with the control valves actual position.
The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or electrical control signal from a
controller to the positioner. The pneumatic actuator in figure 55 is shown, in figure 56, with a
controller and positioner added.
The controller generates an output signal that represents the demanded position. This signal
is sent to the positioner. Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for the
control signal, a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air vent
connection, and a feedback linkage. Internally, it contains an intricate network of electrical
transducers, air lines, valves, linkages, and necessary adjustments. Other positioners may also
provide controls for local valve positioning and gauges to indicate supply air pressure and
control air pressure (for pneumatic controllers).

147

Figure 56. Pneumatic actuator with controller and positioner
In figure 56, the controller responds to a deviation of a controlled variable from setpoint and
varies the control output signal accordingly to correct the deviation. The control output signal
is sent to the positioner, which responds by increasing or decreasing the supply air to the
actuator. Positioning of the actuator and control valve is fed back to the positioner through
the feedback linkage. When the valve has reached the position demanded by the controller,
the positioner stops the change in supply air pressure and holds the valve at the new position.
This, in turn, corrects the controlled variables deviation from setpoint.
For example, as the control signal increases, a valve inside the positioner admits more supply
air to the actuator. As a result, the control valve moves downward. The linkage transmits the
valve position information back to the positioner. This forms a small internal feedback loop
for the actuator. When the valve reaches the position that correlates to the control signal, the
linkage stops supply air flow to the actuator. This causes the actuator to stop. On the other
hand, if the control signal decreases, another valve inside the positioner opens and allows the
supply air pressure to decrease by venting the supply air. This causes the valve to move
upward and open. When the valve has opened to the proper position, the positioner stops
venting air from the actuator and stops movement of the control valve.

148

An important safety feature is provided by the spring in an actuator. It can be designed to
position a control valve in a safe position if a loss of supply air occurs. On a loss of supply
air, the actuator in figure 56 will fail open. This type of arrangement is referred to as air-to-
close, spring-to-open or simply fail-open. Some valves fail in the closed position. This type
of actuator is referred to as air-to-open, spring-to-close or fail-closed. This fail-safe concept
is an important consideration in nuclear facility design.
f. Describe the operation of an electrohydraulic control system.
The following is taken from Freepatentsonline, Electrohydraulic Control System.
The electrohydraulic control system includes a way valve of the type provided with a
housing, fluid inflow and consumer ports in the housing, and at least one valve member
movable in the valve housing for establishing connections between ports. A positioning
arrangement receives an electrical input signal and positions the valve member in
dependence thereon. A desired-value selector generates a desired-value signal indicative of
the desired volumetric flow rate for the flow of fluid into the fluid inflow port and out one of
the consumer ports. Transducers sense the position of the valve member and the pressures at
the inflow and consumer ports and generate corresponding electrical feedback signals. A
circuit arrangement connected to the desired-value selector and to the transducers
compensates for the effect upon such volumetric flow rate of variations in the hydraulic
loading of consumers supplied via the way valve by furnishing the aforementioned electrical
input signal to the positioning arrangement as a predetermined function of both the desired-
value and feedback signals.
of the characteristics and applications of electronic components used in
a. Describe the operation and application of the following components found in
instrumentation and control circuits:
Summer
Root extractor
Gate
Integrator
Multiplier
Proportional device
Summer
According to All About Circuits, a summer circuit is one that sums, or adds, multiple analog
voltage signals together. There are two basic varieties of operational amplifier summer
circuits: noninverting and inverting.
Root Extractor
According to DOE-HDBK-1013/1-92, the root extractor is used to electronically calculate
the square root of the DP and provide an output proportional to system flow. The constants
are determined by selection of the appropriate electronic components. The extractor output is

149

amplified and sent to an indicator. The indicator provides either a local or a remote indication
of system flow.
Gate
According to DOE-HDBK-1016/2-93, gates depict the operation/start/stop circuits of
components and systems.
Integrator
A device that performs the mathematical function of integration is called an integrator. The
mathematical result of integration is called the integral. The integrator provides a linear
output with a rate of change that is directly related to the amplitude of the step change input
and a constant that specifies the function of integration.
The integrator acts to transform the step change into a gradually changing signal. The input
amplitude is repeated in the output every 5 seconds. As long as the input remains constant at
10 percent, the output will continue to ramp up every 5 seconds until the integrator saturates.
Multiplier
The following is taken from Research Media and Cybernetics, Voltage Multipliers.
One of the cheapest and popular ways of generating high voltages at relatively low currents
is the classic multistage diode/capacitor voltage multiplier, known as a Cockcroft Walton
multiplier.
Unlike transformers, this method eliminates the requirement for the heavy core and the bulk
of insulation/potting required. By using only capacitors and diodes, these voltage multipliers
can step up relatively low voltages to extremely high values, while at the same time being far
lighter and cheaper than transformers. The biggest advantage of such a circuit is that the
voltage across each stage of this cascade is only equal to twice the peak input voltage, so it
has the advantage of requiring relatively low-cost components and being easy to insulate.
Proportional Device
According to National Instruments Developer Zone, a proportional device is a system that
corrects the deviation of a process from the set level back toward the setpoint. The correction
is proportional to the amount of error.
b. Discuss the uses and applications for microprocessors in an instrumentation and
control system.
The following information is taken from How Microprocessors Work by Marshall Brain.
A microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to
do. Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things:
1. Using its arithmetic/logic unit, a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Modern microprocessors

150

contain complete floating-point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated
operations on large floating-point numbers.
2. A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.
3. A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on
those decisions.
c. Discuss each of the following terms, including their application to instrumentation
and control systems.
Computer memory (random access memory [RAM]/read-only memory [ROM])
Discrete logic
Discrete semiconductors
Analog integrated circuits
Comparitor circuits
Combinatorial logics
Signal conditioning
Computer Memory
The following is taken from Computer Hope.com.
Random access memory (RAM), also known as main memory or system memory, is a term
commonly used to describe the memory within a computer. Unlike read-only memory
(ROM), RAM requires power; if power is lost, all data is also lost.
ROM is a type of memory that is capable of holding data and being read from; however, it is
not capable of being written to or having its data modified. Unlike RAM, ROM is capable of
keeping its contents whether if it has power or not.
Discrete Logic
According to PC Magazine, Encyclopedia, discrete logic is an individual gate on a single
chip. Although up to hundreds of thousands of gates are routinely placed on a single chip,
discrete logic chips that contain only one or two gates are also manufactured. These chips are
used as glue chips between application-specific integrated circuits and other integrated
circuits typically to reshape and transfer signals.
Discrete Semiconductors
The following is taken from All About Circuits, volume VI, Experiments, Discrete
Semiconductor Circuits.
A semiconductor device is one made of silicon or any number of other specially prepared
materials designed to exploit the unique properties of electrons in a crystal lattice, where
electrons are not as free to move as in a conductor, but are far more mobile than in an
insulator. A discrete device is one contained in its own package, not built on a common
semiconductor substrate with other components, as is the case with integrated circuits. Thus,
discrete semiconductor circuits are circuits built out of individual semiconductor
components, connected together on some kind of circuit board or terminal strip.
The following is taken from Industrial Equipment Resource, Semiconductors.

151

Semiconductors are electronic devices that under specific conditions of temperature and
voltage, operate as insulators or conductors. They are also called solid-state devices since
they do not use vacuum tubes to conduct electricity. These items use electronic conduction in
the solid state as opposed to the gaseous state or thermionic emission in a high vacuum.
Discrete semiconductor units are made as single devices.
In very low temperature the semiconductor will act as an insulator, and it will act as a
conductor at room temperature; however it has much lower conductivity than a conductor at
absolute zero, the uppermost filled electron energy band is completely filled in a
semiconductor and only partially filled in a conductor.
The difference between a semiconductor and an insulator is a little more arbitrary. A
semiconductor has a band gap that is small enough so that its conduction band is appreciably
thermally populated with electrons at room temperature, whereas an insulator has a band gap
that is too wide for there to be appreciable thermal electrons in its conduction band at the
same temperature.
Semiconductors are widely used in modern electronics and are used in one form or another in
white goods, electronic instruments, automobiles, space applications, industrial circuits,
audio equipment, etc. Common trade names are transistors, diodes, thyristors,
microprocessors, diodes and zener diodes.
Semi-conducting materials are silicon, silicon carbide, boron nitride, gallium arsenide,
aluminum arsenide, silicon germanium, aluminum gallium arsenide, diamond, gallium
nitride, germanium and indium phosphide.
These devices are made of layers that allow them to conduct electricity. They operate on the
principle of electrons and holes. Electrons tend to move towards the hole layer, and this
makes them conductive. Semiconductors are very useful in electronics because their
conductivity can be altered when small amounts of impurities (dopants) are added. This is
called doping. When you heavily dope a semiconductor you can actually increase its
conductivity by a factor greater than a billion. In modern integrated circuits heavily doped
polycrystalline silicon is sometimes used as a replacement for metals.
Analog Integrated Circuits
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Analog Integrated Circuits.
Analog circuits are circuits dealing with signals free to vary from zero to full power supply
voltage. This stands in contrast to digital circuits, which almost exclusively employ all-or-
nothing signals: voltages restricted to values of zero and full supply voltage, with no valid
state in between those extreme limits. Analog circuits are often referred to as linear circuits to
emphasize the valid continuity of signal range forbidden in digital circuits.
Analog integrated circuits are actually networks of interconnected components manufactured
on a single wafer of semiconducting material. Most integrated circuits provide the same
functionality as discrete semiconductor circuits at higher levels of reliability and at a fraction
of the cost. Usually, discrete-component circuit construction is favored only when power
dissipation levels are too high for integrated circuits to handle.

152

Comparator Circuits
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Voltage Comparator.
A comparator circuit compares two voltage signals and determines which one is greater. The
result of this comparison is indicated by the output voltage: if the op-amps output is
saturated in the positive direction, the noninverting input (+) is a greater, or more positive,
voltage than the inverting input (-), all voltages measured with respect to ground. If the op-
amps voltage is near the negative supply voltage, it means the inverting input (-) has a
greater voltage applied to it than the noninverting input (+).
Combinatorial Logics
The following is taken from PC Magazine, Encyclopedia, Combinational Logic.
Combinational logic also known as combinatorial logic, refers to a digital logic function
made of primitive logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) in which all outputs of the function are
directly related to the current combination of values on its inputs. Any changes to the signals
being applied to the inputs will immediately propagate through the gates until their effects
appear at the outputs.
Signal Conditioning
The following is taken from National Instruments, Signal Conditioning Fundamentals for
Computer-Based Data Acquisition Systems.
Regardless of the types of sensors or transducers you are using, the proper signal
conditioning equipment can improve the quality and performance of your system. Signal
conditioning functions are useful for all types of signals, including amplification, filtering,
and isolation.
Amplification
Because real-world signals are often very small in magnitude, signal conditioning can
improve the accuracy of your data. Amplifiers boost the level of the input signal to better
match the range of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), thus increasing the resolution and
sensitivity of the measurement. While many data acquisition (DAQ) devices include onboard
amplifiers for this reason, many transducers, such a thermocouples, require additional
amplification.
In addition, using external signal conditioners located closer to the signal source, or
transducer, improves the signal-to-noise ratio of the measurement by boosting the signal
level before it is affected by environmental noise.
Attenuation
Attenuation is the opposite of amplification. It is necessary when the voltages to be digitized
are beyond the input range of the digitizer. This form of signal conditioning diminishes the
amplitude of the input signal so that the conditioned signal is within range of the ADC.
Attenuation is necessary for measuring high voltages.

153

Filtering
Additionally, signal conditioners can include filters to reject unwanted noise within a certain
frequency range. Almost all DAQ applications are subject to some level of 50 or 60 Hz noise
picked up from power lines or machinery. Therefore, most conditioners include low pass
filters designed specifically to provide maximum rejection of 50 to 60 Hz noise.
Another common use of filters is to prevent signal aliasinga phenomenon that arises when
a signal is undersampled (sampled too slowly). The Nyquist theorem states that when you
sample an analog signal, any signal components at frequencies greater than one-half the
sampling frequency appear in the sampled data as a lower frequency signal. You can avoid
this signal distortion only by removing any signal components above one-half the sampling
frequency with low pass filters before the signal is sampled.
Isolation
Improper grounding of the system is one of the most common causes for measurement
problems, including noise and damaged measurement devices. Signal conditioners with
isolation can prevent most of these problems. Such devices pass the signal from its source to
the measurement device without a physical connection by using transformer, optical, or
capacitive coupling techniques. Besides breaking ground loops, isolation blocks high-voltage
surges and rejects high common-mode voltage and thus protects both the operators and
expensive measurement equipment.
Multiplexing
Typically, the digitizer is the most expensive part of a data acquisition system. By
multiplexing, you can sequentially route a number of signals into a single digitizer, thus
achieving a cost-effective way to greatly expand the signal count of your system.
Multiplexing is necessary for any high-channel-count application.
Simultaneous Sampling
When it is critical to measure two or more signals at the same instant in time, simultaneous
sampling is required. Front-end signal conditioning can provide a much more cost-effective
simultaneous sampling solution than purchasing a digitizer for each channel. Typical
applications that might require simultaneous sampling include vibration measurements and
phase difference measurements.
Digital Signal Conditioning
Digital signals can also require signal conditioning peripherals. Typically, you should not
connect digital signals used in research and industrial environments directly to a DAQ board
without some type of isolation because of the possibility of large voltage spikes or large
common voltages. Some signal conditioning modules and boards optically isolate the digital
input/output signals to remove these spurious signals. Digital input/output signals can control
electromechanical or solid-state relays to switch loads such as solenoids, lights, and motors.
You can also use solid-state relays to sense high-voltage field signals and convert them to
digital signals.

154

of systems integration to achieve performance, effectiveness, and cost objectives.
a. Given a design package for an instrumentation and control system, evaluate its
application within an integrated system for the following criteria:
Instruments and controls meet the general human factors criteria and
considerations for safe and efficient system operation.
Instruments and controls perform within the parameters required for safe and
efficient system operation.
Instrument and control response times are adequate for safe and efficient
system operation.
Instruments and controls are physically configured for safe and efficient
maintenance.
Instruments and controls meet the general design criteria for the system in
which they are to be used.
b. Given a proposed application of an instrumentation and control system to an
integrated system, evaluate the performance of the integrated system to
determine that instrument and control performance requirements will be met.
c. Discuss the problems presented to instrumentation and control systems under
various system applications.
Elements a through c are performance based. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
of basic thermodynamic concepts and theories used in the design and operation of
process control systems.
a. Define the following terms:
Specific volume
Density
Specific gravity
Mass
Weight
Specific Volume
The specific volume of a substance is the total volume of that substance divided by the total
mass of that substance (volume per unit mass). It has units of cubic feet per pound-mass
(ft
3
/lbm).
Density
The density of a substance is the total mass of that substance divided by the total volume
occupied by that substance (mass per unit volume). It has units of pound-mass per cubic feet
(lbm/ft
3
). The density of a substance is the reciprocal of its specific volume.

155

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the relative density of a substance as compared to the density
of water at a standard temperature. Physicists use 39.2 F (4 C) as the standard, but
engineers ordinarily use 60 F. In SI units, the density of water is 1.00 g/cm
3
at the standard
temperature. Therefore, the specific gravity (which is dimensionless) for a liquid has the
same numerical value as its density in units of g/cm
3
. Since the density of a fluid varies with
temperature, specific gravities must be determined and specified at particular temperatures.
Mass
The mass of a body is the measure of the amount of material present in that body.
Weight
The weight of a body is the force exerted by that body when its mass is accelerated in a
gravitational field.
b. Describe the thermodynamic properties of temperature and pressure.
Temperature is a measure of the molecular activity of a substance. The greater the movement
of molecules, the higher the temperature will be. It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a
substance is and can be used to predict the direction of heat transfer.
Pressure is a measure of the force exerted per unit area on the boundaries of a substance (or
system). It is caused by the collisions of the molecules of the substance with the boundaries
of the system. As molecules hit the walls, they exert forces that try to push the walls outward.
The forces resulting from all of these collisions cause the pressure exerted by a system on its
surroundings. Pressure is frequently measured in units of pound-force per square inch
(lbf/in
2)
(psi).
c. Compare and contrast the Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and Rankine temperature
scales, and discuss the concept of absolute zero.
The two temperature scales normally employed for measurement purposes are the Fahrenheit
(F) and Celsius (C) scales. These scales are based on a specification of the number of
increments between the freezing point and the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric
pressure. The Celsius scale has 100 units between these points, and the Fahrenheit scale has
180 units. The zero points on the scales are arbitrary.
The freezing point of water was selected as the zero point of the Celsius scale. The coldest
temperature achievable with a mixture of ice and salt water was selected as the zero point of
the Fahrenheit scale. The temperature at which water boils was set at 100 on the Celsius scale
and 212 on the Fahrenheit scale. The relationship between the scales is represented by the
following equations:
F = 32.0 + (9/5) C

156

C = (F - 32.0)(5/9)
It is necessary to define an absolute temperature scale having only positive values. The
absolute temperature scale that corresponds to the Celsius scale is called the Kelvin scale,
and the absolute scale that corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale is called the Rankine scale.
The zero points on both absolute scales represent the same physical state. This state is where
there is no molecular motion of individual atoms. The relationships between the absolute and
relative temperature scales are shown in the following equations:
R = F + 460
K = C + 273
d. Describe the relationship between absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and
vacuum.
When pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (psia),
and when measured relative to atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi), it is called gauge pressure.
The latter pressure scale was developed because almost all pressure gauges register zero
when open to the atmosphere. Therefore, pressure gauges measure the difference between the
pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that of the surrounding air.
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is designated as a vacuum. A perfect
vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure. All values of absolute pressure are
positive, because a negative value would indicate tension, which is considered impossible in
any fluid. Gauge pressures are positive if they are above atmospheric pressure and negative if
they are below atmospheric pressure.
e. Define the following and describe their relationship:
Energy
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Work
Heat
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity of a system to perform work or produce heat.
Potential Energy
Potential energy (PE) is defined as the energy of position. Using English system units, it is
defined by the following equation:
PE = mgz/g
c
where

157

PE = potential energy (ft-lbf)
m = mass (lbm)
z = height above some reference level (ft)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec
2
)
g
c
= gravitational constant = 32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-sec
2
In most practical engineering calculations, the acceleration due to gravity (g) is numerically
equal to the gravitational constant (g
c
); thus, the potential energy in foot-pounds-force is
numerically equal to the product of the mass (m) in pounds-mass times the height (z) in feet
above some reference level.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of motion. Using English system units, it is defined by the
following equation:
KE mv
2
/2g
c
where
KE = kinetic energy (ft-lbf)
m = mass (lbm)
v = velocity (ft/sec)
g
c
= gravitational constant = 32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-sec
2
Work
Work is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit. Work is not a property of a system.
Work is a process done by or on a system, but a system contains no work.
This distinction between the forms of energy that are properties of a system and the forms of
energy that are transferred to and from a system is important to the understanding of energy
transfer systems.
Work is defined for mechanical systems as the action of a force on an object through a
distance. It equals the product of the force (F) times the displacement (d).
In dealing with work in relation to energy transfer systems, it is important to distinguish
between work done by the system on its surroundings and work done on the system by its
surroundings. Work is done by the system when it is used to turn a turbine and thereby
generate electricity in a turbine-generator. Work is done on the system when a pump is used
to move the working fluid from one location to another. A positive value for work indicates
that work is done by the system on its surroundings; a negative value indicates that work is
done on the system by its surroundings.
Heat
Heat, like work, is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat, however, occurs at the
molecular level as a result of a temperature difference. The symbol Q is used to denote heat.
In engineering applications, the unit of heat is the British thermal unit (Btu). Specifically, this
is called the 60 degree Btu because it is measured by a 1 degree temperature change, from
59.5 F to 60.5 F.

158

As with work, the amount of heat transferred depends upon the path and not simply on the
initial and final conditions of the system. Also, as with work, it is important to distinguish
between heat added to a system from its surroundings and heat removed from a system to its
surroundings. A positive value for heat indicates that heat is added to the system by its
surroundings. This is in contrast to work that is positive when energy is transferred from the
system and negative when transferred to the system. The symbol q is sometimes used to
indicate the heat added to or removed from a system per unit mass. It equals the total heat
(Q) added or removed divided by the mass (m).
f. Describe the following types of thermodynamic systems:
Isolated system
Open system
Closed system
Isolated System
An isolated system is one that is not influenced in any way by the surroundings. This means
that no energy in the form of heat or work may cross the boundary of the system. In addition,
no mass may cross the boundary of the system.
Open System
An open system is one that may have a transfer of both mass and energy with its surroundings.
Closed System
A closed system has no transfer of mass with its surroundings, but may have a transfer of
energy (either heat or work) with its surroundings.
g. Discuss the application of Bernoullis principle to a process control system.
Bernoullis equation results from the application of the general energy equation and the first
law of thermodynamics to a steady flow system in which no work is done on or by the fluid,
no heat is transferred to or from the fluid, and no change occurs in the internal energy (i.e.,
there is no temperature change) of the fluid.
Many plant components, such as a venturi, may be analyzed using Bernoullis equation and
the continuity equation. A venturi is a flow-measuring device that consists of a gradual
contraction followed by a gradual expansion. An example of a venturi is shown in figure 57.
By measuring the differential pressure between the inlet of the venturi (point 1) and the
throat of the venture (point 2), the flow velocity and mass flow rate can be determined based
on Bernoullis equation.

159

Figure 57. Venturi tube
Bernoullis equation states that the total head of the flow must be constant. Since the
elevation does not change significantly, if at all, between points 1 and 2, the elevation head at
the two points will be essentially the same and will cancel out of the equation. So Bernoullis
equation simplifies to the following equation for a venturi.
g
g
V P
g 2
v
g
g
V P
g 2
v
c
2 2
2
2 c
1 1
2
1
= = +
Applying the continuity equation to points 1 and 2 allows us to express the flow velocity at
point 1 as a function of the flow velocity at point 2 and the ratio of the two flow areas.
1
A
1
v
1
=
2
A
2
v
2
v
1
=
1 1
2 2 2
A P
v A P

v
1 =
v
2
1
2
A
A

Using algebra to rearrange the first equation and substituting the above result for v
1
allows us
to solve for v
2
.
( )
g
g
v P P
g 2
c
2 1
2
1
2
2 v v
=

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
2
2
2
2
A
A
v v
( )
2 1
P P 2vg
c

160

=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
2
2
2
2
A
A
1
v v
( ) P P
2 1
2vg
c
v
2
2
=
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
2
c 2 1
A
A
- 1
2vg P P

( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
c 2 1
2
A
A
1
vg 2 P P
v

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
c
2 1
2
A
A
1
vg 2
P P
v

Therefore, the flow velocity at the throat of the venturi and the volumetric flow rate are
directly proportional to the square root of the differential pressure.
The pressures at the upstream section and throat are actual pressures, and velocities from
Bernoullis equation without a loss term are theoretical velocities. When losses are
considered in the energy equation, the velocities are actual velocities. First, with the
Bernoulli equation (that is, without a head-loss term), the theoretical velocity at the throat is
obtained. Then by multiplying this by the venturi factor (Cv), which accounts for friction
losses and equals 0.98 for most venturis, the actual velocity is obtained. The actual velocity
times the actual area of the throat determines the actual discharge volumetric flow rate.
The pressure drop, P
1
-P
2
, across the venturi can be used to measure the flow rate using a
U-tube manometer as shown in figure 57. The reading, R, of the manometer is proportional
to the pressure drop and thus the velocity of the fluid.
18. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate a familiarity level
knowledge of basic heat transfer and fluid flow concepts and theories.
a. Explain the following terms:
Static head
Velocity head
Friction head
Head loss
The following information is taken from ITT Corporation, Goulds Pumps, Centrifugal Pump
Fundamentals: Head, unless stated otherwise.

161

Static Head
Static head is the vertical distance in feet between the free level of the source of supply and
the point of free discharge or the free surface of the discharge liquid.
Velocity Head
Velocity head is the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity V. It is the
equivalent head in feet through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same
velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water. Velocity head can be
calculated from the following formula:
h
v
=
g
2
2
v

where:
g = 32.2 ft/sec
2

v = liquid velocity in feet per second
The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems.
However, it can be a large factor and must be considered in low head systems.
Friction Head
Friction head is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings.
It is dependent upon the size, condition and type of pipe; number and type of pipe fittings;
flow rate, and nature of the liquid.
Head Loss
Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation head, velocity
head, and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid system. Head loss is
unavoidable in real fluids. It is present because of the friction between the fluid and the walls
of the pipe; the friction between adjacent fluid particles as they move relative to one another;
and the turbulence caused whenever the flow is redirected or affected in any way by such
components as piping entrances and exits, pumps, valves, flow reducers, and fittings.
b. Describe the relationship between pressure and flow in a process system.
A form of energy that is important in understanding energy transfer systems is P-V energy.
This form of energy is called P-V energy because it arises from the pressure (P) and the
volume (V) of a fluid. It is numerically equal to PV, the product of pressure and volume.
Because energy is defined as the capacity of a system to perform work, a system where
pressure and volume are permitted to expand performs work on its surroundings. Therefore, a
fluid under pressure has the capacity to perform work. In engineering applications, the units
of P-V energy, also called flow energy, are the units of pressure times volume (pounds-force
per square foot times cubic feet), which equals foot-pounds force (ft-lbf).

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c. Using the ideal gas law, discuss the relationship between pressure, temperature,
and volume.
The ideal gas constant is designated by R, and the ideal gas equation is:
Pv = RT
where
P = pressure
v= volume
T = temperature, and the pressure and temperature are absolute values.
The individual gas constant (R) may be obtained by dividing the universal gas constant (Ro)
by the molecular weight (MW) of the gas. The units of (R) must always be consistent with
the units of pressure, temperature, and volume used in the gas equation. No real gases follow
the ideal gas law or equation completely. At temperatures near a gass boiling point,
increases in pressure will cause condensation to take place and cause drastic decreases in
volume. At very high pressures, the intermolecular forces of a gas are significant. However,
most gases are in approximate agreement at pressures and temperatures above their boiling
point.
The ideal gas law is used by engineers working with gases because it is simple to use and
approximates real gas behavior. Most physical conditions of gases used by man fit the above
description. Perhaps the most common use of gas behavior studied by engineers is that of the
compression process using ideal gas approximations. Such a compression process may occur
at constant temperature, constant volume, or under adiabatic conditions (no heat transfer).
Whatever the process, the amount of work that results from it depends upon the process.
d. Describe the effects of pressure and temperature changes on confined fluids.
The predominant effect of an increase in pressure in a compressible fluid, such as a gas, is an
increase in the density of the fluid. An increase in the pressure of an incompressible fluid will
not have a significant effect on the density. For example, increasing the pressure of 100 F
water from 15 psia to 15,000 psia will only increase the density by approximately 6 percent.
Therefore, in engineering calculations, it is assumed that the density of incompressible fluids
remains constant.
An increase in temperature will tend to decrease the density of any fluid. If the fluid is
confined in a container of fixed volume, the effect of a temperature change will depend on
whether the fluid is compressible.
If the fluid is a gas, it will respond to a temperature change in a manner predicted by the ideal
gas laws. A 5 percent increase in absolute temperature will result in a 5 percent increase in
the absolute pressure.

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If the fluid is an incompressible liquid in a closed container, an increase in the temperature
will have a tremendously greater and potentially catastrophic effect. As the fluid temperature
increases, it tries to expand, but expansion is prevented by the walls of the container. Because
the fluid is incompressible, this results in a tremendous increase in pressure for a relatively
minor temperature change. The change in specific volume for a given change in temperature
is not the same at various beginning temperatures. Resultant pressure changes will vary. A
useful rule for water is that pressure in a water-solid system will increase about 100 psi for
every 1F increase in temperature.
e. Describe how the density of a fluid varies with temperature.
According to DOE-HDBK-1012/1-92, an increase in temperature will tend to decrease the
density of any fluid.
f. Describe the relationship between the pressure in a fluid column and the density
and depth of the fluid.
Careful measurements show that the pressure of a liquid is directly proportional to the depth,
and for a given depth the liquid exerts the same pressure in all directions.
As shown in figure 58 the pressure at different levels in the tank varies and this causes the
fluid to leave the tank at varying velocities. Pressure was defined to be force per unit area. In
the case of this tank, the force is due to the weight of the water above the point where the
pressure is being determined.

Figure 58. Pressure versus depth

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Example:
Pressure =
Area
Force

=
Area
Weight

P =
c
Ag
mg

c
Ag
Vg

where:
m = mass in lbm
g = acceleration due to earths gravity 32.17
2
sec
ft.

gc = 32.17
2
sec - lbf
ft. - lbm

2
A = area in ft
V = volume in ft
3

r = density of fluid in
3
ft
lbm

The volume is equal to the cross-sectional area times the height (h) of liquid. Substituting this
into the above equation yields:
P =
c
Ag
Ahg

c
g
hg
P =
This equation tells us that the pressure exerted by a column of water is directly proportional
to the height of the column and the density of the water and is independent of the cross-
sectional area of the column. The pressure thirty feet below the surface of a one inch
diameter standpipe is the same as the pressure thirty feet below the surface of a large lake.
g. Define the terms mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate.
Mass Flow Rate
The mass flow rate (m) of a system is a measure of the mass of fluid passing a point in the
system per unit time. The mass flow rate is related to the volumetric flow rate as shown in
the equation below where is the density of the fluid and V is the volumetric flow rate.
m = V

If the volumetric flow rate is in cubic feet per second and the density is in pounds-mass per
cubic foot, the above equation results in mass flow rate measured in pounds-mass per second.

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Other common units for measurement of mass flow rate include kilograms per second and
pounds-mass per hour.
Volumetric Flow Rate
The volumetric flow rate (V) of a system is a measure of the volume of fluid passing a point
in the system per unit time. The volumetric flow rate can be calculated as the product of the
cross-sectional area (A) for flow and the average flow velocity (v).
V = Av
If area is measured in square feet and velocity in feet per second, the above equation results
in volumetric flow rate measured in cubic feet per second. Other common units for
volumetric flow rate include gallons per minute, cubic centimeters per second, liters per
minute, and gallons per hour.
h. Describe the phenomenon of water hammer, pressure spike, and steam hammer.
Water Hammer
Water hammer is a liquid shock wave resulting from the sudden starting or stopping of flow.
It is affected by the initial system pressure, the density of the fluid, the speed of sound in the
fluid, the elasticity of the fluid and pipe, the change in velocity of the fluid, the diameter and
thickness of the pipe, and the valve operating time.
During the closing of a valve, kinetic energy of the moving fluid is converted into potential
energy. Elasticity of the fluid and pipe wall produces a wave of positive pressure back toward
the fluids source. When this wave reaches the source, the mass of fluid will be at rest, but
under tremendous pressure. The compressed liquid and stretched pipe walls will now start to
release the liquid in the pipe back to the source and return to the static pressure of the source.
This release of energy will form another pressure wave back to the valve. When this
shockwave reaches the valve, due to the momentum of the fluid, the pipe wall will begin to
contract. This contraction is transmitted back to the source, which places the pressure in the
piping below that of the static pressure of the source. These pressure waves will travel back
and forth several times until the fluid friction dampens the alternating pressure waves to the
static pressure of the source.
Normally, the entire hammer process takes place in under one second. The initial shock of
suddenly stopped flow can induce transient pressure changes that exceed the static pressure.
If the valve is closed slowly, the loss of kinetic energy is gradual. If it is closed quickly, the
loss of kinetic energy is very rapid. A shock wave results because of this rapid loss of kinetic
energy. The shock wave caused by water hammer can be of sufficient magnitude to cause
physical damage to piping, equipment, and personnel. Water hammer in pipes has been
known to pull pipe supports from their mounts, rupture piping, and cause pipe whip.

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Pressure Spike
A pressure spike is the resulting rapid rise in pressure above static pressure caused by water
hammer. The highest pressure spike attained will be at the instant the flow changed and is
governed by the following equation.
c
c
g

P =
where
P = pressure spike
= density of the fluid
c = velocity of the pressure wave
v = change in velocity of the fluid
g
c
= gravitational constant 32.17
Steam Hammer
Steam hammer is similar to water hammer except it is for a steam system. Steam hammer is a
gaseous shock wave resulting from the sudden starting or stopping of flow. Steam hammer is
not as severe as water hammer for three reasons:
1. The compressibility of the steam dampens the shock wave.
2. The speed of sound in steam is approximately one third the speed of sound in water.
3. The density of steam is approximately 1600 times less than that of water.
The items of concern that deal with steam piping are thermal shock and water slugs (i.e.,
condensation in the steam system) as a result of improper warm up.
knowledge of mechanical engineering, theories, principles, and techniques.
a. Describe the basic construction and operation of the following types of valves
used in a process system:
Gate valve
Globe valve
Flow control valve
Butterfly valve
Diaphragm valves
Check valve
Relief and safety valves
Gate Valve
A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow. However, it does not
regulate or throttle flow. The name gate is derived from the appearance of the disk in the
flow stream. Figure 59 illustrates a gate valve.

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Figure 59. Gate valve
The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream when the valve is fully
open. This characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow when the valve is open. Hence,
there is little pressure drop across an open gate valve. When the valve is fully closed, a disk-
to-seal-ring contact surface exists for 360 degrees, and good sealing is provided. With the
proper mating of a disk to the seal ring, very little or no leakage occurs across the disk when
the gate valve is closed.
On opening the gate valve, the flow path is enlarged in a highly nonlinear manner with
respect to percent of opening. This means that flow rate does not change evenly with stem

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travel. Also, a partially open gate disk tends to vibrate from the fluid flow. Most of the flow
change occurs near shutoff with a relatively high fluid velocity causing disk and seat wear
and eventual leakage if used to regulate flow. For these reasons, gate valves are not used to
regulate or throttle flow.
A gate valve can be used for a wide variety of fluids and provides a tight seal when closed.
The major disadvantages to the use of a gate valve are listed below:
1. It is not suitable for throttling applications.
2. It is prone to vibration in the partially open state.
3. It is more subject to seat and disk wear than a globe valve.
4. Repairs, such as lapping and grinding, are generally more difficult to accomplish.
Globe Valve
A globe valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start, and regulate fluid flow. A Z-body
globe valve is illustrated in figure 60.

Figure 60. Z-body glove valve
The globe valve disk can be totally removed from the flow path, or it can completely close
the flow path. The essential principle of globe valve operation is the perpendicular movement
of the disk away from the seat. This causes the annular space between the disk and seat ring
to gradually close as the valve is closed. This characteristic gives the globe valve good
throttling ability, which permits its use in regulating flow. Therefore, the globe valve may be
used for both stopping and starting fluid flow and for regulating flow.

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When compared to a gate valve, a globe valve generally yields much less seat leakage. This
is because the disk-to-seat-ring contact is more at right angles, which permits the force of
closing to tightly seat the disk.
Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the same direction of fluid
flow. When the disk closes against the direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid
impedes closing but aids opening of the valve. When the disk closes in the same direction of
flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes opening. This characteristic is
preferable to other designs when quick-acting stop valves are necessary.
Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident shortcoming of the simple globe valve
is the high head loss from two or more right angle turns of flowing fluid. Obstructions and
discontinuities in the flow path lead to head loss. In a large high-pressure line, the fluid
dynamic effects from pulsations, impacts, and pressure drops can damage trim, stem packing,
and actuators. In addition, large valve sizes require considerable power to operate and are
especially noisy in high-pressure applications.
Other drawbacks of globe valves are the large openings necessary for disk assembly, heavier
weight than other valves of the same flow rating, and the cantilevered mounting of the disk to
the stem.
Flow Control Valve
Flow control valves are used to maintain a constant predetermined flow in a system. They
must be installed in the correct flow direction (indicated by label) to work properly. They use
a diaphragm that changes shape with inlet pressure changes, thus maintaining a constant flow
rate. They are normally used to replace more costly flow control devices.
Butterfly Valve
A butterfly valve illustrated in figure 61 is a rotary motion valve that is used to stop, regulate,
and start fluid flow. Butterfly valves are easily and quickly operated because a 90 degree
rotation of the handle moves the disk from a fully closed to a fully opened position. Larger
butterfly valves are actuated by hand wheels connected to the stem through gears that provide
mechanical advantage at the expense of speed.

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Figure 61. Typical butterfly valve
Butterfly valves possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug, and ball valves, especially
for large valve applications. Savings in weight, space, and cost are the most obvious
advantages. The maintenance costs are usually low because there are a minimal number of
moving parts and there are no pockets to trap fluids.
Diaphragm Valves
A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop fluid flow.
The name is derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the open area
at the top of the valve body to form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated in figure 62.
Diaphragm valves are, in effect, simple pinch clamp valves. A resilient, flexible diaphragm
is connected to a compressor by a stud molded into the diaphragm. The compressor is moved
up and down by the valve stem. Hence, the diaphragm lifts when the compressor is raised. As
the compressor is lowered, the diaphragm is pressed against the contoured bottom in a
straight-through valve, or against the body weir in the weir-type valve.
Diaphragm valves can also be used for throttling service. The weir-type is the better
throttling valve, but it has a limited range. Its throttling characteristics are essentially those of
a quick-opening valve because of the large shutoff area along the seat.

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Figure 62. Straight-through diaphragm valve
A weir-type diaphragm valve is available to control small flows. It uses a two-piece
compressor component. Instead of the entire diaphragm lifting off the weir when the valve is
opened, the first increments of stem travel raise an inner compressor component that causes
only the central part of the diaphragm to lift. This creates a relatively small opening through
the center of the valve. After the inner compressor is completely open, the outer compressor
component is raised along with the inner compressor and the remainder of the throttling is
similar to the throttling that takes place in a conventional valve.
Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for the handling of corrosive fluids, fibrous slurries,
radioactive fluids, or other fluids that must remain free from contamination.
Check Valve
Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves
are activated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing
through the system opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure
is accomplished by the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a
combination of these means. The general types of check valves are swing, tilting-disk, piston,
butterfly, and stop.
Relief and Safety Valves
Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over-
pressurization of fluid systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve
is the extent of opening at the setpoint pressure.
A relief valve, illustrated in figure 63, gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases above
the setpoint. A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition. A
safety valve rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached.

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A safety valve will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset pressure. The reset
pressure is lower than the actuating pressure setpoint. The difference between the actuating
pressure setpoint and the pressure at which the safety valve resets is called blowdown.
Blowdown is expressed as a percentage of the actuating pressure setpoint.

Figure 63. Relief valve
b. Discuss how valve operation controlled by a process control system can cause
water hammer or pressure spiking if the system is not designed properly.
During the closing of a valve, kinetic energy of the moving fluid is converted into potential
energy. The elasticity of the fluid and pipe wall produces a wave of positive pressure back
toward the fluids source. When this wave reaches the source, the mass of fluid will be at
rest, but under tremendous pressure. The compressed liquid and stretched pipe walls will
now start to release the liquid in the pipe back to the source and return to the static pressure
of the source.

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This release of energy will form another pressure wave back to the valve. When this
shockwave reaches the valve, due to the momentum of the fluid, the pipe wall will begin to
contract. This contraction is transmitted back to the source, which places the pressure in the
piping below that of the static pressure of the source. These pressure waves will travel back
and forth several times until the fluid friction dampens the alternating pressure waves to the
static pressure of the source. Normally, the entire hammer process takes place in under one
second.
The initial shock of suddenly stopped flow can induce transient pressure changes that exceed
the static pressure. If the valve is closed slowly, the loss of kinetic energy is gradual. If it is
closed quickly, the loss of kinetic energy is very rapid. A shock wave results because of this
rapid loss of kinetic energy. The shock wave caused by water hammer can be of sufficient
magnitude to cause physical damage to piping, equipment, and personnel. Water hammer in
pipes has been known to pull pipe supports from their mounts, rupture piping, and cause pipe
whip.
c. Describe the basic operation and pressure/flow characteristics of the following
types of pumps:
Centrifugal pump
Positive displacement pump
Centrifugal Pump
Fluid entering a centrifugal pump is immediately directed to the low-pressure area at the
center or eye of the impeller. As the impeller and blading rotate, they transfer momentum to
incoming fluid. A transfer of momentum to the moving fluid increases the fluids velocity.
As the fluids velocity increases, its kinetic energy increases. Fluid of high kinetic energy is
forced out of the impeller area and enters the volute.
The volute is a region of continuously increasing cross-sectional area designed to convert the
kinetic energy of the fluid into fluid pressure. The mechanism of this energy conversion is
the same as that for subsonic flow through the diverging section of a nozzle. The
mathematical analysis of flow through the volute is based on the general energy equation, the
continuity equation, and the equation relating the internal properties of a system. The key
parameters influencing the energy conversion are the expanding cross-sectional area of the
volute, the higher system back pressure at the discharge of the volute, and the
incompressible, subsonic flow of the fluid. As a result of the interdependence of these
parameters, the fluid flow in the volute, similar to subsonic flow in a diverging nozzle,
experiences a velocity decrease and a pressure increase.
Positive Displacement Pump
A positive displacement pump is one in which a definite volume of liquid is delivered for
each cycle of pump operation. This volume is constant regardless of the resistance to flow
offered by the system the pump is in, provided the capacity of the power unit driving the
pump or the pump component strength limits are not exceeded. The positive displacement

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pump delivers liquid in separate volumes with no delivery in between, although a pump
having several chambers may have an overlapping delivery among individual chambers,
which minimizes this effect. The positive displacement pump differs from centrifugal pumps,
which deliver a continuous flow for any given pump speed and discharge resistance.
Positive displacement pumps can be grouped into three basic categories based on their design
and operation. The three groups are reciprocating pumps, rotary pumps, and diaphragm
pumps.
d. Describe the basic design and operation of a compressed air system used to
supply instrument air, including a discussion of the function of the following
components:
Compressor
Moisture separator
Intercooler
After cooler
Receiver
Air dryer
Compressor
The centrifugal compressor, originally built to handle only large volumes of low pressure gas
and air (maximum of 40 psig), has been developed to enable it to move large volumes of gas
with discharge pressures up to 3,500 psig. However, centrifugal compressors are now most
frequently used for medium volume and medium pressure air delivery. One advantage of a
centrifugal pump is the smooth discharge of the compressed air.
The centrifugal force used by the centrifugal compressor is the same force used by the
centrifugal pump. The air particles enter the eye of the impeller, designated D in figure 64.
As the impeller rotates, air is thrown against the casing of the compressor. The air becomes
compressed as more and more air is thrown out to the casing by the impeller blades.

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Figure 64. Simplied centrifugal pump
The air is pushed along the path designated A, B, and C in figure 64. The pressure of the air
is increased as it is pushed along this path. Note in figure 64 that the impeller blades curve
forward, which is opposite to the backward curve used in typical centrifugal liquid pumps.
Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade orientation, including forward and
backward curves as well as other designs.
Moisture Separator
The following is taken from Integrated Publishing, Moisture Separators.
The moisture separator in a pneumatic system is always located downstream of the
compressor. Its purpose is to remove any moisture caused by the compressor. A complete
moisture separator consists of a reservoir, a pressure switch, a dump valve, and a check
valve, and it may also include a regulator and a relief valve. The dump valve is energized and
de-energized by the pressure switch. When de-energized, it completely purges the separator
reservoir and lines up to the compressor. The check valve protects the system against
pressure loss during the dumping cycle and prevents reverse flow through the separator.
Intercooler
If the compressor is multi-staged, there may be an intercooler, which is usually located after
the first stage discharge and before the second stage suction. The principle of the intercooler
is the same as that of the after coolers. The result is drier, cooler, compressed air. The
structure of a particular cooler depends on the pressure and volume of the air it cools. Air

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coolers are used because drier compressed air helps prevent corrosion and cooler compressed
air allows more air to be compressed for a set volume.
Aftercooler
Coolers used on the discharge of a compressor are called aftercoolers. Their purpose is to
remove the heat generated during the compression of the air. The decrease in temperature
promotes the condensing of any moisture present in the compressed air. This moisture is
collected in condensate traps that are either automatically or manually drained.
Receiver
The following is taken from Energy Manager Training, Design Compressed Air System and
Components.
Air receivers provide storage capacity to prevent rapid compressor cycling; reduce wear and
tear on compression modules, inlet control systems, and motors; eliminate pulsing air flow;
avoid overloading purification system with surges in air demand; and damp out the dew point
and temperature spikes that follow regeneration.
A rule of thumb is to provide a minimum of one gallon of receiver capacity for each cubic
foot of compressor flow.
Air Dryer
The following is taken from Energy Manager Training, Design Compressed Air System and
Components.
An aftercooler discharging compressed air at 100 F passes 67 gallons of water per
1,000 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) per 24 hours. Instrumentation fails when water
and lubricant condense as the air is further cooled in the piping system or as the air expands
through the orifices.
The air exiting the aftercooler is saturated, and any further temperature drop results in more
condensation. A useful rule of thumb states that a 20 degree reduction in temperature
condenses one-half the water vapor in saturated air.
Air dryers reduce the moisture content as measured in terms of a pressure dew point that is
based on a specific set of inlet conditions to the dryer.
Dew point is the temperature at which water vapor condensessaturated, 100% relative
humidity. Pressure dew point is the dew point of the air at operating pressure. Atmospheric
dew point refers to air expanded to atmospheric conditions. To avoid confusion, specify
dryer performance in terms of pressure dew point.
Dryer Selection
The instruments and the lowest expected ambient temperature determine the drying method.
The most common dryer is a refrigerated unit that cools the compressed air, condenses water

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and oil vapors, separates them, and drains them from the system. The dried compressed air is
then fed to the instrument air system.
Dryer performance is specified as a pressure dew point class that is based on a specific inlet
and ambient conditions. The lowest pressure dew point class with a refrigerated dryer is
Class H. This class delivers a pressure dew point that of 33 to 39 F. Refrigerated dryers
should not operate below the Class H range because the water vapor will freeze in the dryer.
The highest practical pressure dew point for a refrigerated dryer is 60 F because higher
pressure dew points give condensation in downstream piping.
In the United States, most dryer manufacturers base the pressure dew point performance on
standard conditions: inlet air flow, 100 F inlet air temperature, 100 psig operating pressure,
100 F maximum ambient temperature (air-cooled units), 85 F cooling water temperature
(water-cooled units), and 5 psi maximum pressure drop.
Adjust air dryer sizing to account for deviation from standard conditions. For example,
elevating the inlet air temperature 10 degrees increases the load on the dryer by more than 25
percent and raises the outlet pressure dew point above 50 F. Maintaining the original
3339 F dew point now requires a dryer 35 percent larger.
Desiccant dryers give pressure dew points below 33 F if piping is exposed to freezing
temperatures. Desiccants dry air through adsorption in which a hydroscopic material
chemical, alumina, silica, molecular sieveremoves the water and oil to reduce the dew
point to the standard pressure dew point of -40 F. Special designs produce dew points of
100 F or lower.
Dryer Selection Guidelines
Non-cycling and cycling are the two types of refrigerated dryers. On a non-cycling dryer, the
refrigeration compressor runs continuously regardless of dryer load. A thermostatic
expansion valve and hot gas bypass valve regulate the flow of refrigerant into the heat
exchanger to maintain dew point and minimize freeze-up. Since the unit uses full input
power at all times, a non-cycling dryer should be selected for systems with a constant air
flow.
In cycling dryers, the refrigerant cools an intermediate fluid that cools and dries the air.
During low-load operation, the refrigeration circuit stops its compressor and restarts it when
the fluid temperature rises. The cycling type dryer conserves energy and minimizes dryer
freeze-up, making cycling dryers the choice with fluctuating air flow and inlet temperatures.
Over-sized cycling dryers provide additional drying capacity for future air system upgrades.
e. Describe the function and operation of vibration monitoring equipment used to
monitor large motors, pumps, and compressors.
The following is taken from Mechanical Engineering, Vibration Monitor.
The machinery vibration monitor for hazardous areas provides continuous machinery
screening by detecting, evaluating, and announcing vibration problems to operators as they
develop. This system learns and compares vibration spectrums, allowing it to detect even

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subtle, incremental, sustained changes. The system can shut down malfunctioning equipment
to help prevent catastrophic breakdown, costly repairs, and downtime. The vibration monitor
is designed to monitor large motors, pumps, and compressors.
f. Describe the basic operation of pressure regulating valves and flow control valves
in a process system.
The following is taken from Integrated Publishing, Construction, Suction Pressure-
Regulating Valves.
Pressure Regulating Valves
Pressure-regulating valves may be installed in the suction line at the outlet of an evaporator
when a minimum temperature must be maintained. Pressure-regulating valves decrease the
temperature difference, which would otherwise exist between the compartment temperature
and the surface of the cooling coils. The amount of heat that can be transferred into the
evaporating refrigerant is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
Three types of suction pressure-regulating valves are usedsuction throttling valve,
evaporator pressure regulators, or pilot-operated absolute valve (POA), developed by General
Motors Corporation. These valves, in most cases, are adjustable. The POA valve uses a
sealed pressure element that maintains a constant pressure independent of the altitude of the
vehicle. There are two basic types of metering devices built into a single containerthe VIR
(valves-in-receiver) and the evaporator equalized VIR. These units combine the POA valve,
receiver-drier, thermostatic expansion valve, and sight glass into a single unit. The VIR
assembly is mounted next to the evaporator, which eliminates the need for an external
equalizer line between the thermostatic expansion valve and the outlet of the POA valve. The
equalizer function is carried out by a drilled hole (equalizer port) between the two-valve
cavities in the VIR housing. The thermostatic expansion valve is also eliminated. The
diaphragm of the VIR expansion valve is exposed to the refrigerant vapor entering the VIR
unit from the outlet of the evaporator. The sight glass is in the valve housing at the inlet end
of the thermostatic valve cavity where it gives a liquid indication of the refrigerant level.
Flow Control Valves
The following is taken from Hydraulics and Pneumatics, Other Flow Controls.
Proportional flow-control valves combine state-of-the-art hydraulic valve actuation with
modern, sophisticated electronic control. These valves help simplify hydraulic circuitry by
reducing the number of components a system may require while, at the same time,
substantially increasing system accuracy and efficiency.
An electronically controlled, proportional flow-control valve modulates fluid flow in
proportion to the input current it receives. The valves can easily control cylinders or smaller
hydraulic motors in applications that require precise speed control or controlled acceleration
or deceleration. Most proportional flow-control valves are pressure-compensated to minimize
flow variations caused by changes in inlet or outlet pressure.
An electrohydraulic proportional valve consists of three main elements:
1. A pilot or proportional solenoid

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2. A metering area (where the valve spool is located),
3. An electronic position-feedback device, often an LVDT (linear variable differential
transformer)
Valve operation begins when it receives a signal from an outside controlling device such as a
computer, programmable logic controller, traditional logic relay, or potentiometer. The
control device delivers analog electrical signals to the valve driver card, which, in turn, sends
a current signal to the solenoid on the valve.
The electromechanical force on the spool causes it to shift, gradually opening a flow path
from the pump to the actuator port. The greater the command input signal, the greater the
current to the valve solenoid, and, thus, the higher the flow from the valve. The important
feature of this proportional valve is that all elements are proportional; thus, any change in
input current changes force signals proportionately as well as the distance the valve spool
will shift, the size of the flow path, the amount of fluid flowing through the valve, and finally
the speed at which the actuator moves.
As the spool shifts, its motion is detected and monitored very accurately by a LVDT or other
type of position-feedback transducer. This signal is fed back to the driver card where it is
continuously compared with the input signals from the controller. If the two differ, the driver
adjusts spool position until the two signals match.
Pressure-compensated proportional flow-control valves are two-port valves in which the
main control orifice is adjusted electronically. Similar to conventional pressure-compensated
flow-control valves, a pressure-compensated proportional flow-control valve maintains
constant flow output by keeping the pressure drop constant across the main control orifice.
The proportional valve, however, is different in that the control orifice is modified to work in
conjunction with a stroke controlled solenoid.
In a two-port, pressure-compensated proportional flow-control valve, an electrically
adjustable control orifice is connected in series with a pressure reducing valve spool, known
as a compensator, figure 64. The compensator is located upstream of the main control orifice
and is held open by a light spring. When there is no input signal to the solenoid, the light
spring force holds the main control orifice closed. When the solenoid is energized, the
solenoid pin acts directly on the control orifice, moving it downward against the spring to
open the valve and allow oil to flow from port A to port B.

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Source: Hydraulics & Pneumatics, Other Flow Controls
Figure 65. Circuit diagram for pressure-compensated flow-control valve
At the same time, the LVDT provides the necessary feedback to hold position. In this case,
the LVDT provides feedback to maintain a very accurate orifice setting.
Pressure compensation is achieved by incorporating a pilot passage at the inlet of the valve
that connects to one side of the compensator spool, A
2.
There is another pilot passage located
near the outlet of the valve beyond the control orifice, and it is connected to the opposite side
of the compensator spool, A
3
. A bias spring on this side of the spool keeps the compensator
in the open position. Load-induced pressure at the outlet portor pressure deviations at the
inlet portmodulate the compensator spool to increase or decrease the pressure drop across
the compensators metering orifice. Acting as a pressure reducing valve, the compensator
ensures that the main control orifice sees a constant pressure drop. When the pressure drop is
constant, the flow remains constant.
The amplifier provides time controlled opening and closing of the orifice. For reverse free-
flow, check valve C, built into the valve, provides a flow path from port B to A. Proportional
flow-control valves are also available with either linear or progressive flow characteristics.
The input signal range is the same for both. However, the progressive flow characteristic
gives finer control at the beginning of orifice adjustment.
In case electrical power or feedback is lost, solenoid force drops to zero and the force exerted
by the spring closes the orifice. When feedback wiring is connected incorrectly or damaged a
light-emitting diode indicates the malfunction on the amplifier card.
g. Describe the basic theory of operation of a heat exchanger used in a process
system.

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Heat exchangers are found in most chemical or mechanical systems. They serve as the
systems means of gaining or rejecting heat. Some of the more common applications are
found in heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems, radiators on internal combustion
engines; boilers, condensers, and as preheaters or coolers in fluid systems.
Preheater
In large steam systems, or in any process requiring high temperatures, the input fluid is
usually preheated in stages, instead of trying to heat it in one step from ambient to the final
temperature.
Preheating in stages increases the plants efficiency and minimizes thermal shock stress to
components, as compared to injecting ambient temperature liquid into a boiler or other
device that operates at high temperatures. In the case of a steam system, a portion of the
process steam is tapped off and used as a heat source to reheat the feedwater in preheater
stages. Figure 66 is an example of the construction and internals of a U-tube feedwater heat
exchanger found in a large power generation facility in a preheater stage.

Figure 66. U-tube feedwater heat exchanger
As the steam enters the heat exchanger and flows over and around the tubes, it transfers its
thermal energy and is condensed. Note that the steam enters from the top into the shell side
of the heat exchanger, where it not only transfers sensible heat (temperature change) but also

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gives up its latent heat of vaporization (condenses steam into water). The condensed steam
then exits as a liquid at the bottom of the heat exchanger. The feedwater enters the heat
exchanger on the bottom right end and flows into the tubes. Note that most of these tubes will
be below the fluid level on the shell side.
This means the feedwater is exposed to the condensed steam first and then travels through
the tubes and back around to the top right end of the heat exchanger. After making the 180
bend, the partially heated feedwater is then subjected to the hotter steam entering the shell
side.
The feedwater is further heated by the hot steam and then exits the heat exchanger. In this
type of heat exchanger, the shell side fluid level is very important in determining the
efficiency of the heat exchanger, as the shell side fluid level determines the number of tubes
exposed to the hot steam.
Radiator
Commonly, heat exchangers are thought of as liquid-to-liquid devices only. But a heat
exchanger is any device that transfers heat from one fluid to another. Some of a facilitys
equipment depend on air-to-liquid heat exchangers. The most familiar example of an air-to
liquid heat exchanger is a car radiator. The coolant flowing in the engine picks up heat from
the engine block and carries it to the radiator. From the radiator, the hot coolant flows into
the tube side of the radiator (heat exchanger). The relatively cool air flowing over the outside
of the tubes picks up the heat, reducing the temperature of the coolant.
Because air is such a poor conductor of heat, the heat transfer area between the metal of the
radiator and the air must be maximized. This is done by using fins on the outside of the tubes.
The fins improve the efficiency of a heat exchanger and are commonly found on most liquid-
to-air heat exchangers and in some high efficiency liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers.
h. Describe the various methods and characteristics of heat transfer that may occur
in a process system.
Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two bodies. There
are three basic modes of heat transfer:
1. Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or molecules of
a material through which the heat is being transferred.
2. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of macroscopic
portions of a fluid.
3. Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
radiation that arises due to the temperature of a body.
Conduction
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interaction between adjacent molecules of a
material. Heat transfer by conduction depends on the driving force of temperature difference
and the resistance to heat transfer. The resistance to heat transfer depends on the nature and

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dimensions of the heat transfer medium. All heat transfer problems involve the temperature
difference, the geometry, and the physical properties of the object being studied.
In conduction heat transfer problems, the object being studied is usually a solid. Convection
problems involve a fluid medium. Radiation heat transfer problems involve either solid or
fluid surfaces, separated by a gas, vapor, or vacuum. There are several ways to correlate the
geometry, physical properties, and temperature difference of an object with the rate of heat
transfer through the object. In conduction heat transfer, the most common means of
correlation is through Fouriers Law of Conduction. The law, in its equation form, is used
most often in its rectangular or cylindrical form (pipes and cylinders), both of which are
presented below.
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
=
x
T
kA Q

|
.
|
\
|
A
A
=
r
T
kA Q

where
Q= rate of heat transfer (Btu/hr)
A = cross-sectional area of heat transfer (ft
2
)
Ax = thickness of slab (ft)
Ar = thickness of cylindrical wall (ft)
AT = temperature difference (F)
k = thermal conductivity of slab (Btu/ft-hr-F)
Convection
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and mixing of macroscopic portions
of a fluid (that is, the flow of a fluid past a solid boundary). The term natural convection is
used if this motion and mixing is caused by density variations resulting from temperature
differences within the fluid. The term forced convection is used if this motion and mixing
is caused by an outside force, such as a pump. The transfer of heat from a hot water radiator
to a room is an example of heat transfer by natural convection. The transfer of heat from the
surface of a heat exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped through the heat exchanger is
an example of forced convection.
Heat transfer by convection is more difficult to analyze than heat transfer by conduction
because no single property of the heat transfer medium, such as thermal conductivity, can be
defined to describe the mechanism. Heat transfer by convection varies from situation to
situation, and it is frequently coupled with the mode of fluid flow. In practice, analysis of
heat transfer by convection is treated empirically (by direct observation).
Convection heat transfer is treated empirically because of the factors that affect the stagnant
film thickness:
Fluid velocity
Fluid viscosity
Heat flux

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Surface roughness
Type of flow (single-phase/two-phase)
Convection involves the transfer of heat between a surface at a given temperature (T
s
) and
fluid at a bulk temperature (T
b
). The exact definition of the bulk temperature (T
b
) varies
depending on the details of the situation. For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, T
b
is the
temperature of the fluid far from the surface. For boiling or condensation, T
b
is the saturation
temperature of the fluid. For flow in a pipe, T
b
is the average temperature measured at a
particular cross section of the pipe.
Radiation
Radiant heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due
to the temperature of a body. Most energy of this type is in the infra-red region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, although some of it is in the visible region. The term thermal
radiation is frequently used to distinguish this form of electromagnetic radiation from other
forms, such as radio waves, x-rays, or gamma rays. The transfer of heat from a fireplace
across a room in the line of sight is an example of radiant heat transfer.
Radiant heat transfer does not need a medium, such as air or metal, to take place. Any
material that has a temperature above absolute zero gives off some radiant energy. When a
cloud covers the sun, both its heat and light diminish. This is one of the most familiar
examples of heat transfer by thermal radiation.
i. Describe the basic design and operation of a typical heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) system, including a discussion of the control system used to
maintain habitability.
The following is taken from NCDENR, Energy Efficiency in Industrial HVAC Systems.
HVAC stands for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning and refers to the equipment,
distribution network, and terminals used either collectively or individually to provide fresh
filtered air, heating, cooling, and humidity control in a building.
A facility can have any combination of heating and cooling sources to supply the HVAC
system. For heating a facility, a gas-or oil-fired boiler or furnace, heat pump, rooftop unit,
new technology such as infrared radiation, or electric heat could be employed. Common
cooling sources include rooftop units, chillers, heat pumps, air conditioners or some sort of
off-peak cooling system.
Basic HVAC Design
HVAC systems vary in design and complexity. The following description represents a simple
HVAC system. Modifications can be added to the basic system to reach the desired HVAC
operation.
Air is taken through an outdoor air intake that is usually a louvered opening on the top or side
of the building. Atmospheric pressure pushes the air through a damper, which regulates the
amount of outdoor air taken in by the system. At this point, already conditioned return air
from the system can be mixed with the outdoor air to form mixed air. The mixed air goes

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through a pre-filter where larger dust particles, insects, leaves, etc. are caught. A more
efficient filter is usually present to address small particles. After the filters, the air enters a
centrifugal fan. Once exiting the fan outlet, the air is under positive pressure and being
pushed towards coils where the air is either heated or cooled, depending on the temperature
of the air and the season. Under the coils lies a drain pan to collect any water condensing on
the coils. If a humidifier or dehumidifier is needed it is usually incorporated into the cycle at
this point. The air travels through ductwork where it reaches a distribution box and may
travel through smaller ducts to supply the terminals, registers, or diffusers into the
workspace. Once the air reaches its destination, it is returned through an air register (usually
through a louvered door that opens into a space above the ceiling tiles) in the form of return
air that will become mixed air or exit the building.
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is treating air for temperature, cleanliness, and humidity and directing its
distribution to meet requirements of a conditioned space. Comfort air conditioning is when
the primary function of the system is to provide comfort to occupants of the conditioned
space. The term industrial air conditioning is used when the primary function is other than
comfort.
There are three basic types of air conditioners:
1. Direct expansion coolers include window air conditioners, heat pumps, and packaged
or rooftop units. Air is cooled and dehumidified as it moves past a cold, refrigerant-
filled coil.
2. Chilled water systems use water cooled by a refrigeration machine instead of air. This
cool water supplies a coil, which cools and dehumidifies the air.
3. Evaporative or swamp coolers are usually only appropriate in hot, dry climates and
bring hot air in contact with a water spray or damp surface. The result is evaporation
of moisture, which lowers the temperature of the air.
Ventilation
Ventilation is a process that either supplies or removes air from a space by natural or
mechanical means. All air that is exhausted from a building must be replaced by outside air.
Outside air must be brought to a certain temperature by makeup air units used throughout the
building. Negative building pressure can be a problem during winter heating season and
could lead to a number of other problems, such as difficulty in opening doors and equipment
operation. Air seeps through gaps around windows, doors, and ducts.
Air is distributed through ducts. Units such as a window air conditioner, distribute air directly
from the unit. Other units using baseboards or radiators may deliver heat through water,
steam, or electric resistance systems. Blowers and registers deliver air in forced air systems.

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j. Given a process and instrumentation diagram and the technical specifications for
a process system, describe the purpose of the system and the major flowpaths.
k. Given a process and instrumentation diagram and the technical specifications for
a process system, describe the function of each of the major components of the
system.
Competencies j and k are performance based. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
knowledge of the geoseismic/civil engineering theories, principles, and techniques
that apply to instrumentation and control systems.
a. Discuss the seismic design constraints imposed on instrumentation and control
systems important to safety.
The following is taken from DOE-STD-1020-2002.
Systems, structures, and components (SSCs) are placed in one of five performance categories
(PCs) ranging from PC 0 to PC 4. No special considerations for natural phenomena hazards
(NPH) are needed for PC 0. Different criteria are provided for the remaining four
performance categories, each with a specified performance goal. Design and evaluation
criteria aimed at target probabilistic performance goals require probabilistic NPH
assessments. NPH loads are developed from such assessments by specifying NPH mean
annual probabilities of exceedance. Performance goals may then be achieved by using the
resulting loads combined with deterministic design and evaluation procedures that provide a
consistent and appropriate level of conservatism. Design/evaluation procedures conform
closely to industry practices using national consensus codes and standards so that the
procedures will be easily understood by most engineers. SSCs comprising a DOE facility are
to be assigned to a performance category using the approach described in the DOE G 420.1-2
and the performance categorization standard. The design and evaluation criteria in DOE-
STD-1020-2002 are the specific provisions to be followed so that the performance goal
associated with the performance category of the SSC under consideration is achieved. For
each category, the criteria include the following steps:
1. NPH loads are determined at specified NPH probabilities as per DOE-STD-1023-95.
2. Design and evaluation procedures are used to evaluate SSC response to NPH loads.
3. Criteria are used to assess whether or not computed response in combination with
other design loads is permissible.
4. Design detailing provisions are implemented so that the expected performance during
a potential NPH occurrence will be achieved.
5. Quality assurance and peer review are applied using a graded approach.

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b. Describe the function and operation of instrumentation systems used to measure
and annunciate seismic events at defense nuclear facilities.
The following is taken from DOE G 420.1-2.
Facilities or sites that have SSCs in performance category 2 (with hazardous material), PC 3,
or PC 4 shall have instrumentation or other means to detect and record the occurrence and
severity of seismic events. These systems measure ground acceleration and provide an alarm
when it measures acceleration above a threshold value. The purpose of this is to provide an
indication and a record of seismic events so that a thorough damage inspection may be
completed.
c. Discuss the effects of vibration on instrumentation and control system
performance and reliability, including the methods used to mitigate those effects.
The following is taken from North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Mechanical Environmental
Tests.
The following list provides examples of problems that could occur when instrumentation is
exposed to a vibration environment.
Wire chafing
Loosening of fasteners
Intermittent electrical contacts
Mutual contact and short circuiting of electrical components
Seal deformation
Structural and component fatigue
Optical misalignment
Cracking and rupturing
Loosening of particles or parts that may become lodged in circuits or mechanisms
Excessive electrical noise
The following is taken from Lawrence Livermore National Laboroatory, Seismic Shock and
Vibration Isolation.
Two basic engineering strategies for the protection of equipment and structures from
damages caused by seismic shock and vibration loadings are strengthening and isolation. The
strengthening strategy aims at increasing the capacity of the ability of the structure to
withstand the dynamic loading by incorporating additional structural materials and
components, while the isolation strategy focuses on reducing the demand or the transmitted
loading on the structure by adding an isolator or isolation system between the structure and
the source of the loading. The isolation strategy is also often used for filtering out unwanted
vibrations and noises. The isolation strategy has the advantage of not depending on
alterations to the isolated structure and is often the preferred method for applications in
equipment.

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d. Discuss the general factors that affect the seismic qualification of a system,
component, or structure.
The following is taken from Washington Savannah River Company, Seismic Design and
Retrofit of Systems and Components.
The seismic qualification of systems and components is achieved by one (or a combination)
of four methods:
Testing (AC156 for International Building Code-based seismic input, IEEE 344,
IEEE 382, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) qualification of
active mechanical equipment (QME) 1): preferred method for active mechanical
equipment, electrical equipment, instrumentation and controls.
Analysis (ASME QME, IEEE 344-2004, applicable code for system or component):
preferred method for passive mechanical equipment and distribution systems, and for
electrical distribution systems.
Earthquake experience data.
Equipment may be qualified by similarity to previously qualified equipment.
Qualification by similarity must address
o Dynamic similarity of components.
o Envelope of seismic input of previously qualified component.
Seismic qualification must address end-of-life condition, in particular:
Testing: determine the need for environmental qualification of electrical equipment
(cables, batteries, etc.) and non-metallic components and trims.
Analysis: deduct corrosion allowance when calculating stresses, address degradation
mechanisms other than wall thinning (environmental cracking, fatigue, mechanical
damage, etc.).
Earthquake experience: assess the material condition and maintenance history of
installed systems and components. For example, concrete cracking is a standard
check for anchor bolts.
knowledge of the chemical engineering theories, principles, and techniques that
apply to instrumentation and control systems.
a. Discuss the design elements that must be considered when applying
instrumentation and control systems for use with chemical processes.
Control of chemical hazards should be carried out at all levels following the same hierarchy
of controls as with any other health and safety hazard, i.e., substitution, engineering,
administrative, and personal protective equipment. The level and rigor to which chemical
hazards are controlled will depend in part on regulatory or contract requirements.
When controls for hazardous chemicals are established, they should be based on the hazard
identification and hazard analysis, including any additive or synergistic effects. If multiple
hazards with varying severities exist, then the most conservative control should be used, i.e.,

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if two types of hazard are present that use similar types of controls, the more protective
control should be used.
To ensure control of chemical hazards, management should
Substitute less hazardous chemicals, when possible.
Team with workers to analyze, identify, and mitigate hazards.
Provide ventilation and/or enclosures, as needed.
Ensure that all chemicals are in appropriate containers with labels and that material
safety data sheets (MSDSs) are readily accessible. Title 29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard
Communication, contains important sections about labels and MSDSs, and 29 CFR
1910.1450, Laboratory Standard, also contains a relevant section.
Provide exposure monitoring and medical surveillance as appropriate. Management
should establish procedures for monitoring of workers who handle hazardous
chemicals. If worker exposure exceeds acceptable DOE or Occupational Safety and
Health Administration levels, an investigation should be conducted and corrective
actions instituted promptly.
Conduct regular training, and provide workers with information and instruction on the
use and storage of chemicals. Training supports procedural requirements by letting
workers know why actions are needed that would otherwise be regarded as
inconvenient or unnecessary.
Inform personnel of the signs and symptoms of control failures.
Provide and maintain personal protective equipment.
Enforce housekeeping and work practices.
For hazardous waste sites, the mechanism for identifying work site chemical hazards and
controls may be found in the site-specific health and safety plan (HASP). Details of the
HASPs requirements may be found in 29 CFR 1910.120, and guidance may be found in the
Handbook for Occupational Health and Safety During Hazardous Waste Activities
(DOE/EH-0535).
b. Discuss the application of instrumentation and control system components used
to measure and control level, flow, temperature, and pressure in chemical process
systems that contain corrosive chemicals.
The following is taken from Lifetime Reliability Solutions, Process Instruments for Difficult
and Corrosive Environments.
There is always a degree of uncertainty in selecting instrumentation for difficult or corrosive
environments. Material selection for chemical compatibility involves a strained decision
between cost and equipment reliability and longevity. The other major uncertainty is whether
the instrument is appropriate for the application. This section presents a list of
instrumentation successfully used in a range of difficult and chemically demanding
environments.
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Many process chemicals will destroy the internals of a pressure transmitter (PT). To prevent
contact with aggressive chemicals, a diaphragm process seal is used to connect to the
process. The PT is mounted on the other side of the seal. Select materials for the diaphragm

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that give many years of corrosion-free service. Protect against pitting and stress corrosion
cracking in particular. At times exotic alloys or Teflon coatings are required. Check
isocorrosion curves for pitting and stress corrosion cracking before specifying the diaphragm.
Temperature Compensation
As the outside temperature changes, the oil fill expands or contracts. If a differential PT is
not temperature compensating, the change in volume causes the pressure inside the
transmitter to also change. This makes the sensor distort and give a false pressure reading. In
such cases protect the PT against temperature fluctuations by shading it from heat and direct
sunlight. Or specify a PT with temperature compensation.
Diaphragm Cleanliness
Sediment or crystal build-up on the sensing diaphragm will stop the diaphragm from flexing
freely and will produce false readings. Products that crystallize at cooler temperatures need
special attention. Keep the liquid temperature at the diaphragm surface hot enough to prevent
crystals forming in the cooler crevice between the diaphragm and transmitter body, or
insulate the body to reduce the heat loss through the walls.
Ultrasonic Level Detector
When an ultrasonic level detector is used to measure liquid level major issues are stillness of
the liquid surface and vapor given off by the process. Problem readings occur with
undulating and turbulent liquid surfaces and where a lot of vapor is generated. If the liquid
surface is not still the detector will get changing readings. Where vapor is present the sound
signals will encounter interference. This may be overcome by putting the detector at the top
of a dip pipe.
Process Chemical Compatibility
Selecting the wrong materials of construction will result in the detectors housing corroding
or dissolving from chemical attack. Check that the long-term application is suitable for the
vapors and maximum operating temperatures. Beware if it seems the manufacturers
specifications were apparently satisfied by the average process conditions. The local
temperature and chemical compatibility conditions must be satisfied. The design conditions
of the bulk liquid may be known but the detector must handle its local temperatures and
chemical concentrations, not the bulk temperature and process conditions.
Vacuum Service
Since ultrasonic level detectors require sound to be transmitted and reflected, they will only
operate in environments that contain sound-transmitting atmospheres. As such, they will not
be reliable in a process conducted under vacuum conditions.
Internal Structures
The pulse emitted from an ultrasonic level detector will be reflected back by any object in its
path. If there are internal structures within a tank below the ultrasonic level detector, they
will reflect the pulse and produce a false signal. Relocate the ultrasonic level detector to a
place where there is clear space below it.

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Calibrations
Check and calibrate the high and low levels and the span when an ultrasonic level detector is
in its final position. With tanks, fill them with water, and physically dip and measure the
levels to compare results. Alternatively, take the ultrasonic level detector to a dummy test
set-up and then replace it in its required position.
Radar Level Detector
Location
The radar must be positioned to prevent unwanted reflections off tank internal structural
beams, wall welds, rivets, etc. Unwanted reflections can be electronically separated but now
you have programming complications better avoided if possible. Keep the receiver below the
bottom of the nozzle so that it is in clear space. Pulses can bounce off the nozzle walls to the
receiver and produce false signals.
Foam on the liquid surface deadens the return pulse. If located inside vigorously agitated
tanks there is a risk of blocking the opening of the antenna cone from splashed product or
condensing vapors. This is a problem with products that sublime (evaporate then solidify on
surfaces) like sulphur or that crystallize.
Check material compatibles and process condition resistance for many years of operating
service.
pH Meter
Process Variables
For pH meters to be accurate they require retention, or hold-up time, for chemical
interactions within the process to come to completion. Lag occurs because of the transfer
time needed for the dosing system to add the dosed agent. Measurement lag is present
between the process chemicals change in pH and the probes detection of the change. The
mixing rate and agitation available to properly mix the chemical being measured so a pH
measurement reflects the bulk chemical pH adds further complication. The process properties
such as corrosion, erosion, sediment, caking, etc., on the probe can affect the measurement
quality.
The pH probe requires time for pH to stabilize without rapid changes, stable temperature
without extremes, clean electrode surfaces, full probe contact with the liquid being measured,
sufficient conductivity through the process chemical, and no poisoning or drying of the
reference electrode.
Operating Issues
Chemical compatibility is critical and the appropriate plastics, elastomers and metals need to
be selected for the service. Acids and alkaline vapors will work their way into the probes
internals unless it is suitably protected.
The liquid junction of the reference electrode must always be wet. If the liquid junction dries
out, the pH probe is destroyed. In such situations use a probe that has a wetting spray to keep
it moist. It is also possible to put the probe in a drop-leg bend where the pipe work is

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intentionally run down and then up again to create a catchment of liquid to keep the probe
wet. Install a drain valve in the drop leg to empty the pipeline.
Conductivity Meter
Conductivity meters measure dissolved ions in a liquid. The sensing surface on normal
probes become encrusted with scale over time, and the probe must be removed for cleaning.
A direct-contact probe must be chemically cleaned in weak hydrochloric acid, not by
scraping or buffing the surface. Scratching the sensor increases the surface area in contact
with the solution and alters the cell constant. A self-cleaning probe overcomes much of this
problem.
The meter must be properly earthed, as required by the manufacturer. Since the probe emits
and senses electric currents, it will display readings from any electric current that presents to
it. Badly connected conductivity meter set-ups will give false results even though the meter
reads true at the time of calibration. If this happens, check the electrical continuity of the
sensing system and meter equipment.
Mechanical Flow Meter
For a flow meter to be accurate numerous factors must be right. The programmable logic
controller scan rate must be quicker than the meter pulses or pulses can be missed. Sediment
must not be allowed to wear away the meters internal clearances. Solid items get jammed in
the meter or protrude into the flow path. The meter specifications are based on water flow in
laboratory conditions and a product with different physical properties or temperature is
measured. Software adjustment factors added in to make the meter produce the required
results are lost or changed. Temperature changes in the meter circuit electronics caused by
the process fluid or local environment conditions change the behavior of the meter. Broken
turbine wheel, rotor blades or paddles produce the wrong pulses. Leaks into the meter destroy
internal circuitry. The meter accuracy varies as the flow rate varies. Meter position or
orientation allows bubble inclusion in the liquid (two-phase flow).
Mechanical Level Switch
Mechanical level switches are in direct contact with the process chemicals. This can corrode
components, product can jam moving parts, materials used in construction and methods of
construction can fail due to pressure surges (floats can leak at joints and fill up with process
fluid) and moving parts gradually wear. Internal electrical components can fail from dust,
moisture, chemical attack and temperature effects.
Temperature Sensor
Thermocouple
Two wire thermocouples quickly detect a difference in temperature between the measuring
end and meter end. It is critical to have both wires in firmly in contact with what is being
measured. This is best done by tack welding the wires to the surface being measured.
Resistance Thermal Device
In a resistance thermal device the sensor is a fine wire wound around an insulated core and
the lot is encapsulated in epoxy resin or glass and protected by an outside sheath of stainless

193

steel. Encapsulating the wire significantly increases the response time (lag time) and makes
resistance thermal devices less favorable for control purposes where process temperature
changes quickly. resistance thermal devices can be damaged by being subjected to excessive
temperatures, by being chemically attacked by the process chemicals, and from physical
damage.
An resistance thermal device is designed to cover a span of temperature and emits a signal in
proportion to the temperature. This signal is then converted into an electrical signal. It is
critical that the signal converter have the same temperature span range as the resistance
thermal device to ensure a true reading.
Capacitance Probe
The accuracy of capacitance probes depends on the electrical properties of the liquid or solid
being measured. To ensure an electric field develops between the probes, the medium in
which the probe sits must not conduct electricity and short circuit the probe.
These instruments are not affected by changes in the contents pressure, temperature, or
specific gravity (density). They can detect the presence of separate layers of different liquids
within the same tank.
False level readings can arise if the dielectric properties change along the length of the probe
and care is needed when calibrating the device in tanks containing layered liquids. Large
changes in the vapor content within the space above the contents can lead to false level
readings. Ensure the plastic sheaths protect probes from attack in corrosive liquids.
Magnetic Flow Meter
For a magnetic flow meter to work correctly and with confidence it must always be full of
only liquid. It cannot recognize the presence of bubbles and will give false flow rates if they
are present. Modify the pipe work to produce full-bore flow in the meter.
If the electrodes transmitting the small voltages created in the liquid become coated with
process contaminants false readings occur. Long signal transmission cable runs or outside
electrical interference affecting cables can produce false readings.
Calibration accuracy tests are usually done with water, and when the meter is used on non-
water fluids wide errors are possible.
Correct earthing is critical. The meter will read voltage from any source. To ensure only
voltage across the liquid is measured, keep the meter body in electrical contact with the
liquid. In plastic pipes, this is done with graphite gaskets between the body and flanges or by
an earthing ring of chemically compatible metal connected to the meter body. In metal pipes,
clamping to a metal tag on the meter body and on the pipe flanges makes the electrical
contact.
Orifice Flow Meter
The accuracy of an orifice plate flow meter depends on the squared edge remaining round
and sharp. Wear or damage will produce errors in the pressure reading. It is also necessary to
ensure that no partial blockages occur upstream of the orifice that produce changes to the

194

flow profile and pressure gradient. Blockages can occur in the sensing lines from the orifice
to the transmitter or pressure gauge. The position at which the meters are located should be
where the flow pattern in the pipe is straight and no turbulence exists.
22. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to read and
interpret electrical diagrams, including:
One-line diagrams
Schematics
Logic diagrams
Printed wiring board diagrams
a. Given an electrical diagram, identify electrical component symbology.
b. Given a logic diagram for a control circuit, identify and describe the effects of an
action taken.
Competencies a and b are performance based. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
c. Identify the symbols used on logic diagrams to represent the components.
There are three basic types of logic gates. They are AND, OR, and NOT gates. Each gate is a
very simple device that only has two states, on and off. The states of a gate are also
commonly referred to as high or low, 1 or 0, or true or false, where on = high = 1 = true, and
off = low = 0 = false. The state of the gate, also referred to as its output, is determined by the
status of the inputs to the gate, with each type of gate responding differently to the various
possible combinations of inputs. Specifically, these combinations are as follows:
AND gate - provides an output (on) when all its inputs are on. When any one of the
inputs is off, the gates output is off.
OR gate - provides an output (on) when any one or more of its inputs are on. The gate
is off only when all of its inputs are off.
NOT gate - provides a reversal of the input. If the input is on, the output will be off. If
the input is off, the output will be on.
Because the NOT gate is frequently used in conjunction with AND and OR gates, special
symbols have been developed to represent these combinations. The combination of an AND
gate and a NOT gate is called a NAND gate. The combination of an OR gate with a NOT
gate is called a NOR gate.
NAND gate - is the opposite (NOT) of an AND gates output. It provides an output (on)
except when all the inputs are on.
NOR gate - is the opposite (NOT) of an OR gates output. It provides an output only when all
inputs are off.

195

Figure 67 illustrates the symbols covering the three basic logic gates plus NAND and NOR
gates. The IEEE/ANSI symbols are used most often; however, other symbol conventions are
provided in figure 66 for information.

Figure 67. Basic logic symbols
The AND gate has a common variation called a COINCIDENCE gate. Logic gates are not
limited to two inputs. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of inputs a gate can have.
But, as the number of inputs increases, the symbol must be altered to accommodate the
increased inputs. There are two basic ways to show multiple inputs. Figure 68 shows both
methods, using an OR gate as an example. The symbols used in figure 68 are used
extensively in computer logic diagrams.

196

Figure 68. Convention for depicting multiple inputs
d. Explain the operation of the three types of time delay devices.
When logic diagrams are used to represent start/stop/operate circuits, the diagrams must also
be able to symbolize the various timing devices found in the actual circuits. There are three
major types of timers. They are (1) the type-one time delay device, (2) the type-two time
delay device, and (3) the type-three time delay device.
Upon receipt of the input signal, the type-one time delay device delays the output (on) for the
specified period of time, but the output will stop (off) as soon as the input signal is removed,
as illustrated by figure 69. The symbol for this type of timer is also illustrated in figure 69.

Figure 69. Type-one time delay device

197

The type-two time delay de diately upon receipt of
the input signal, but the output is maintained only for a specified period of time once the

vice provides an output signal (on) imme
input signal (off) has been removed. Figure 70 illustrates the signal response and the symbol
used to denote this type of timer.

Figure 70. Type two time delay device
Upon receipt of an input signal, type-three time delay devices provide an output signal for a
specified period of time, regardless of the duration of the input. Figure 71 illustrates the
signal response and the symbol used to denote the timer.

198

Figure 71. Type-three time delay device
e. Identify the symbols used to denote a logical 1 (or high) and a logical 0 (or
low) as used in logic diagrams.
When a logic gate has only two inputs, or the logic circuit to be analyzed has only one or two
gates, it is fairly easy to remember how a specific gate responds and determine the output of
the gate or circuit. But as the number of inputs and/or the complexity of the circuit grows, it
becomes more difficult to determine the output of the gate or circuit. Truth tables, as
illustrated in figure 72, are tools designed to help solve this problem. A truth table has a
column for the input of each gate and a column for the output of each gate. The number of
rows needed is based on the number of inputs, so that every combination of input signal is
listed (mathematically, the number of rows is 2n, where n = number of inputs). In truth
tables, the on and off status of the inputs and outputs is represented using 0s and 1s. As
previously stated, 0 = off, and 1 = on.

199

Figure 72 lists truth tables for the seven basic logic gates.

Figure 72. Truth tables
When reading logic prints, the reader usually must decide the input values to each gate. But
occasionally the print will provide information as to the normal state of each logic gate. This
is denoted by a symbol similar to the bistable symbol, as shown in figure 72. The symbol is
drawn so that the first part of the square wave indicates the normal state of the gate. The

200

second part of the square wave indicates the off-normal state of the gate. Figure 73 also
illustrates how this notation is applied.

Figure 73. Logic gate status notation
f. Given a logic diagram and appropriate information, determine the output of each
component and the logic circuit.
g. Given a one-line diagram, identify power sources and loads.
h. Given a one-line diagram or schematic diagram, analyze the effects of a
component failure in a system.
i. Given a construction diagram, identify the power supplies.
KSAs f through i are performance based. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
j. Discuss the origin and purpose of as-built drawings.
The following is taken from Ezine Articles, The Importance of (Well Built)As-Built
Drawings.
As-built drawings are defined by a number of industries, but in their simplest form, they are
drawings that represent the actual built structure. Not as it was designed, but as it actually is
today. There is no question that buildings dont always get built per plan, so even with an

201

existing set of drawings, it helps to prepare as-built drawings, but nothing replaces the actual
measured and field verified set of drawings. And nothing will save cost and headaches as
much as a thoroughly developed set of as-built drawings.
People always make changes to their designs during the construction process and these
changes almost never make it back to a set of revised plans .If the change is made in the
field, theres no reason to update the plans, whose sole purpose is to tell the builder what to
build. Also, a building of any vintage may have had additional projects that made alterations
to its original form that may have affected everything from interior finishes to the core
structural system of the building. These projects are often done without permits or plans
Developing As-Built Drawings
Measure everything. These measurements are not just sizes of rooms, but the fully integrated
map of every wall, cabinet, fixture, appliance, door, window, etc. Then, measure the vertical
elements like door and window sizes, heights, bearing heights, plate and beam heights etc.
Measure soffit and fascia details, siding, roof pitches, exterior improvements, slopes in
floors, and ceilings. The end result is essentially a set of drawings that depict exactly what is
there today.
There are a lot of other things that happen during this process. A number of other systems
can be documented while going through the building at this level of detail. Plumbing,
mechanical, electrical and structural elements that can be observed are all documented so that
any new work can be designed not to conflict with these systems. Structural systems are
particularly important - especially if changes are being made to the plan that rely on the
integrity of the existing structure or if the structural skeleton of the existing building is to be
changed.
As-built drawings allow the engineer to integrate everything known about the building in
order to put together architectural changes that work with the existing systems as opposed to
ignoring them. This results in projects that are easier to build, less costly, and architecturally
integrated so the final outcome is a building that flows and seamlessly transitions from the
existing to the new.
k. Describe printed wiring board fabrication and assembly.
The following is taken from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Design for the
Environment, Printed Wiring Board Industry.
Printed wiring boards (PWBs) are categorized in several ways. When overall complexity is
being considered, they are often categorized in terms of layer counts, or the number of circuit
layers present on a single PWB. PWBs are usually classified along layer-count lines into
three categories: multilayer, double sided, and single sided. Multilayer PWBs contain more
than two layers of circuitry, i.e., at least one layer is embedded in the substrate beneath the
surface of the board. A multilayer board may consist of 20 or more interconnected layers, but
more common are 4, 6, and 8 layers. Double-sided boards have two interconnected layers
and are generally easier to produce than multilayer PWBs, while single-sided PWBs have
only one layer of circuitry.

202

PWBs are also categorized by substrate, or base material, type and fall into three basic
categories. Rigid PWBs typically are constructed with glass-reinforced epoxy-resin systems
that produce a rigid board at thicknesses of less than 0.1 in. (0.062 in. is the most common
rigid PWB thickness, although there is a trend toward thinner PWBs). Flexible (or flex)
circuits are manufactured on polyimide and polyester substrates that remain flexible at
finished thicknesses. Ribbon cables are common flexible circuits. A third category of PWBs
consists of boards that are essentially combinations or assemblies of the first two: rigid-flex
combinations of one or more rigid PWBs that have one or more flexible circuits laminated to
them during the manufacturing process. Three-dimensional circuit assemblies can be created
with rigid-flex combinations.
Manufacturing methods are of two types, although hybrid methods exist. Most common is
subtractive processing, in which copper is selectively removed from a PWB to form a circuit.
Within this process, however, copper and other metals are also added during plating steps.
The term subtractive refers to the method of image transfer from a photo-tool or image file
to a copper circuit on a PWB. Additive processing refers to a process in which an image is
formed by selectively adding copper (electrolessly plating onto a substrate an image of a
circuit). In a fully additive process, no etching or removal of copper occurs.
interpret mechanical diagrams associated with instrumentation and control systems,
including:
Construction drawings
As-built drawings
Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID)
Assembly drawings
a. Identify the symbols used for:
Types of valves
Types of valve operators
Types of instrumentation
Types of instrument signal controllers and modifiers
Types of system components (pumps, etc.)
Types and sizes of piping
b. Identify the symbols used to denote the location of instruments, indicators, and
controllers.
c. Identify how valve conditions are depicted.
d. Determine the system flow path for a given valve lineup.
Information for this competency is available in DOE-HDBK-1016/1-92, DOE Fundamentals
Handbook: Engineering Symbology, Prints, and Drawings, volumes 1 and 2.

203

interpret engineering fabrication, construction, and architectural drawings associated
with instrumentation and control systems.
a. Given the above drawings, read and interpret the following symbology:
Basic dimensional and tolerance
Basic fabrication
Basic construction
Basic architectural
b. Given a drawing and a completed product, compare the product against the
specifications on the drawing.
KSAs a and b are performance-based competencies. The Qualifying Official will evaluate
their completion.
of the various uses of computers and digital devices used in instrumentation and
control systems.
a. Discuss analog to digital (A/D) and digital to analog (D/A) converters.
The following is taken from All About Circuits, Digital-Analog Conversion.
Connecting digital circuitry to sensor devices is simple if the sensor devices are inherently
digital themselves. Switches, relays, and encoders are easily interfaced with gate circuits due
to the on/off nature of their signals. However, when analog devices are involved, interfacing
becomes much more complex. What is needed is a way to electronically translate analog
signals into digital (binary) quantities, and vice versa. An analog-to-digital converter, or
ADC, performs the former task while a digital-to-analog converter, or DAC, performs the
latter.
An ADC inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage or current and outputs a binary
number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as in figure 74.
.
Source: All About Circuits
Figure 74. Analog input

204

A DAC, on the other hand, inputs a binary number and outputs an analog voltage or current
signal. In block diagram form, it looks like figure 75.

Figure 75. Binary input
Together, they are often used in digital systems to provide complete interface with analog
sensors and output devices for control systems such as those used in automotive engine
controls and as illustrated in figure 76.

Figure 76. Digital control system with analog input/output
It is much easier to convert a digital signal into an analog signal than it is to do the reverse.
b. Discuss programmable logic controllers (PLC) and distributed control systems
(DCS), including use, operation, program control, etc.
The following is taken from Grand Valley State University, Programmable Logic
Controllers.

205

When a process is controlled by a PLC, it uses inputs from sensors to make decisions and
update outputs to drive actuators, as shown in figure 77. The process is a real process that
will change over time. Actuators will drive the system to new states (or modes of operation).
This means that the controller is limited by the sensors available; if an input is not available,
the controller will have no way to detect a condition.

n
re
r
battery is low and power was lost, the memory will be corrupt
itely. Unlike normal

t
n issue. Wireless systems are starting to
of improved flexibility for both physical and logical
ay be retooled to the extent that several parts of the
.
Source: Grand Valley State University
Figure 77. The separation of controller and process
The control loop is a continuous cycle of the PLC reading inputs, solving the ladder logic,
and then changing the outputs. As with any computer, this does not happen instantly. Whe
power is initially turned on, the PLC does a quick sanity check to ensure that the hardwa
is working properly. If there is a problem, the PLC will halt and indicate there is an error. Fo
example, if the PLC backup
and this will result in a fault. If the PLC passes the sanity check, it will then scan (read) all
the inputs. After the input values are stored in memory, the ladder logic will be scanned
(solved) using the stored valuesnot the current values. This is done to prevent logic
problems when inputs change during the ladder logic scan. When the ladder logic scan is
complete, the outputs will be scanned (the output values will be changed). After this, the
system goes back to do a sanity check, and the loop continues indefin
computers, the entire program will be run every scan. The typical time required for each of
the stages is milliseconds.
The following is taken from Waste and Wastewater, Distribution Control System Primer.
A DCS is a control system method that is spread, or distributed, among several different uni
processes. These processes may be related, as in a water treatment facility, or unrelated, as in
a manufacturing plant where many different products are fabricated.
The DCS is typically a hard-wired system that exists within finite boundaries, such as a
process plant or within a factory. Wired systems are reliable and are well suited for the
typical process environment where flexibility is not a
become popular and hold the promise
layout of a facility. An entire process m
process will be physically moved or removed. Using wireless technology, system
reconfiguration is as simple as disabling the station address or downloading the suitable database

206

Whether wired or wireless, DCSs offer the advantage of centralized control, while retaining
the capability of distributed, or local, control. True DCSs use localized control, which is in
turn controlled by the operator at a central location.
c. Discuss digital I&C scan rates.
The following is taken from DOE Quality Assurance Exchange, volume 4, issue 1, Digit
Instrumentation and Control Systems.

al
al
dance for the use of DI&C systems in the
fort to

OE
ng and developing a consensus within the DOE complex that would
meet the needs of DOE facilities to ensure adequate protection of workers, the public, and the
environment. The goal for conducting industry research and developing a standard is
The following is taken from National Instruments, Scan Rate.
s per second. For example a scan rate of 10 Hz means
0 times per second. The scan rate equals the sample rate divided by
n. For example a scan including 32 channels with a
would have a scan rate = (1000 S/s) / (32
ns/s.
demonstrate a working level knowledge
ment used to measure process chemistry.
pes of instrumentation used to measure the following process
pH
Chlorine
Digital instrumentation and control (DI&C) systems are being used in DOEs nuclear
facilities for various safety controls, such as for ventilation and process systems. DI&C
systems can share code, data transmission, data, and process equipment to a greater degree
than analog systems. Although the sharing is the basis for many of the advantages of digit
systems, it also raises a key concern. A design using shared hardware, software, data, and
code has the potential to propagate a common-cause or common-mode failure via either
software errors, failures of hardware, or any combinations of those, thus defeating the
concept of layer of protection (i.e., defense in depth) achieved by the design strategy. At
present, DOE does not provide any specific gui
nuclear safety applications.
The Office of Nuclear Safety Policy and Assistance (HS-21) is taking the lead in an ef
address the above mentioned issues and develop a new standard for DI&C systems in nuclear
facility safety applications. HS-21 has formed a working group with expertise from D
sites and held the first working group meeting in December 2007. The working group is
challenged with researchi
December 2008.
Scan rate is the number of scan
sampling each channel 1
the number of channels in the sca
sampling rate of 1000 sample rate/scans (S/s)
S/scan) = 31.25 sca
26. Instrumentation and control personnel shall
uip of analytical eq
a. List the ty
chemistry parameters:
Conductivity
Total dissolved solids
Silica
Turbidity

207

Moisture/humidity
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Conductivity

current
G = I/R = I (amps) / E (volts)
Since the charge on ions in solution facilities the conductance of electrical current, the
conductivity of a solution is proportional to its ion concentration. In some situations,
however, conductivity may not correlate directly to concentration. Figure 78 illustrates the
relationship between conductivity and ion concentration for two common solutions. Notice
that the graph is linear for sodium chloride solution, but not for highly concentrated sulfuric
acid. Ionic interactions can alter the linear relationship between conductivity and
concentration in some highly concentrated solutions.
The following is taken from Eutech Instruments, Introduction to Conductivity.
Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electric current. The principle by which
instruments measure conductivity is simple - two plates are placed in the sample, a potential
is applied across the plates (normally a sine wave voltage), and the current is measured.
Conductivity (G), the inverse of resistivity (R) is determined from the voltage and
values according to Ohm law.

Source: Eutech Instruments, Introduction to Conductivity
ens (S), formerly called the mho. Since cell
ll
constant (L/A), where L is the length of the column of liquid between the electrode and A is
, Measuring pH
in Lakes and Streams.
Figure 78. Relationship between conductivity and ion concentration
The basic unit of conductivity is the siem
geometry affects conductivity values, standardized measurements are expressed in specific
conductivity units (S/cm) to compensate for variations in electrode dimensions. Specific
conductivity (C) is simply the product of measured conductivity (G) and the electrode ce
the area of the electrodes.
pH
The following is taken from the State of Washington, Department of Ecology

208

There are three methods for measuring pH: using a probe and meter, litmus paper, or a field
kit. The most accurate and reliable method is to use a probe and meter. This method is no less
convenient than the other methods, but requires a more expensive piece of equipment.
Litmus paper is simply a strip of colored paper that is soaked in sample water. The paper
turns a different color depending upon the pH

of the solution. It provides a very coarse
measurement of pH. It is fine for making simple determinations, but it is too coarse a
ement for allowing comparisons between sampling dates or stations.
The following is taken from Wilkes University, Total Dissolved Solids.
y a
that the primary dissolved minerals are either a combination of
NaCl or KCl. Therefore, the measurement of total dissolved solids by these devices are not
pproximation.
y, inductively
ectroscopy (ICP-MS), and inductively coupled plasma-atomic

a
ither GFAAS or ICP-MS. In GFAAS, a water sample is
measur
Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids can be measured in the field using an electronic pen. Many of these
devices actually measure the conductivity of the water, i.e., the ability of the water to carr
charge, and not the actual total dissolved solids. These devices than calculate the total
dissolved solids assuming
an accurate measure, but an a
Silica
The following is taken from NNSA, MicroMagazine, Measuring and Removing Dissolved
and Colloidal Silica in Ultrapure Water.
The amount of reactive and unreactive silica in ultrapure water can be determined by various
analytical methods, including gravimetry, colorimetry, graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectroscopy (GFAAS), scanning electron microscopy, ion chromatograph
coupled plasma-mass sp
emission spectroscopy.
Measuring Dissolved Silica
The most common method for measuring low levels of dissolved silica (<2 mg/L) is
colorimetry. A sample of water is mixed with ammonium molybdate in an acid medium. Any
reactive or dissolved silica reacts with the ammonium molybdate to form a yellow
silicomolybdate complex. Amino or ascorbic acid is then added to create an intense
heteropoly blue color. The degree of blueness is directly proportional to the amount of silic
in the sample. This sequential batch sampling method can report up to six measurements per
hour and is available from several suppliers as an automated instrument.
Measuring Total Silica
Total silica is measured by e
vaporized and reduced to individual atoms by thermal decomposition in a graphite tube
furnace. The majority of atoms are in the ground state and readily absorb characteristic
wavelengths of light. The amount of light absorbed by the silicon atoms indicates the total
silica content in the water sample. In ICP-MS, a high-frequency inductive coupling plasma is
used to ionize the sample. A nebulizer sprays the water sample into an argon plasma at
6000 K. In the argon plasma, the nebulizer droplets are vaporized, atomized, and ionized.
The ions generated are then passed into a mass spectrometer where they are identified and

209

measured, based on their mass-to-charge ratios. Because of the high cost of GFAAS and ICP-
MS tools, the measurement of total silica by either of these methods is generally considered
an off-line procedure; in most cases, a water sample is transported to a lab for analysis.
Measuring Colloidal Silica
al
than even the 50-nanometer
ing is taken from the State of Washington, Department of Ecology, Measuring
property of water a measure of the amount of
t
ly poured into a glass
d the result is read directly
as recently become recognized as the more
ent for this analysis.
cal
ine (DPD) colorimetric method;
ethod;
ic
different operations and maintenance requirements.
hic
The amount of nonreactive or colloidal silica can be estimated by subtracting the value of the
dissolved silica from that of the total silica. There is no direct method of measuring colloid
silica since the size of most colloidal silica particles is smaller
(nm) detection limit of the most sensitive liquid borne particle counters. However, the
nonvolatile residue monitor, a recently introduced instrument designed to continuously
measure nonvolatile residue, has demonstrated the ability to measure colloidal silica down to
<20 nm.
2
The colloidal silica is detected as a component of the overall residue obtained from
UP water by a spray/evaporation and residue agglomerate recovery technique. This technique
cannot distinguish between the various sources of residueincluding colloidal and dissolved
silicabut it can detect overall residue contamination as low as 10 parts per trillion.
Turbidity
The follow
Total Suspended Solids and Turbidity in Lakes and Streams.
Turbidity is a measurement of the optical
light that is scattered and absorbed by particles in the sample. It is a simple measurement tha
requires the use of either a nephelometer or Jackson turbidimeter to compare a reference
solution to the sample. Turbidity measurement does not require any sample preparation, other
than shaking the sample bottle well before analysis. The sample is simp
tube, placed inside the instrument with a reference solution an
from the instrument. (The nephelometer h
accurate and recommended piece of equipm
Chlorine
The following is taken from EPA, Water and Waste Water Security Product Guide, Chemi
Sensor - Chlorine Measurement System.
There are several measurement methods currently available to measure chlorine in water
samples. These include:
N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediam
Iodometric m
Amperometric electrodes; and
Polarographic membrane sensors.
The chlorine measurement devices here use either the amperometric, DPD, or polarograph
membrane sensor methods. It should be noted that there can be differences in the specific
type of analyte, the range, and the accuracy of these different measurement methods. In
addition, these different methods have
For example, DPD systems require periodic replenishment of buffers, whereas polarograp
systems do not. Users may want to consider these requirements when choosing the
appropriate sensor for their system.

210

Moisture/Humidity
The following is taken from GlobalSpec, About Humidity Measurement Instruments.
Humidity measurement instruments and transducers test for absolute humidity, relative
humidity, or dew point in air. The range humidity measurement instruments operate in is
typically from 0 to 100 percent humidity. They are sometimes combined with other sensing
devices such as temperature sensors.
Humidity measurement instruments and sensors can sense a number of different factors.

ent
liquids.
any technologies for humidity measurement instruments. Capacitive or dielectric
ectric properties and
enhances its capacitance. Chilled mirror technology uses a mirror that is chilled to the point
ant.
instruments, a material absorbs water, expands and is
measured with a strain gage. Psychrometers, often called wet/dry bulbs, measure relative

Hydrogen
wing is taken from Photohydrogen, Measuring Hydrogen Gas.
n gas both qualitatively and quantitatively, two prominent techniques are
available: Clark-type electrodes and gas chromatography. The Clark-type electrode is a
n
e
Oxygen
Absolute humidity, expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter volume of air, is a
measure of the actual amount of water vapor or moisture in the air, regardless of the air's
temperature. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, also measures water vapor, but
relative to the temperature of the air. The dew point temperature, which provides a measure
of the actual amount of water vapor in the air, is the temperature to which the air must be
cooled in order for that air to be saturated and dew to form. Because of the intertwining of
atmospheric measurements, humidity measurement instruments are sometimes equipped with
pressure and temperature sensors as well. Three main applications for humidity measurem
instruments are judging moisture in gases or air, bulk solids or powders, or else if fuels or
other
There are m
instruments have a material that absorbs moisture, which changes its diel
that moisture starts to condense on it. This temperature is the dew point. With electrolytic
technology, moisture is proportional to the current needed to electrolyze it from a desicc
For resistivity or impedance style sensors, a material absorbs moisture, which changes its
resistivity or impedance. In strain gage
humidity by gauging the temperature difference between two thermometers, one wet and one
dry.
The follo
To measure hydroge
sensitive instrument for studying hydrogen metabolism and allows measurements in the gas
phase as well as in aqueous solution.
A gas chromatograph can be hooked up to a small external cell in which metal samples ca
be heated up to 1000 C. Any hydrogen released from the metal is injected straight into th
gas chromatograph, producing a clear peak on the resultant chromatogram.
The following is taken from NASA Tech Briefs, Fiber-Optic Sensors for Measuring Oxygen
Dissolved in Water.

211

Fiber-optic sensors can detect oxygen through changes in color. A sensor of this type includes
coated with an oxygen-conducting polymer matrix. Specific metal complexes
d reversible binding of oxygen with associated changes in optical
r matrix. In operation, the coated fiber is
e, and by use of optoelectronic components coupled with the
on spectrum of the metal complexes in the coating is measured. The
m is then translated into the concentration of dissolved oxygen.
Turbidity
Chlorine
Moisture/humidity
Hydrogen
The following is taken from Eutech Instruments, Introduction to Conductivity.
Conductivity measurements are temperature dependent. The degree to which temperature
affects conductivity varies from solution to solution and can be calculated using the
following formula:
Gt = Gt
cal
{1 + (T-T
cal
)}
where
Gt = conductivity at any temperature T in C,
Gt
ca
l = conductivity at calibration temperature Tcal in C,
= temperature coefficient of solution at Tcal in C.
an optical fiber
that exhibit rapid an
absorption spectra are immobilized in the polyme
i e at a test sit mm rsed in water
optical fiber, the absorpti
absorption spectru
b. Explain how each of the following process chemistry parameters is measured and
converted to a usable signal for alarm, indication, and control:
Conductivity
pH
Total dissolved solids
Silica

Oxygen
Conductivity

212

Table 1. Common alphas
Substance at 25 C Concentration Alpha
HCl 10 wt% 1.56
KCl 10 wt% 1.88
H
2
SO
4
50 wt% 1.93
NaCl 10 wt% 2.14
HF 1.5 wt% 7.20
HNO
3
31 wt% 31.0
Common alphas (a) are listed in table 1. To determine that of other solutions, simply
measure conductivity at a range of temperatures and graph the change in conductivity versus
the change in temperature. Divide the slope of the graph by Gt
cal
to get .
All meters have either fixed or adjustable automatic temperature compensation referenced to
a standard temperature - usually 25 C. Most meters with fixed temperature compensation
use a of 2%/C (the approximate of NaCl solutions at 25 C). Meters with adjustable
temperature compensation let you to adjust the to more closely match the of your
measured solution.
Conductivity Meter Calibration and Cell Maintenance
Conductivity meters and cells should be calibrated to a standard solution before using. When
selecting a standard, choose one that has the approximate conductivity of the solution to be
measured. The conductivity of some common solutions is shown in table 2.
Table 2. Conductivity of some common solutions
Solution Conductivity
Absolute pure water 0.055 S/cm
Power plant boiler water 1.0 S/cm
Good city water 50 S/cm
Ocean water 53mS/cm
pH
The reason for controlling pH is to minimize and control corrosion. The presence of excess
H
+
ions in solution results in an acidic condition. Acidic conditions are detrimental to the
materials of construction in a number of ways. An acidic condition in coolant results in
processes that are potentially harmful to the system as follows. First, a low pH promotes
rapid corrosion by deteriorating or stripping off the protective corrosion film, and second,
corrosion products such as ferrous oxide (Fe
3
O
4
), which is predominant in the corrosion
film, are highly soluble in an acidic solution.

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Total Dissolved Solids
The following is taken from Wilkes University, Total Dissolved Solids.
In a laboratory setting, the total dissolved solids are measured by filtering a measured volume
of sample through a standard glass fiber filter. The filtrate is then added to a preweighed
ceramic dish that is placed in a drying oven at a temperature of 103 C. After the sample
dries, the temperature is increase to 180 C to remove occluded water. The total dissolved
solids are then the weight of whatever remains in the dish.
The total dissolved solids concentration can be related to the conductivity of the water, but
the relationship is not a constant. The relationship between total dissolved solids and
conductivity is a function of the type and nature of the dissolved cations and anions in the
water and possible the nature of any suspended materials. For example, a NaCl solution and
KCl solution with a conductivity of 10000 umhos/cm will not have the sample concentration
of NaCl or KCl and they will have different total dissolved solids concentration.
Conductivity is measured through the use of a meter and is usually about 100 times the total
cations or anions expressed as equivalents and the total dissolved solids in ppm usually
ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 times the electrical conductivity.
An elevated total dissolved solids concentration does not mean that the water is a health
hazard, but it does mean the water may have aesthetic problems or cause nuisance problems.
These problems may be associated with staining, taste, or precipitation. With respect to trace
metals, an elevated total dissolved solids may suggest that toxic metals may be present at an
elevated level. Water with a very low total dissolved solid concentration may be corrosive
and corrosive waters may leak toxic metals such as: copper and lead from the plumbing. This
also means that trace metals could be present at levels that may pose a health risk.
Silica
The following is taken from NNSA, MicroMagazine, Measuring and Removing Dissolved
and Colloidal Silica in Ultrapure Water.
Silica can exist in three physical/chemical forms: monomeric (dissolved/soluble/reactive),
polymeric (colloidal/unreactive), and granular (particulate). Ultrapure water may contain
silica in any of these three forms, and the forms may change from one to another, depending
on the waters acidity/alkalinity. Dissolved silica affects the thermal oxidation process on the
water surface. Colloidal silica, which is defined as having a particle size of less than 100 nm,
can act as an unwanted bridge between conducting surfaces. Dissolved silica may also
interfere with gate composition and change the electrical characteristics of a device,
rendering it useless. Deposits of colloidal silica can also act as nucleation sites for other
particles.
Turbidity
The following is taken from Water Action Volunteers, The Basics About Turbidity.
Turbidity can be measured in the laboratory with a meter, called a nephelometer, which
measures the amount of light scattered by particles in the water in nephelometric turbidity
units.

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Increased turbidity will limit the amount of light that can enter a waterbody and may
therefore limit plant photosynthesis, and thus, oxygen production. This means that the water
may have less ability to support aquatic life with increased turbidity.
Chlorine
The following is taken from Water Quality Products, Measuring Chlorine.
DPD is a chemical indicator that reacts with the chlorine present and basically dyes the water
a pink color that will indicate the chlorine level. For inline monitoring the difference is how
the color change is read. While just the human eye reads the test strip, the inline test
measures color change using an electric eye (also called a photodiode), making
measurements more consistent and accurate. A light beam is passed through the sample and
the amount of light transmitted is dependent on the amount of color in the sample. For
example, if the sample is dark in color, less light will be able to pass through the sample and
will indicate a high level of chlorine, while a lighter color will allow more light to pass
through indicating a lower level of chlorine. Colorimeters can produce an output signal
commonly of 4 to 20 milliamp (mA) to monitor, or control remotely. Colorimeters typically
detect chlorine in the range of 0 to 5 parts per million (ppm).
A more sophisticated technique to measure chlorine inline is based on the amperometric
method. In this method, chlorine is measured by a sensor probe containing the electrolyte
potassium chloride (KCl). The probe is placed in the distribution system where water passes
by. The chlorine present in the water moves across the membrane on the bottom of the probe
and reacts with the KCl to generate an electric current. The probe measures the current
produced to determine the level of chlorine. The stronger the current, the higher the level will
be of present chlorine. This system is also capable of remote monitoring and/or control, using
4 to 20 mA output. This system can measure chlorine levels from 0 to 20 ppm.
Moisture/Humidity
The following is taken from GlobalSpec, About Humidity Measurement Instruments
One critical specification for Capacitive or dielectric instruments is the humidity or moisture
range to be measured or else the dew point range. Humidity and moisture accuracy is
expressed in terms of percentage of measurement. The dew point accuracy, since this is a
temperature reading, is expressed as a variance in temperature output.
Outputs from humidity measurement instruments can be analog current, voltage, or
frequency; digital, including computer signals; or a switch or alarm. They can have analog,
digital or video type displays and can have a number of different form factors. They can be
standard sensors or transducers, or a simple gauge or indicator. They can also be various
types of instruments, whether handheld, bench top or mounted.
In addition to pressure and temperature compensation, humidity measurement instruments
can have a number of features to make them more useful or easier to use. These can include
data logging, event triggering, self-testing, self-calibration, and battery power.
Hydrogen

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Because the presence of dissolved oxygen contributes to most mechanisms of corrosion, the
concentration of oxygen is controlled and reduced by the addition of scavenging agents in
most facilities. Hydrogen gas (H
2
) and hydrazine are the scavenging agents normally used to
eliminate dissolved oxygen from the reactor coolant system. These substances scavenge
oxygen by the following reactions:
2H
2
+O
2

radiation
radiation
2H
2
O
N
2
H
4
+O
2
2H
2
O+N
2

Because hydrazine decomposes rapidly at temperatures above about 200 F hydrogen gas is
used as the scavenging agent during hot operation and hydrazine is used when the reactor
coolant system is cooled below 200 F.
The decomposition reactions of hydrazine pose additional problems in chemistry control.
Even if sufficient hydrazine were added to overcome the loss due to decomposition,
instability of coolant pH would probably occur by the following reactions.
2N
2
+5O
2
+2 H
2
O4HNO
3
(acid)
3H
2
+ N
2
+2 H
2
O2NH
4
OH (base)
The use of hydrogen gas at temperatures above 200 F precludes the generation of the
compounds formed. In addition, hydrogen is compatible with the high flux levels present in
the reactor core. Accordingly, advantage may be taken of the reversibility of the radiolytic
decomposition of water. The following reaction illustrates the scavenging process using
hydrogen:
2H
2
+O
2

radiation
radiation
2H
2
O
As indicated, the reaction is an equilibrium process and will therefore depend on the relative
concentrations of the reactants and the products. By maintaining an excess of hydrogen (H
2
),
the reaction is forced to shift to the right and theoretically eliminates any dissolved oxygen
that may be present. As long as an inventory of H
2
is present in the coolant, dissolved oxygen
will be eliminated or forced to recombine immediately after radiolytic decomposition,
thereby being unavailable for corrosion reactions.
A boiling water reactor (BWR) facility is susceptible to corrosion, resulting from dissolved
oxygen, in the same reactions as are present in a pressurized water reactor (PWR). However,
because of the design of these facilities, the use of chemical additives is prohibited because
continuous concentration would occur in the reactor vessel due to boiling. Boiling would
result in a plating out process, and the irradiation of these concentrated additives or
impurities would create an extreme environment of radiation levels as well as adverse
corrosion locations.

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By the very nature of operation of a BWR facility, the buildup of high concentrations of
dissolved oxygen is prevented. Because boiling is occurring in the reactor vessel and the
steam generated is used in various processes and subsequently condensed, removal of
dissolved gases is a continual process. As stated, boiling is an effective means of removing
gases from a solution. If we were to compare the oxygen content of the steam and the water
in a BWR, we would find typical concentrations of 100 parts per billion (ppb) to 300 ppb in
the water and 10,000 ppb to 30,000 ppb in the steam. This concentration process is
continuous during operation, and the dissolved oxygen remains in the gaseous state and is
subsequently removed in the condensing units along with other noncondensible gases. As
with PWR facilities, BWR facilities minimize the introduction of dissolved oxygen by
pretreating makeup water by some method. The large oxygen concentrations measured in the
steam system result primarily from the radiolysis of water, and as operation is continued, the
equilibrium concentration of 100 ppb to 300 ppb is established. This concentration of oxygen
is consistent with the objective of minimizing corrosion.
Oxygen
Control of the dissolved oxygen content in a reactor facility system is of paramount
importance because of its contribution to increased corrosion. The base reactions of concern
regarding high concentrations of dissolved oxygen are the following:
3Fe + 2O
2
= Fe
3
O
4
4FE + 3O
2
= 2Fe
2
O
3

This corrosion film, ferrous oxide, is also known as magnetite and is a black, generally
tightly-adherent film that provides a protective function to surfaces within the facility.
These reactions are dependent on the concentration of oxygen and temperature. The first
reaction is predominant at high temperatures (above 400 F) in the presence of lower oxygen
concentrations.
The second reaction occurs at temperatures below about 400 F in the presence of higher
oxygen concentrations. Ferric oxide (Fe
2
O
3
) is more commonly known as rust and is
generally a reddish color. This corrosion product adheres loosely to surfaces and is therefore
easily removed and transported throughout the system for subsequent deposition and possible
irradiation. In either of the reactions, the corrosion rate is accelerated by increased
concentrations of dissolved O
2
and can be aggravated further by the presence of other
substances that may be in the system.
c. Describe the environmental concerns that can affect the accuracy and reliability of
analytical equipment used to measure process chemistry.
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of analytical
equipment used to measure process chemistry. Variations in ambient temperature can directly

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affect the resistance of components in a bridge circuit and the resistance of the reference
junction for a thermocouple.
In addition, ambient temperature variations can affect the calibration of electric/electronic
equipment. The effects of temperature variations are reduced by the design of the circuitry
and by maintaining the equipment in the proper environment.
The presence of humidity will also affect most analytical equipment, especially electronic
environment.
d. Discuss the failure modes of the various types of analytical equipment used to
measure process chemistry.
The types of analytical equipment used to measure process chemistry varies from site to site.
The local Qualifying Official will evaluate the completion of this KSA.
e. Describe the methods used to test each of the different types of instruments used
to measure process chemistry.
The methods used to test instruments to measure process chemistry vary from site to site. The
local Qualifying Official will evaluate the completion of this KSA.
knowledge of maintenance management practices related to instrumentation and
control activities.
a. Define each of the following maintenance-related terms and explain their
relationship to each other:
Corrective
Preventive
Predictive
Reliability centered
The following definitions are taken from DOE G 433.1-1.
Corrective
Corrective maintenance refers to the repair of failed or malfunctioning equipment, systems,
or facilities to restore the intended function or design condition. This maintenance does not
result in significant extension of expected useful life.
Preventive
Preventive maintenance refers to predictive, periodic, and planned maintenance actions taken
to maintain a piece of equipment within design operating conditions and extend its life.

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Predictive
Predictive maintenance refers to maintenance activities involving continuous or periodic
monitoring and diagnosis to forecast equipment failure.
Reliability Centered
Reliability-centered maintenance is a proactive systematic decision logic tree approach to
identify or revise preventive maintenance tasks or plans to preserve or promptly restore
operability, reliability, and availability of facility SSCs; or to prevent failures and reduce risk
through types of maintenance action and frequency selection to ensure high performance.
Reliability-centered maintenance is the performance of scheduled maintenance for complex
equipment, quantified by the relationship of preventive maintenance to reliability and the
benefits of reliability to safety and cost reduction through the optimization of maintenance
task/frequency intervals. The concept relies on empirical maintenance task/frequency
intervals to make determinations about real applicable data suggesting an effective interval
for task accomplishment. The approach taken to establish a logical path for each functional
failure is that each functional failure, failure effect, and failure cause be processed through
the logic so that a judgment can be made as to the necessity of the task, and includes (1)
reporting preventive maintenance activities, plans, and schedules; (2) optimizing/calculating
the preventive maintenance interval by balancing availability, reliability, and cost; (3)
ranking preventive maintenance tasks; (4) accessing preventive maintenance information
from piping and instrumentation drawings; (5) accessing preventive maintenance and other
maintenance data; (6) listing recurring failure modes/parts, including failure to start and
failure to run; (7) calculating and monitoring SSC availability; (8) accessing preventive
maintenance procedures, and (9) keeping track of preventive maintenance cost.
b. Discuss the importance of maintaining a proper balance of maintenance
strategies to optimize cost-effective maintenance that achieves high equipment
reliability.
According to DOE G 433.1-1, a proper balance of corrective and preventive maintenance
should be employed to provide a high degree of confidence that property degradation is
identified and corrected, that equipment life is optimized, and that the maintenance program
is cost-effective.
c. Discuss the importance of maintaining a maintenance history and identify typical
maintenance performance indicators.
Maintenance histories typically consist of a set of computer software modules and equipment
databases containing facility data with the capability to process the data for facilities
maintenance management functions. This set provides historical data, report writing
capabilities, job analysis, and more. The data describe equipment, parts, jobs, crafts, costs,
step-by-step instructions, and other information involved in the maintenance effort. This
information may be stored, viewed, analyzed, reproduced, and updated with just a few
keystrokes. The maintenance-related functions typically include
maintenance cost and reliability data
facility/equipment inventory
facility/equipment history
work input control

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job estimating
work scheduling and tracking
preventive and predictive maintenance
facility inspection and assessment
material management
utilities management
Performance indicators should include a systematic analysis of an SSC or facility
performance to categorize and establish operating history that enables graphic depiction and
simulation of results in measurable terms, such as cause and effect, failures, production
output or capacity, cost,or other subjects of interest.
d. Discuss the relationship between maintenance and conduct of operations, quality
assurance, and configuration management.
The following descriptions are taken from DOE G 433.1-1.
Conduct of Operations
Because of the complex nature of operations and maintenance at DOE nuclear facilities and
the interdependence of job activities, the way workers perform day-to-day activities to meet
facility mission objectives should be formalized by established rules governing their work.
For every operation, whether it be routine, infrequent, abnormal, emergency or casualty, a
procedure should be in place so workers know how the operation should be conducted. Good
procedures should produce good products. Verbatim compliance with procedures should be
mandated policy. Compliance with procedures that are wrong or simply nonexistent could
lead to failure. Knowing what to do when things go wrong is the fundamental key to
understanding formal conduct of operations. Conduct of operations is the formality needed to
ensure that workers know the status and configuration of systems and equipment at the
facility during all phases of operations and maintenance.
Quality Assurance
Contractors responsible for a nuclear facility are required to implement a DOE-approved
quality assurance program (QAP) according to 10 CFR 830, subpart A, Quality Assurance
(the QA rule). Consequently, a QAP that applies to the maintenance management program
should already be in place at each DOE nuclear facility. The QA rule includes ten criteria for
the management, performance, and assessment of work so that it meets requirements. One of
the criteria explicitly requires that items be maintained to prevent their damage, loss, or
deterioration. A maintenance management program established using DOE G 433.1-1 will
satisfy that explicit criterion and address the other QA criteria in an integrated fashion.
Examples of the maintenance management program elements that integrate and satisfy the
QA criteria include
organizationprogram, training, and qualification;
condition of facilities and equipmentinspection and test;
maintenance documentationdocuments and records;
work-control systemwork processes; and
maintenance evaluation and analysisquality improvement, independent assessment,
and management assessment.

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A maintenance management program that integrates the QA criteria will perform continuing
analysis and surveillance of the facility activities for safety, mission objectives, economics,
system function, and compliance. It should provide constant oversight of nuclear operations,
maintenance and program performance and should make the results available to contractor
and DOE management or external regulators through the following:
Reports on organization and system performance
Identification of maintenance problem areas
System corrective action plans
Assurance that corrective actions have been accomplished to prevent recurrence of
the root cause of problems on a continuing basis, thereby assuring compliance on a
continuing basis
DOE nuclear facility QA programs should be an integrated management plan for fitting all
hardware and administrative controls together in a framework that provides for management
visibility of the operation, clear decision-making authority, and identification of decision
makers according to the matter under consideration, identification of interfaces and
communication channels and all control points. The details of the program should be in
written form and provide attributes of such a program that apply to all modes of facility
operation, accident prevention, and accident mitigation. The administrative attributes
intended to ensure that all SSCs required for safe operation of the facility are present should
be identified in the facility documented safety analysis and should be classified by quality
application such that they can be properly controlled.
All external organizations interfacing and performing work affecting the quality of a DOE
nuclear facility design and operation should be identified in writing. This includes those
organizations providing criteria, designs, specifications, and technical detail to cover the
preparation, review, and approval of documents involving design and operational interfaces.
Persons and organizations performing independent assessment of the maintenance
management program must have sufficient internal authority and organizational freedom to
identify quality problems; initiate, recommend, or provide solutions; and verify
implementation of solutions for QA.
Configuration Management
Configuration management is a discipline that applies technical and administrative direction
and surveillance to identify and document the physical characteristics of a facility. It is a
method of doing business that maintains consistency among design requirements, physical
configuration, and facility documentation. It audits to verify conformance to specifications
and related documentation. Basically, it boils down to doing all those things you know you
should have been doing all along to properly manage and control physical and functional
items at a facility.
Such a program can be broken down into five basic programmatic elements.
1. Program management
2. Design requirements
3. Document control
4. Change control
5. Assessments

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An important aspect of a configuration management program is the assurance that the design
basis of a DOE nuclear facility is established, documented, and maintained. The facility
SSCs and computer software should conform to approved design requirements, and any
changes to them must be minimized through an integrated management review process, with
established approval criteria. This will help to establish that the operations of the facility are
reliable if personnel operating the facility are knowledgeable about changes through timely
review and training. Proposed changes should be thoroughly evaluated to determine their
impact on other hardware and documents. Such changes should be reviewed and approved by
appropriate, responsible managers before implementation. This way, the program maintains a
consistency between the documents of all departments and organizations (i.e., design,
inspection, operations, maintenance, testing, or training). Safety, mission, economic impact,
and benefit can be fully analyzed through the full range of review and approval contained in
the program.
e. Discuss the requirements for the receipt and inspection of parts, materials, and
equipment.
All phases of receiving, inspecting, handling, storing, retrieving, and issuing equipment,
parts, and materials for maintenance should be covered by effectively implemented policies
and procedures from the time an item is received until it is installed in the facility.
Many personnel at a facility are involved in some portion of the stores operation. They
should be aware of the correct process to receive, inspect, handle, and store facility material
and equipment so that it is easily retrievable and usable when issued. Therefore, policies
should be established that address these functions. These policies must be understood by
stores personnel and other organizations that interface with them, such as purchasing, QA,
quality control (QC), engineering, radiological protection, operations, safety, and
maintenance. Procedures should be prepared that specifically describe the responsibilities
and the techniques for receiving, inspecting, handling, storing, retrieving, and issuing
material from stores. QA/QC aspects of the stores function should be incorporated into these
procedures.
Procurement is the first step in ensuring that the correct parts and materials are available,
usable, and readily retrievable for issuance for maintenance activities.
When parts, materials, and equipment are received, stores personnel should inspect them
before they are accepted for storage or are used. This inspection is conducted to verify that
the items delivered agree with the approved purchase documentation, are packaged in
accordance with purchase order specifications, have necessary product control requirements
furnished by the vendor (such as special storage or shelf-life information), and appear to be
in good condition. In the case of safety items and designated critical items important to
reliable facility operations, stores personnel should inspect them to ensure that the vendor has
supplied what was ordered, that the necessary formal documentation has accompanied the
shipment or is otherwise on hand, and that items have been received in an acceptable
condition. Technical staff and maintenance personnel may be needed to assist in the
inspection of more complicated parts, materials, and equipment.

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Technical staff and QC personnel should approve any deviation from design specifications of
material or equipment received before the item is accepted into the stores system. They
should also approve any upgrade of material or equipment from a nonsafety to a safety
category. An acceptance tag or label placed on the received material may be used to signify
that the receiving inspection was performed and that the applicable requirements have been
met. A separate receiving and inspection area, as well as a separate holding area, should be
provided. The latter area is used to hold material and equipment that has not been officially
received into the stores system because of nonconformance.
Nonconforming material must also be clearly tagged or labeled to prevent it from
inadvertently being issued. A tracking or follow-up method should be established to ensure
that problems with nonconforming items are promptly resolved.
During receipt inspection, the designated organization should ensure that special storage
instructions have been addressed. Before final acceptance of an item, the designated
organization should ensure that the necessary purchase order instructions and requirements
are completed, such as the following:
The tickler file has been updated.
Appropriate items have been added to the preventive maintenance program.
Appropriate inspection instructions are clearly defined.
Inspection and test activities should be selectively and judiciously applied to new, repaired,
and replacement items, on the basis of risk to safety and/or importance to reliable capacity, to
ensure items will perform as expected.
Plant engineering should develop a process for providing data sheets that form the basis for
procurement of safety class items and other major purchases (i.e., equipment and
construction projects). These data sheets should provide
procurement information
critical parameters and their acceptance criteria
unique or special testing requirements/methods
reorder instructions
suspect/counterfeit parts information
Items or parameter values that do not satisfy established acceptance criteria should be
rejected. Plant engineering approval should be required for other disposition.
Nonconforming items should be
clearly identified;
segregated from normal items to prevent inadvertent use;
documented on a nonconformance report and/or a defective or substandard material
report; and
tracked and dispositioned as soon as practical by the applicable authority.
Routine inspections performed by appropriate personnel should include the following:
Ensuring that packaging is appropriate (as designated on the purchase order when
specified), is undamaged, and/or has not deteriorated

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Ensuring color, count, shape, size, part number, model number, manufacturer/vendor
name, etc., are as specified on the purchase order
Ensuring shelf-life and other time-environment requirements have not been violated
Ensuring date and time of receipt are logged for regular follow-up review during the
storage period
Ensuring specified vendor documentation, in the quantities required by the purchase
order, exists
Special inspections should be performed on safety-class items, safety-significant SSCs, and
other items when designated by the requisitioner.
Special inspections should be performed by the organization specified on the
requisition.
Special inspection requirements for items not involving engineering data sheets
should be defined by the requisitioner.
Special inspections normally require
o formal quality records of all measured data
o formal date inspection performed
o identification of the individual and the organization performing the inspection
o accept/reject status identification
o signature of the applicable authority to approve the status
Items receiving special inspection (especially safety-class items and safety-significant SSCs)
should be appropriately identified and segregated from normal stock to indicate status and
ensure proper application.
Before becoming available for use or restock, materials and equipment that have been
repaired and/or stored in the plant should require the same inspection defined for the original
purchase and/or appropriate for its intended application as specified by engineering.
Stored items that are affected by time-environment should be regularly checked by
designated personnel; expired or otherwise jeopardized items should be removed from
normal storage until dispositioned by the proper authority.
An acceptance tag should be placed on the item after satisfactory receipt inspection. The tag
should be legibly marked to indicate whether an item has any type of special storage
requirements. This provides the user, requestor, or storeroom personnel with an easy method
to ensure special storage control requirements are satisfied. The tag may cross-reference a
particular entry in a file system (tickler file) for further instructions.
A method should be developed to accept material that has been repaired or reworked by the
facility maintenance organization. Whenever materials or parts are repaired or reworked,
suitable testing and inspection requirements should be specified by design engineering to
ensure that the materials or parts perform acceptably when placed in service. This method
should also address material that has been issued and is sent back to stores for reissuance.
Warehouse documents should be updated to reflect receipt of the material and any shelf-life
or preventive maintenance requirements.

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f. Describe the difference between temporary and permanent repairs/work and the
requirements and controls in place to prevent inadvertent modifications (consider
both the hardware and software control elements of the configuration
management program).
Temporary repairs are temporary modifications to the facility that allow equipment to remain
in or be returned to service in a condition that is not the same as the original design
specification. Prior to implementation, temporary repairs should receive a safety review in
accordance with the facility temporary modification program to ensure the adequacy of the
repair and its effect on personnel and equipment safety and reliability. Temporary repairs
should be tracked after their completion for consideration of permanent repairs. Permanent
corrective action should be taken as soon as practicable.
g. Describe the mechanisms for feedback of relevant information, such as trend
analysis and instrumentation performance/reliability data, to identify necessary
program modifications.
The predictive maintenance coordinator should compare recently acquired data with previous
history data to detect any indicated change in equipment condition trends. If degradation
indicates integrity of operating equipment may be endangered or if action criteria are being
approached, the predictive maintenance coordinator should initiate one or more of the
following actions.
Coordinate with the data originator to determine whether corrective action has been
initiated.
Validate the trend analysis/conclusion.
Request additional testing or monitoring be performed to confirm the suspected
deficient condition. (Any of the various predictive maintenance techniques available
may be used to obtain additional confirmatory information, if appropriate.)
Initiate action to have the defective equipment scheduled for repair.
Recommend revisions to preventive maintenance procedures and/or schedules, if
appropriate.
Acquire new equipment baseline data to verify correction of problems and to
establish new reference points.
h. Review a contractor preventive maintenance activity and describe the preventive
maintenance factors to be considered as the activity is planned.
i. Discuss the importance of post-maintenance testing and the elements of an
effective post-maintenance testing program.

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Before returning equipment to service following maintenance, the equipment should be
tested to demonstrate that it is capable of performing its intended function. This serves two
purposes. The testing should verify that the maintenance was performed correctly. It should
also prove that no problems were introduced as a result of the maintenance activities.
The maintenance work control package or maintenance procedure should specify the type
and duration of post-maintenance testing required. For some facilities, the specific
requirements to prove operability of safety-related systems are identified in the technical
safety requirements. An engineering evaluation should determine whether additional testing
or different methods are required whenever the scope of work is changed, e.g., when
additional work is performed to correct a previously undisclosed problem that is discovered
during maintenance. All equipment functions that may have been affected by the
maintenance should be tested.
Operation of the equipment for testing should be performed by qualified operations personnel
in accordance with approved procedures. Maintenance personnel should monitor the testing.
The operations supervisor is ultimately responsible for ensuring that the testing proves the
operability of the equipment.
adequacy of local compliance of I&C systems with applicable design criteria (such as
ISA 84.01, ISA 67.04.01, IEEE 603-1998, NEC or the Uniform Building Code) used by
site/facility.
a. Discuss the purpose and application of the criteria contained in the applicable I&C
design standards.
ANSI/ISA-84.00.01-2004 part 2 provides guidance on the specification, design, installation,
operation, and maintenance of safety instrumented functions and related safety instrumented
systems.
ANSI/ISA-67.04.01-2006, Setpoints for Nuclear Safety-Related Instrumentation, develops a
basis for establishing nuclear safety-related instrumentation setpoints. The standard addresses
known contributing errors in the channel from the process (including the primary element
and the sensor) through and including the final setpoint device.
ANSI/ IEEE 603-1998, IEEE Standard Criteria for Safety Systems for Nuclear Power
Generating Stations, establishes minimum functional design criteria for the power,
instrumentation, and control portions of nuclear power generating station safety systems.
These criteria are established to provide a means for promoting safe practices for design and
evaluation of safety system performance and reliability.
However, adhering to these criteria will not necessarily fully establish the adequacy of any
safety systems functional performance and reliability; nonetheless, omission of any of these
criteria will, in most instances, be an indication of safety system inadequacy.
Additional information may be obtained from the Uniform Building Codes used at the site.

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b. Discuss what constitutes a safety-class or safety-significant item as represented
by the various I&C design standards.
Safety-class items are SSCs, including primary environmental monitors and portions of
process systems, whose failure could adversely affect the environment or safety and health of
the public as identified by safety analyses.
Safety significant items are SSCs not designated as safety-class SSCs but whose preventive
or mitigative function is a major contributor to defense in depth (i.e., prevention of
uncontrolled material releases) and/or worker safety as determined from hazard analysis.
c. Discuss the application of single-failure criteria to instrumentation and control
systems.
IEEE Std.-379-2000, Application of the Single-Failure Criterion to Nuclear Power
Generating Station Safety Systems, was prepared on September 21, 2000. The standard
provides guidance on the application of the single-failure criterion to the electrical power,
instrumentation, and control portions of nuclear power plant safety systems.
The systems include the actuation and protection systems, as well as the sense, command,
and execute features of the power system. The guidance in this standard has been developed
for electrical systems. However, where the interface with mechanical systems is unavoidable
(e.g., sensing lines), the mechanical portions are considered to be a part of the electrical
system with which they interface.
d. Discuss the environmental qualification criteria for instrumentation and control
system equipment.
The following is taken from 10 CFR 50.49.
The instrumentation and control system equipment environmental qualification program
must include and be based on the following considerations:
Temperature and pressure. The time-dependent temperature and pressure at the
location of the equipment important to safety must be established for the most severe
design basis accident during or following which this equipment is required to remain
functional.
Humidity. Humidity during design basis accidents must be considered.
Chemical effects. The composition of chemicals used must be at least as severe as
that resulting from the most limiting mode of plant operation (e.g., containment spray,
emergency core cooling, or recirculation from containment sump). If the composition
of the chemical spray can be affected by equipment malfunctions, the most severe
chemical spray environment that results from a single failure in the spray system must
be assumed.
Radiation. The radiation environment must be based on the type of radiation, the total
dose expected during normal operation over the installed life of the equipment, and
the radiation environment associated with the most severe design basis accident
during or following which the equipment is required to remain functional, including

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the radiation resulting from recirculating fluids for equipment located near the
recirculating lines and including dose-rate effects.
Aging. Equipment qualified by test must be preconditioned by natural or artificial
(accelerated) aging to its end-of-installed life condition. Consideration must be given
to all significant types of degradation that can have an effect on the functional
capability of the equipment. If preconditioning to an end-of-installed life condition is
not practicable, the equipment may be preconditioned to a shorter designated life. The
equipment must be replaced or refurbished at the end of this designated life unless
ongoing qualification demonstrates that the item has additional life.
Submergence (if equipment will be subject to being submerged).
Synergistic effects. Synergistic effects must be considered when these effects are
believed to have a significant effect on equipment performance.
Margins. Margins must be applied to account for unquantified uncertainty, such as the
effects of production variations and inaccuracies in test instruments. These margins
are in addition to any conservatisms applied during the derivation of local
environmental conditions of the equipment unless these conservatisms can be
quantified and shown to contain appropriate margins.
e. Discuss the requirements for testing capability for instrumentation and control
systems as it relates to the applicable design standards.
The following is taken from 10 CFR 50.49.
Each item of instrumentation and control equipment important to safety must be qualified by
one of the following methods:
Testing of an identical item of equipment under identical conditions or under similar
conditions with a supporting analysis to show that the equipment to be qualified is
acceptable
Testing of a similar item of equipment with a supporting analysis to show that the
equipment to be qualified is acceptable
Experience with identical or similar equipment under similar conditions with a
supporting analysis to show that the equipment to be qualified is acceptable
Analysis in combination with partial type test data that supports the analytical
assumptions and conclusions
f. Discuss the criteria for generic human factors engineering considerations in the
applicable design standards, as they apply to instrumentation and control
systems.
Determining the impacts of human factors requires considering the degree to which process
safety depends on human performance, whether workers can reasonably be expected to
perform the tasks they are assigned, and whether procedures and training adequately guide
and prepare workers to perform tasks correctly. The human factors assessment could include
listing potential human-error causes of accidents; examining the location of and access to
critical safety instruments, alarms, and equipment; or reviewing critical procedures used by
operators and maintenance personnel. For critical operations, it may be necessary to perform

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task hazard analyses to analyze the operator/machine interface in process control rooms or
other work locations to adequately evaluate human factor impacts.
g. Discuss criteria for developing the proper setpoints for interlocks and alarms.
For information regarding developing setpoints see ANSI/ISA-67.04.01-2000 Setpoints for
Nuclear Safety-Related Instrumentation.
h. Given a design package for an instrumentation and control system for a
mechanical, civil, structural, or electrical application, determine the general
design criteria requirements for the instrumentation and controls.
29. I&C personnel designated as vital safety systems subject matter experts shall
demonstrate an expert level of knowledge on their level of understanding and
approach to overseeing contractor activities by using the requirements of DOE O
420.1, Facility Safety, and the guidance in DOE-STD-1073-93, Guide for Operational
Configuration Management Program, by performing system assessments addressing
the following elements:
[Note: DOE-STD-1073-93 has been replaced by DOE-STD-1073-2003, Configuration
Management.]
a. Determine that adequate and comprehensive documentation exists for the system
design basis and safety basis (e.g., Documented Safety Analysis, Technical Safety
Requirements, etc.).
b. Assess the adequacy of the systems ability to perform in accordance with the
system design basis and safety basis.
c. Determine how system operability and reliability are supported by the
maintenance program and system upgrades/modifications.
d. Determine if the field installation is maintained consistent with the documented
design during maintenance and modifications.
e. Confirm that knowledgeable and qualified technical personnel are monitoring,
operating, and maintaining the safety system in an appropriate manner.
Elements ae are performance-based KSAs. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
knowledge of DOE O 430.1, Life Cycle Asset Management.
[Note: DOE O 430.1, Life Cycle Asset Management, has been replaced by DOE O
430.1B, Real Property Asset Management. The KSAs for this competency will address
DOE O 430.1B.]

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a. Discuss the purpose, scope, and application of DOE O 430.1B, Real Property
Asset Management. Include in this discussion key terms, essential elements, and
personnel responsibilities and authorities.
Purpose and Scope
The purpose of DOE O 430.1B is to establish a corporate, holistic, and performance-based
approach to real property life-cycle asset management that links real property asset planning,
programming, budgeting, and evaluation to program mission projections and performance
outcomes. To accomplish the objective, DOE O 430.1B identifies requirements and
establishes reporting mechanisms and responsibilities for real property asset management.
Application
DOE O 430.1B applies to all DOE elements listed in DOE O 430.1B, attachment 1, with
responsibility for real property assets, including NNSA.
The contractor requirements document (CRD), attachment 2 of DOE O 430.1B, sets forth the
requirements of the Order that must apply to all site/facility management contracts that
include the CRD.
Key Terms and Essential Elements
The key terms and essential elements for the major real property asset management
functional components are
planning
real estate
acquisition
maintenance and recapitalization
disposition and long-term stewardship (LTS)
value engineering(VE)
performance goals and measures.
Each of these elements will be described briefly. For additional details please refer to DOE O
430.1B.
Planning
Planning is the overarching function within real property asset management that integrates
the other functions of acquisition, real property utilization, maintenance, recapitalization,
disposition, and LTS into a coordinated effort to ensure that current and future mission needs
are met. Planning is dependent on clear objectives, sound data, and effective communication.
Real Estate
The real estate function encompasses several key activities over the life cycle of real property
assets. These activities involve acquisition by lease or purchase; planning and management,
including taking inventory, making assignments, conducting utilization surveys, and tracking
assets; screening for excess real property assets; and disposal of real property assets.

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Acquisition
Acquisition of real property assets through construction must be planned and accomplished
to meet program mission projections. Acquisition planning should include life-cycle cost
considerations.
Maintenance and Recapitalization
Real property assets will be maintained in a manner that promotes operational safety, worker
health, environmental protection and compliance, property preservation, and cost-
effectiveness while meeting the program missions. This requires a balanced approach that not
only sustains the assets but also provides for their recapitalization.
Disposition and LTS
Planning for disposition must be initiated when real property assets are identified as no
longer required for current or future programs. Disposition includes stabilizing, preparing for
reuse, deactivating, decommissioning, decontaminating, dismantling, demolishing, and/or
disposing of real property assets.
Value Engineering
VE is an organized effort directed at analyzing the functions of systems, equipment,
facilities, services, and supplies for the purpose of achieving the essential functions at the
lowest life-cycle cost consistent with required performance, reliability, quality,
maintainability, environmental protection, and safety.
Performance Goals and Measures
The DOE planning, programming, budgeting, and evaluation system requires that
performance measures be established that link performance of program goals and budgets to
outputs and outcomes. All DOE elements must develop real property asset performance
measures commensurate with their duties and responsibilities. The Lead Program Secretarial
Offices/Cognizant Secretarial Offices (LPSOs/CSOs) must establish annual performance
targets for their real property assets and state their expected performance outputs and
outcomes in their annual direction and guidance. Site-specific measures must be developed
by each site/field manager to assess the level to which the LPSO-/CSO-established outputs
and outcomes have been attained.
b. Discuss the project management terminology for which definitions are provided in
DOE O 430.1B, Real Property Asset Management.
The following are some of the terms that are directly related to project management taken
from attachment 3 of DOE O 430.1B. For additional definitions please refer to the Order.
Disposition Baseline
The disposition baseline is the technical, programmatic, and regulatory information that
serves as input to the disposition preparation and planning process, and is essential to meet
the goal of maximum risk reduction and long-term cost savings in the elimination of excess
real property assets.

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Facility Condition Index
The facility condition index is the ratio of the cost of deferred maintenance to the facilitys
replacement plant value. The cost of deferred maintenance deficiencies is determined by
condition assessment inspections. The facilities information management system data is used
to calculate the facility condition index.
Institutional General Plant Project (IGPP)
A IGPP consists of miscellaneous, minor (i.e., up to $5 million) new construction of a
general institutional nature benefiting multiple cost objectives and required for general
purpose site-wide needs. IGPPs do not include projects whose benefit can directly be
attributed to a specific or single program. IGPPs are consistent with the general plant project
threshold and capitalization criteria in the DOE Accounting Handbook, chapter 10. Example
IGPP projects are multiprogrammatic/interdisciplinary scientific laboratory, institutional
training facility, site-wide maintenance facilities and utilities, new roads, multiprogrammatic
office space, multiprogrammatic facilities required for quality of life improvements, and
replacement or upgrade to a core utility, land, and facility that is no longer reliable.
Integrated Facilities and Infrastructure (IFI) Crosscut Budget.
The IFI crosscut budget is a crosscut budget exhibit that has been developed to ensure
sustained improvement in real property management. It constitutes, with the exception of
new mission line-item projects, the resources required to implement a ten-year site plan. This
crosscut budget identifies renovation, recapitalization, maintenance, and demolition projects
for buildings and facilities by program and site. The IFI budget also includes reports on direct
maintenance and an estimate of indirect maintenance and repair funding requirements. The
IFI is developed in conjunction with the Departments budgeting process and submitted
annually with the Presidential budget to Congress.
Land-Use Planning
Land-use planning is a formal, integrated planning process that is used to identify an
appropriate mix of land uses at each site and guidelines for development.
Life-Cycle Cost
Life-cycle cost is the sum total of the direct, indirect, recurring, nonrecurring, and other
related costs incurred or estimated to be incurred in the design, development, production,
operation, maintenance, support, and final disposition of real property over its anticipated
useful life span.
Long-Term Stewardship
Long-term stewardship includes the physical controls, institutions, information, and other
mechanisms needed to ensure protection of people and the environment at sites where DOE
has completed or plans to complete cleanup (e.g., landfill closures, remedial actions, removal
actions, and facility stabilization). This concept includes land-use controls, monitoring,
maintenance, and information management.

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Ten-Year Site Plan (TYSP)
The TYSP is a planning document that identifies the sites annual and strategic program
requirements and priorities, and links these to real property asset requirements. Real property
asset requirements must be consistent with program missions, budgets, and planning
estimates. Planning employs costing efficiencies, eliminates excess buildings, consolidates
operations where practicable, and addresses mission-critical requirements through an
appropriate mix of recapitalization, new construction, and disposal of excess facilities.
Total Estimated Costs (TEC)
The TEC of a project is the specific cost of the project, including cost of land and land rights;
engineering, design, and inspection costs; direct and indirect construction costs; and the cost
of initial equipment necessary to place the plant or installation in operation.
Value Engineering
VE is an organized effort directed at analyzing the functions of systems, equipment,
facilities, services, and supplies for the purpose of achieving the essential functions at the
lowest life-cycle cost consistent with required performance, reliability, quality, and safety.
Value analysis, value management, and value control are considered synonymous with VE.
c. Discuss in detail the roles played by various management levels within the
Department as they relate to the project management system.
The following is taken from DOE O 430.1B.
A qualified DOE Federal facilities management staff must be assigned at cognizant
Headquarters offices and field elements to provide for implementation of DOE O 430.1B and
to ensure accountability. The following paragraphs describe the responsibilities and
authorities for effective management of DOE real property assets and establish
accountabilities for real property asset management from planning and acquisition through
operations and disposal.
LPSOs issue program missions, budgets, and planning estimates covering a 10-year
planning horizon for site infrastructure and LPSO-related real property assets and
approve TYSPs and land-use management plans for their sites.
CSOs/PSOs issue program missions, budgets, and planning estimates covering a
10-year planning horizon for their program-related work and/or real property assets
and approve elements of TYSPs related to their programmatic responsibilities at
related sites.
Site/field managers ensure mission resource requirements for real property assets,
including their plans and budgets, are prepared to meet the program missions,
budgets, and planning estimates, and the results are documented in the TYSP.
Site/field managers perform a key role coordinating program and tenant activities and
real property asset needs at the site.
TYSPs are submitted by site/field managers to the LPSOs/CSOs/PSOs as the plans
for real property assets at the sites. TYSPs support LPSO/CSO/PSO programming
decisions regarding real property assets and subsequent site budget requests.

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The Office of Engineering and Construction Management develops policies and
procedures for real property asset management and provides corporate oversight for
implementation.
d. Discuss the purpose of critical decisions. Include in this discussion the
responsible authorities for critical decisions.
[Note: Critical decisions are not discussed in DOE O 430.1B. The following information
is taken from DOE O 413.3A.]
The five critical decisions are major milestones approved by the Secretarial Acquisition
Executive (SEC) or Acquisition Executive that establish the mission need, the recommended
alternative, the acquisition strategy, the performance baseline, and other essential elements
required to ensure that the project meets applicable mission, design, security, and safety
requirements. Each critical decision marks an increase in commitment of resources by the
Department and requires successful completion of the preceding phase or critical decision.
Collectively, the critical decisions affirm the following:
There is a need that cannot be met through other than material means.
The selected alternative and approach is the optimum solution.
Definitive scope, schedule and cost baselines have been developed.
The project is ready for implementation.
The project is ready for turnover or transition to operations.
The amount of time between decisions will vary. Projects may quickly proceed through the
early critical decisions due to a lack of complexity, the presence of constraints that reduce
available alternatives, or the absence of significant technology and developmental
requirements. In these cases, more than one critical decision may be approved
simultaneously. Conversely, there may be a need to split a critical decision.
The Deputy Secretary serves as the SEC for the Department and promulgates Department-
wide policy and direction. The critical decision authorities, thresholds and delegations are
identified in table 3.

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Table 3. Critical decision authority thresholds
Critical Decision Authority Total Project Cost
Thresholds
Life Cycle Clean-up Project
Cost Thresholds
Secretarial Acquisition
Executive
$750M
(or any project on an
exception basis when
designated by the SEC)
No delegation authority
$1B
(or any clean-up project on an
designation by the SEC)
Delegation authority to
Program Secretarial Office
on an exception basis
Under Secretaries
$100M and < $750M
(or any project on an
designated by the Under
Secretaries)
Delegation authority to
Program Secretarial Officer
for projects $400M
Not Applicable
$20M and < $100M
Delegation authority to a
program manager or field
organization manager. CD-0
may not be delegated below
the Program Secretarial
Officer
< $1B
Delegation to Headquarters
or field SEC. CD-0 may not
be delegated below the
Chief Information Officer
> $5M and $750M
Departmental Information
Technology Projects
No delegation authority
Not Applicable
Source: DOE O 413.3A
e. Describe the process by which projects are designated.
The following is taken from DOE O 413.3A.
Most projects are designated into either major system projects or non-major system projects.
Major system projects are projects with a total project cost greater than or equal to $750M or
environmental management clean-up projects with an environmental management total
project cost of $1B. All major system project critical decisions must be proposed by the
appropriate PSO and approved by the Deputy Secretary as DOEs designated SEC before
proceeding to the next project phase or critical decision.

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Non-major projects are projects with a total project cost less than $750M or environmental
management clean-up projects with an environmental management total project cost less than
$1B. The designated Acquisition Executive must approve all non-major system project
critical decisions, except for CD-0, which cannot be delegated below the Program Secretarial
Officer.
Although most DOE projects are designated major or non-major projects, there are some
unique project situations where customizing the process is beneficial, such as the following:
Environmental Management Cleanup Projects
These projects include environmental clean-up work, environmental management clean-up
projects, and environmental restoration projects. These projects could include hundreds of
release sites at the lowest level, that are aggregated into Environmental Protection Agency-
regulated operable units or performance baseline summaries. These are further aggregated
into a total site-wide program. Decontamination and decommissioning activities may also be
aggregated in the same manner. Other projects may range from a single project for a closure
site, to disposition of a waste stream, to a grouping of similar work activities or geographic
locations within a large site.
Information Technology Projects
Departmental information technology capital assets will be defined by the Deputy Secretary
and are characterized by (1) their widespread and continuous use among multiple
departmental organizational units; (2) their vital importance to accomplishing the
departments business functions; and (3) their special importance to agency senior
management. Information technology projects are not meant to encompass process or control
systems that are an integral part of a broader project. Additionally, this policy is applicable to
commercial-off-the-shelf acquisitions.
The DOE critical decision process is normally tailored for information technology projects to
provide sufficient flexibility during the phased or spiral approach required for these projects.
Generally, system design and development using a combined CD-2/3 process is required to
support various procurement alternatives and software/firmware implementation in lieu of
conventional construction. This tailored approach does not reduce or eliminate management,
performance to baselines or technical requirements. The Federal project director uses this
framework to guide development of documentation to plan, manage, and execute the project
and designate appropriate design approvals at the integrated project team level.
Design-Build Projects
Design-build is a project delivery method where a single contract is awarded for both design
and construction. Design-build can be used most successfully with projects that have well-
defined requirements, are not complex, and have limited risks. This applies to projects that
have few unknowns or new technology requirements, little to no program or system
integration, and are not unique or first-of-a-kind.
Projects such as road building, administrative facilities, fire stations, and/or replication of
previously accomplished projects are generally the most appropriate for design-build

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consideration. The design-build approach requires the development of a functional design
and clearly stated operating requirements that provide sufficient information to allow
prospective contractors to prepare bids or proposals, but also allows them the flexibility to
implement innovative design and construction approaches, value engineering, and other cost-
and time-savings initiatives. This overall objective of the design-build approach is to reduce
the total cost to the government and deliver projects more quickly than the traditional design-
bid-build approach.
f. Describe the phases of a typical project.
The phases of a typical project are initiation, definition, execution, and closeout. Each of
these phases is described in the following paragraphs.
Initiation Phase
During this phase, pre-conceptual planning activities focus on the programs strategic goals
and objectives. User needs are analyzed for consistency with the Departments strategic plan,
Congressional direction, administration initiatives, and political and legal issues. One
outcome of the analysis could be a determination that a user need exists that cannot be met
through other than material means. This outcome leads to the development and approval of a
mission need statement. The information developed during this phase also provides the basis
for the project engineering and design budget request when preliminary design activities are
planned.
Definition Phase
Upon approval of mission need, the project enters the definition phase where alternative
concepts, based on user requirements, risks, costs, and other constraints, are analyzed to
arrive at a recommended alternative. This is accomplished using systems engineering and
other techniques and tools such as alternatives analysis and VE. This ensures the
recommended alternative provides the essential functions and capability at optimum life-
cycle cost, consistent with required performance, scope, schedule, cost, security, and
environment, safety, and health considerations. During this phase, the required VE
assessment is completed, and more detailed planning is accomplished, which further defines
required capabilities. The products produced by this planning provide the detail necessary to
develop a range of estimates for the project cost and schedule.
Execution Phase
Following the definition phase, preliminary design activities mark the beginning of the
execution phase. Systems engineering continues to balance requirements, cost, schedule, and
other factors to optimize the design, cost, and capabilities that satisfy the mission need.
Engineering and design continue until the project has a sufficiently mature design that can be
implemented successfully within a firm performance baseline.
During this phase, the initial design concepts and the preliminary design are developed into
detailed and final designs and plans. These plans are used to procure or manufacture
components, fabricate subsystems, or construct, remediate, decommission, or demolish
facilities. Major activities in this phase include

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establishing performance measurement baselines and implementing change control
procedures;
satisfying environmental and safety requirements;
obtaining approved National Environmental Policy Act documentation, if required,
prior to the start of detail or final design;
continuing to refine and optimize cost estimates, schedules, and designs;
approving the final design for procurement and implementation;
identifying and addressing security concerns.
Execution comprises the longest and most costly phase of a project. VE is implemented
throughout the project execution phase to ensure the most effective solutions are
implemented.
If the delivery method is design-build versus design-bid-build and a single contract is
awarded for both design and construction, it may be necessary to tailor the projects
execution process to allow the project team to propose cost-effective innovative approaches
that reduce project duration and cost.
Transition/Closeout Phase
When the project nears completion and has progressed into formal transition and
commissioning, which generally includes final testing, inspection, and documentation, the
project is prepared for operation, long-term care, or closeout. The nature of the transition and
its timing depends on the type of project and the requirements that were identified subsequent
to the mission need.
g. Explain the purpose and use of a project execution plan.
The project execution plan is the core document for management of a project. The Federal
project director is responsible for the preparation of this document. It establishes the policies
and procedures to be followed to manage and control project planning, initiation, definition,
execution, and transition/closeout, and uses the outcomes and outputs from all project
planning processes, integrating them into a formally approved document. A project execution
plan includes an accurate reflection of how the project is to be accomplished, resource
requirements, technical considerations, risk management, configuration management, and
roles and responsibilities. A preliminary project execution plan is required to support CD-1.
This document continues to be refined throughout a projects life cycle and revisions are
documented through the configuration management process.
h. Discuss the role of configuration management as it relates to project
management.
A configuration management process must be established that controls changes to the
physical configuration of project facilities, structures, systems, and components in
compliance with ANSI/Electronics Industry Alliance (EIA)-649, National Consensus

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Standard for Configuration Management. This process must also ensure that the
configuration is in agreement with the performance objectives identified in the technical
baseline and the approved quality assurance plan.
i. Discuss the use of safety plans in the management of projects.
The following is taken from DOE M 413.3-1.
Delivering a facility or a modification that can meet its mission requirements while
maintaining the safety of the public, the workers, and the environment is essential for a
successful project.
For those facilities that contain or will contain hazardous materials, continuous development
and integration of the safety analysis as an integral part of design is required. This is
accomplished using integrated safety management within the design. The task of developing
the safety basis for the facility often drives design and operational requirements. The early
integration of safety requirements in the design permits the development of timely and cost-
effective solutions from the start. However, providing a design that only meets all of the
specified safety requirements may not be adequate for implementing a safety-through-design
approach.
j. Discuss the relationship between work breakdown structure (WBS) and cost and
schedule.
The following is taken from DOE G 430.1-1, chapter 5.
A WBS shows the relationship of all elements of a project. This provides a sound basis for
cost and schedule control.
During that period of a projects life from its inception to a completed project, a number of
diverse financial activities must take place. These activities include cost estimating,
budgeting, accounting, reporting, controlling and auditing. A WBS establishes a common
frame of reference for relating job tasks to each other and relating project costs at the
summary level of detail.
Since the WBS divides the package into work packages, it can also be used to interrelate the
schedule and costs. The work packages or their activities can be used as the schedules
activities. This enables resource loading of a schedule, resource budgeting against time, and
the development of a variety of cost budgets plotted against time.
k. Describe the purpose and use of work packages and/or planning packages.
The following is taken from Project Management Knowledge, Work Packages.
A work package is a portion of the work breakdown structure that allows project
management to define the steps necessary for completion of the work package. A work
package can be thought of as a mini project that when combined with other work package
units, form the completed project. An individual work package contains essential steps
involved in completion of the work package, along with a deadline by which each of the

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steps must be completed in order for project management to stay on track. A work package
may in itself be thought of as a deliverable. Work packages allow for simultaneous work on
many different components of a project at the same time by multiple teams. Each team
follows the steps defined in the work package and completes them by the specified deadline.
When all teams have finished their individual work packages, the whole project comes
together with seamless integration. Completion of a work package is most often overseen by
a specific person, whether it is a manager, supervisor, team leader, or a designated team
member. A work package is usually the bottom tier of the project management process.
The following is taken from Project Management Knowledge, Planning Packages.
The project management concept of a planning package provides an invaluable means of
categorization for the team project management leader in the efforts to effectively group and
itemize a number of essential elements of the project. Specifically speaking, the planning
package concept refers to the projects particular work breakdown structure component
which resides on the grand and total scheme below the already deciphered and already
broken down control account, however lacking a carefully crafted and elaborately detailed
itemization of the projects defined schedule activities, yet nonetheless containing a fairly
lucid delineation of the known work content to be performed and conducted during the time
detailed. The planning package may be constructed and or outlined at any point but it is ideal
to do so early in the process.
l. Describe the purpose of schedules, and discuss the use of milestones and
activities.
The following is taken from Stanford University, Land, Buildings, and Real Estate, Schedule
Development.
The cornerstone of any well-managed project is the schedule, which is a tool that identifies
and organizes project tasks into a sequence of events that then form a project management
plan. The process of building the schedule enables the project manager to identify the risk
points, understand the proper linkage of events, assists in resource planning, and allows the
project manager to establish goals for the team and the project.
The benefits of a well-constructed schedule are numerous. It becomes the framework to
organize the project team to strive to common goals, it provides the project manager the tool
to manage to a desired outcome, and it provides a means to measure performance of the
team. A quality schedule includes planned control points that better ensure the success rate of
the project. The specific control points that must be inserted and honored include, but are not
limited to:
Budget development and cost checks. This includes time to redesign in order to
realign the scope and budget.
Management approvals.
Critical milestones, in chronological order, provide the key tasks and target dates
representing broad events required to correct a problem and its root cause(s).

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All critical milestones must list an original target activity completion date by month and year.
This is the date included in the original action plan as the proposed completion of the
milestone, and it must stay the same through closure. A revised target or actual completion
date denoted by month and year must be listed if
the milestone target completion date has been revised, in which case the most current
date must be listed;
the milestone has been completed, in which case the completion month and year must
be listed.
Critical milestones completed during the current year should correspond with planned
activities indicated on the prior years plan.
m. Describe the critical path method of scheduling.
The critical path is the longest path through a network schedule that consequently defines the
shortest possible duration for completing a project. This path and its duration are determined
by performing forward and backward passes through the network diagram based on the
defined activity sequence and estimated activity durations.
n. Explain the concept of a project management baseline and describe the four
baselines used in project management.
[Note: DOE Orders, standards, and guides define three baselines used in project
management.]
Traditionally, in DOE a project, baseline comprised three componentstechnical, cost,
and scheduleeach of which is intimately related to the others. The requirement to establish
key performance parameters has become a prominent feature of DOE project management.
adequacy of local compliance with applicable Instrumentation, Systems, and
Automation Society (ISA) standards related to process control instrumentation and
I&C systems (consider entire instrument loops, including sensors, transmitters,
controllers, final elements).
a. Discuss the purpose, scope, general content, and application of the ISA
standards.
The following is taken from the ISA Web page.
The public policy goal of ISA is to serve the public and the automation control professional
community by
promoting automation control excellence through public policy activities;
developing instrumentation, systems, and automation positions on public policy
issues;

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integrating and focusing local, state, national, and global ISA resources to impact
public policy efficiently and effectively;
maintaining a quick response capability for short notice issues;
undertaking agenda-setting and pro-active public policy activities;
educating and assisting public policymakers to better understand how the automation
and control community impacts legislative and regulatory proposals;
providing coalition-building leadership in order to increase the impact of ISAs public
policy positions;
promoting the understanding and participation of ISA members in public policy
activities.
b. Given a project involving process control instrumentation, identify the proper ISA
standards necessary to effectively evaluate that element of the project.
c. Discuss what constitutes acceptable contractor performance consistent with the
requirements of the above standards.
d. Given the design drawings and specifications for a process control system, verify
compliance with the appropriate ISA standards.
Contractor requirements vary from site to site. The Qualifying Official will evaluate the
completion of these KSAs.
knowledge of DOE O 414.1A, Quality Assurance, as it applies to instrument and
control systems.
[Note: DOE O 414.1A, has been replaced by DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance.]
a. Describe the types of documents related to instrumentation and control that
should be controlled by a document control system.
The following is taken from DOE G 414.1-2A.
Documents and records are required in order to effectively manage, perform, and assess
work. Documents and records should include applicable requirements to indicate that work
(including safety) has been properly specified and accomplished. Management should
identify any documents and records that must be developed and controlled. Management
should commit the resources necessary to accomplish the document and record requirements.
Documents are required by organizations, projects, or programs to control policy,
administrative, and/or technical information. A document may describe work to be done, data
to be used at different locations or by different people, or, in changing situations, data to be
controlled from time to time for reference purposes. A document control system should be
established to supply such documents necessary for personnel to safely and correctly perform
their assigned responsibilities. Document systems ensure that the mechanisms developed to

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implement the safety management functions of DOE P 450.4 are properly prepared,
controlled, and available for managers and workers.
Knowledge of specific documents that are related to I&C at your facility will be evaluated by
the local Qualifying Official.
b. Discuss the requirements for revision and distribution of controlled documents.
Controlled Document Distribution List
Contractors should establish and maintain controlled document distribution lists. The lists
should identify both the documents that are to be controlled and the individuals who are
holders of copies of those documents (controlled document users, or as identified in 10
CFR 830, appendix A, paragraph G.5, the authorized users list). The document owner
should determine the list of controlled document users to be included on the controlled
document list. The distribution list should include any satellite document distribution centers.
To ensure they are included on the distribution list for revised documents, controlled
document users should inform the document owners of their need for specific documents.
Whenever a document is superseded by a new revision, a copy of the new revision must be
sent to each controlled document user of the document.
Document Changes
The organization responsible for document control should be notified of any need to change a
document as soon as that need is identified and approved, typically through the change
control or work control processes. A document change notice may be used for this purpose.
The organization responsible for document control should provide a receipt acknowledging
the notification that a document should be changed. The organization responsible for
document control should take the appropriate action to update the document and record the
status in the document control database.
The contractor should specifically identify in the change control process what constitutes a
minor change (e.g., inconsequential, editorial corrections). Major changes to controlled
documents are any changes that are not defined as minor changes. Major changes to
controlled documents must be reviewed and approved by the document owners. The
configuration management process may specify a simpler review for minor changes.
Pending Changes
Pending changes are changes that have been approved for which the associated documents
have not yet been updated and distributed. The organization responsible for document control
should provide notice of pending changes to the controlled document users for the applicable
documents. A notice of the pending change should also be attached to, or appropriately
referenced on, the affected master document, in order to alert anyone requesting a copy of the
document.

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Incorporate Changes
Contractors must incorporate approved changes into controlled documents in a timely
manner. The contractor should control and limit the backlog of changes that have not been
incorporated. Contractors should consider incorporating small changes in batches, where
appropriate. When there is a large backlog of changes that have not been incorporated on a
document, the documents may not reflect the physical facility or the approved safety basis
consequently diminishing the value of the documents. Document control procedures should
specify the limit of the number of changes that may be outstanding for a document before the
document is revised. That limit may vary depending upon the type of document, document
priority, complexity of the changes, and the degree of overlap of those changes.
Distribution of Documents
Whenever a document is issued or superseded by a new revision, the contractor organization
responsible for document control must send a copy of the new revision to each controlled
document user of the document, along with a request for written receipt acknowledgment.
Contractors can facilitate the return of receipt acknowledgments by sending a receipt
acknowledgment form with the revised document. Document control procedures should
specify guidelines for the maximum time between issuance of the revised controlled
document and distribution.
The recipients (controlled document users) should update their copy of the document (for
example, by inserting changed pages), and discard any obsolete pages or copies of
documents. The recipient must return a written acknowledgment of receipt to the document
control organization. The controlled document users should periodically review controlled
copies in use to ensure their accuracy and their consistency with the master copies.
c. Discuss the determination of calibration frequency for measuring and test
equipment.
The following is taken from DOE G-10 CFR 835/E1.
A formal instrument calibration should be performed on each instrument at least annually.
The calibration should include a pre-calibration inspection/test normally followed by a
documented calibration over the entire range of the instrument. Calibration for ranges where
the instrument is not intended to be used need not be conducted, as long as the specific
limitations on instrument use are clearly marked on the instrument. The frequency of
calibration should be adjusted to the use of the instrument and its durability. The National
Conference of Standards Laboratories (NCSL), Recommended Practice RP-1, Establishment
and Adjustment of Calibration Intervals indicates that more frequent calibrations should be
performed when greater than 15 percent of instruments are returned out of calibration at the
selected calibration frequency (a minimum of annually). This should include all returned
instruments that fail a source check in the field. NCSL/RP-1 also indicates that if, for those
instruments for which the calibration cycle had been more frequent than annual, fewer than 5
percent are out of calibration, then the cycle may be lengthened but is not to exceed 1 year.

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d. Describe the effect of using inappropriate calibration standards on test equipment.
The following is taken from NFPA 70B.
Data loss and unsafe work conditions can result from the use of inappropriate calibration
standards. All test equipment should be calibrated at regular intervals to ensure the validity of
the data obtained. In order to get valid test results, it might be necessary to regulate the power
input to the test equipment for proper waveform and frequency and to eliminate voltage
surges.
e. Discuss the key elements of the procurement process for instrument and control
systems as described in the DOE quality assurance Order.
The following is taken from DOE O 414.1C.
The following key elements pertain to the procurement process for electrical systems:
Procure items and services that meet established requirements and perform as
specified.
Evaluate and select prospective suppliers on the basis of specified criteria.
Establish and implement processes to ensure that approved suppliers continue to
provide acceptable items and services.
f. Discuss calibration techniques for various instrument types.
Measurement and testing equipment (M&TE) be calibrated using reference standards
(secondary or working) whose calibration has a known valid relationship to nationally
recognized standards or accepted values of natural physical constants. If national standards
do not exist, the basis for calibration should be documented. The reference standard used
should have an accuracy at least four times greater than the device under test. If this accuracy
ratio cannot be met, analysis of the errors should be estimated to provide a valid uncertainty
of the calibration process.
ANSI N323-1978, Radiation Protection Instrumentation Test and Calibration, provides
requirements on the calibration of portable instruments. The reproducibility of the instrument
readings should be known prior to making calibration adjustments. This is particularly
important if the instrument has failed to pass a periodic performance test (i.e., the instrument
response varies by more than 20 percent from a set of reference readings using a check
source) or if the instrument has been repaired.
The effect of energy dependence, temperature, humidity, ambient pressure, and source-to-
detector geometry should be known when performing the primary calibration. Primary
calibration should be performed at least annually.
g. Discuss the correct actions to be taken for an instrument found out of calibration.

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(M&TE) found to exceed required calibration tolerance or that has been subjected to possible
damage should be identified as rejected. When repairs are required to standards or other
measuring and test equipment they shall be re-calibrated to the original requirements prior to
being returned to normal service. When calibration/certification is performed, the as-found
condition and/or minor adjustments to the measuring and test equipment shall be noted as
part of the equipment history information.
h. Discuss instrument calibration data trending.
The following is taken from National Institute of Standards (NIST)/SEMATECH e-Handbook
of Statistical Methods.
The process of collecting data for creating the calibration curve is critical to the success of
the calibration program. General rules for designing calibration experiments apply, and
guidelines that are adequate for the calibration models are given below.
A minimum of 5 reference standards is required for a linear calibration curve, and 10
reference standards should be adequate for more complicated calibration models.
The optimal strategy in selecting the reference standards is to space the reference standards at
points corresponding to equal increments on the y-axis, covering the range of the instrument.
Frequently, this strategy is not realistic because the person producing the reference materials
is often not the same as the person who is creating the calibration curve. Spacing the
reference standards at equal intervals on the x-axis is a good alternative.
If the instrument is not to be calibrated over its entire range, but only over a very short range
for a specific application, then it may not be necessary to develop a complete calibration
curve, and a bracketing technique will provide satisfactory results. The bracketing technique
assumes that the instrument is linear over the interval of interest, and, in this case, only two
reference standards are requiredone at each end of the interval.
A minimum of two measurements on each reference standard is required and four is
recommended. The repetitions should be separated in time by days or weeks. These
repetitions provide the data for determining whether a candidate model is adequate for
calibrating the instrument.
i. Discuss the quality assurance measures required for each of the following
elements of a project:
Design control
Procurement control
Instructions, procedures, and drawings
Document control
Control of purchased material, equipment, and services
Identification, control, and traceability of materials, parts, and components
Control of special processes
Inspection
Test control
Calibration and control of test and measurement equipment
Handling, storage, shipping, and preservation
Inspection, test, and operating status

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Nonconformity of material, parts, or components
Corrective action
Quality assurance records
Audits
The following descriptions are taken from DOE G 414.1-2A unless stated otherwise.
Design Control
The design process should translate design input into design output documents that are
technically correct and compliant with the end-users requirements. Aspects critical to the
performance, safety, or reliability of the designed items should be identified during the
design phase. Design output documents should be prepared to support other processes, such
as dose and risk assessments, procurement, manufacturing, assembly, construction, testing,
inspection, maintenance, and decommissioning.
Technical and administrative design interfaces should be identified and methods established
for their control.
Computer software used to originate or analyze design solutions during the design process
should be validated for the intended use; otherwise, status of the code validation should be
identified and documented prior to use.
The design organization should perform design analyses and checks to ensure that design
output documents meet design input requirements and that any changes have been approved
and documented.
Procurement Control
The procurement process should ensure that items and/or services provided by suppliers meet
the requirements and expectations of the end user. The procurement process should be
planned and controlled to ensure that
the end users requirements are accurately, completely, and clearly communicated to
the supplier;
supplier, designer, and end-user requirements are met during the production phase;
the proper product is delivered on time and maintained until use.
Procurement processes should prevent introduction of suspect/counterfeit items and provide a
method to detect them before they are released for use.
Instructions, Procedures, and Drawings
Procedures, work instructions, or other appropriate means used to define work processes
should be documented and controlled. The scope and detail of documentation should be
commensurate with the complexity and importance of the work, the skills required to
perform the work, the hazards and risks or consequences of quality problems in the product,
process, or service, and the need to meet regulatory and contract requirements. Control of
processes, skills, hazards, and equipment should be clearly specified, understood, and fully
documented. This serves as the point of integration for integrated safety management and
quality assurance into an integrated management approach.

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Workers are responsible for the quality of their work. Workers should do their work correctly
the first time, in accordance with established procedures and work instructions. Because
workers are the best resource for contributing ideas for improving work processes, products,
and services, they should be involved in work process design, process evaluation (pre-job
briefing), and providing the feedback necessary for improvement..
Document Control
A document control system should be in place to control the preparation, review, approval,
issue, control, and revision of documents. Documents are required by organizations, projects,
or programs to control policy and administrative and/or technical information. A document
may describe work to be done, data to be used at different locations or by different people,
or, in changing situations, data to be controlled from time to time for reference purposes. The
document control system should be established to supply the documents necessary for
personnel to safely and correctly perform their assigned responsibilities. Document control
systems ensure that the mechanisms developed to implement the safety management
functions are properly prepared, controlled, and available for use.
Control of Purchased Material, Equipment, and Services
Work processes should be established and implemented to protect items in accordance with
specified technical standards and administrative controls to prevent damage, loss, or
deterioration. Work processes should specify protective methods for sensitive or perishable
items, such as special handling, shipping, and storage controls for precision instrumentation
and limited shelf-life items, and for items requiring special protective environmental
controls, such as temperature and humidity controls.
Identification, Control, and Traceability of Materials, Parts, and Components
A process for the identification and control of items should be established and implemented to
prevent the use of incorrect or defective items
identify and control suspect/counterfeit items
provide for the control and maintenance of items
Item is a collective term that may include hardware, samples, software, or data. The
identification and control process should apply from manufacture or receipt through delivery,
installation, or use. The process should also provide for the identification and configuration
control of installed or replacement items in accordance with specified requirements. Physical
identification of items is preferred. Suitable identification information includes the unique
part, lot, heat, model, version, or serial numbers on the item, or in records traceable to the
item, or both.
Control of Special Processes
The following is taken from ASME, Continuing Evolution of U.S. Nuclear Quality
Assurance Principles, Practices and Requirements
Special processes that control or verify quality, such as those used in welding, heat treating,
and nondestructive examination, shall be performed by qualified personnel using qualified
procedures in accordance with specified requirements.

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Quality assurance programs, as defined by Nuclear Quality Assurance (NQA)-1, generally
apply to the control classical, special processes, such as welding and nondestructive
examination.
There may be other special processes that meet the intent of the NQA-1 definition and that
also need special skills, training, procedures, and environmental controls to assure quality.
Inspection and Test Control
Inspections and tests are performed to verify that physical and functional aspects of items,
services, and processes meet requirements and are fit for use and acceptance. Inspections and
tests should be identified early in the design process and specified in the design output
documents.
For items that are stored, the type of item and the length of time it is expected to remain in
storage should be considered during inspection planning.
Personnel should check items prior to their use to ensure that the items are correct and
suitable for their intended application. Personnel should check an items process output to
verify that it meets or exceeds specified requirements.
The inspection/test process should identify the status of items, services, and processes
requiring examination to ensure only those with acceptable inspection and test results are
used. The process should provide for review and reinspection/retest of changed
inspection/test parameters.
Final inspections are usually distinct from inspections conducted during the work process.
Final inspection confirms the item, the service, or the process is ready for acceptance testing
and/or operation. As such, it includes completeness, cleanliness, identification/markings,
calibration, alignment/adjustment, adequate records, or other characteristics indicating
conformance to requirements.
Inspection/test planning should be performed. Appropriate sections of approved codes or
standards may be used for acceptance requirements and inspection/test methods.
At a minimum, inspection/test planning should contain provisions for the following:
Identification of characteristics to be examined
Required qualifications of individuals who perform the examination
A description of examination methods, including equipment and calibration
requirements
Acceptance and rejection criteria
Suitable environmental conditions
Required safety measures
Mandatory hold points, when applicable
Inspections/tests should be performed by technically qualified personnel who have the
authority to access appropriate information and facilities to verify acceptance. These
qualified personnel should be independent of the activities being inspected/tested and should
have the freedom to report the results of the inspections/tests. Inspection/test results should

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be evaluated and verified by authorized personnel to document that all requirements have
been satisfied. Final acceptance should be verified and documented by the organization
having final responsibility for the item or process.
Inspection and test records should, at a minimum, identify
the item tested
the date of the test
the tester or data recorder
observations
results and acceptability
action taken concerning any quality problems noted
Calibration and Control of Test and Measurement Equipment
M&TE used for inspections, tests, monitoring, and data collection should be calibrated,
maintained, and controlled using a documented process. M&TE should be checked before
use to ensure that it is of the proper type, range, accuracy, and precision and that it is
uniquely identified and traceable to its calibration data. Procedures should be established for
testing, retesting, adjusting, and recalibrating M&TE. M&TE should be calibrated to
standards traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology or other nationally
recognized standards when appropriate. If no nationally recognized standard exists, the basis
for calibration should be documented. When calibrating and/or checking M&TE for use,
consideration should be given to computer programs that are part of the M&TE.
The use of each item of M&TE should be traceable and associated with the item of M&TE.
This is because measurements and tests performed with the M&TE may need to be
reevaluated if the item of M&TE is subsequently found to be out of its acceptable calibration
range. Systems that rely on recording the identity of the M&TE in work packages are
ineffective because it is usually almost impossible to review all work packages to identify
each use of a particular item of M&TE.
Handling, Storage, Shipping, and Preservation
Work processes should be established and implemented to protect items in accordance with
specified technical standards and administrative controls to prevent the items damage, loss,
or deterioration. Work processes should specify protective methods for sensitive or
perishable items, such as special handling, shipping, and storage controls for precision
instrumentation and limited shelf-life items, and for items requiring special protective
environmental controls, such as temperature and humidity controls.
Inspection, Test, and Operating Status
The procurement process should provide for identifying the need for inspections and tests.
Requirements for inspections and tests should be obtained from design documents.
Inspections should be adequate to ensure conformance with purchase requirements, including
verification that specified documentation has been provided by the supplier. The inspection
should verify that items were not damaged during shipment. Inspection may include the
following methods:
Inspections of materials or equipment at the suppliers plant
Receipt inspection of the shipped items

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Review of objective evidence such as certifications and reports
Verification or testing of items prior to or following shipment
Critical or important acceptance parameters and other requirements, such as inspection/test
equipment or qualified inspection/test personnel, should be specified in design
documentation. In addition, the risks associated with the possibility of obtaining
suspect/counterfeit items should be evaluated and if appropriate, measures implemented to
identify them.
Nonconformity of Material, Parts, or Components
The following is taken from DOE O 414.1C.
An item is suspect when visual inspection or testing indicates that it may not conform to
established government or industry-accepted specifications or national consensus standards,
or when its documentation, appearance, performance, material, or other characteristics may
have been misrepresented by the supplier or manufacturer. A counterfeit item is one that has
been copied or substituted without legal right or authority or whose material, performance, or
characteristics have been misrepresented by the supplier or manufacturer. Items that do not
conform to established requirements are not normally considered suspect/counterfeit items if
nonconformity results from one or more of the following conditions (which must be
controlled by site procedures as nonconforming items):
Defects resulting from inadequate design or production quality control
Damage during shipping, handling, or storage
Improper installation
Deterioration during service
Degradation during removal
Failure resulting from aging or misapplication
Other controllable causes
Corrective Action
A principal deficiency that led to both the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster and Davis-Besse
Nuclear Power Station vessel head corrosion incident was failure to evaluate the causal
factors thoroughly and implement effective corrective actions in response to the same and
similar identified problem findings that eventually resulted in catastrophic events. Lessons
learned in the investigations following both of these events clearly dictate the exigency of
maintaining a robust corrective action program that
addresses Management/Criterion 3, Quality Improvement, addressed in QAPs
delineated in DOE O 414.1C, Quality Assurance;
identifies, documents, evaluates, and trends problems to ensure the causal factors (to
include the root causes) and significance of each problem are understood;
develops, tracks, and implements timely corrective actions to resolve the identified
problem findings;
verifies completion and reviews the effectiveness of the completed corrective actions
to ensure that they successfully resolve and prevent recurrence of the same and
similar problem findings.

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The thoroughness and effectiveness of a corrective action program to resolve and prevent
recurrence of identified problem findings may directly impact
the environment, safety and health of the site/organization, DOE workers, and the
public;
mission accomplishment and operational performance of DOE sites and
organizations;
national security;
cost effectiveness of operations;
cost avoidance resulting from repeat violations and civil penalties associated with the
failure to effectively correct and prevent problems.
The essence of a successful corrective action program at any level involves a combination of
processes, people, and tools for systematic implementation and follow up programs. Principal
considerations include:
Keep the corrective action process simple. The process should be clear cut and easy
to use, employ user friendly tools, and not require a tremendous amount of manpower
or training.
Involve all personnel as stakeholders in the program. Clearly define roles and
responsibilities in identifying and reporting problems, and their importance to the
effectiveness of the program in enhancing the mission performance and safety of the
site/organization.
Provide easy access for reporting information across the site/organization to capture
vital information.
Maintain strong management support and emphasis. An active management that
demonstrates ownership of the program, encourages employees at all levels in the
organization to participate, and is visually involved in directing and setting clear well-
defined processes and resources is crucial to the success of the program. The manager
responsible for the site/organization implementing the corrective action program
should be the overall manager of the program and held accountable for meeting
program requirements and suspense dates.
Periodically assess the effectiveness and direction of the program in meeting goals
and objectives.
Automate data collection and processing wherever possible. This will enhance easier,
more accurate, timely tracking and follow up.
Provide timely feedback to include lessons learned on program actions so members
can see results and be encouraged to support the process.
Perform a reliable trending analysis of identified problems and associated causes to
identify repeat occurrences, generic issues, and weaknesses at a level before they pose
a more significant problem.
Quality Assurance Records
Documents and records are required in order to effectively manage, perform, and assess
work. Documents and records should include applicable requirements to indicate that work
(including safety) has been properly specified and accomplished. Management should
identify any documents and records that must be developed and controlled. Management is
responsible for providing the resources necessary to accomplish the document and record
requirements.

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A record contains information that is retained for its expected future value. Records should
be sufficient to support technical and regulatory decisions and provide evidence that work
was correctly performed. Records may be in a variety of forms (e.g., electronic, written, or
printed; microfilm; photographs; radiographs; or optical disks). Typical records include
procedures, plans, and manuals; training and qualification results; acceptance test results;
technical/ regulatory correspondence; operational records; design basis descriptions, design
review results, design revisions, and configuration management data; and quality problem
resolutions.
Records should be compiled in a records management system. The system should include
provisions for specifying, preparing, reviewing, approving, disposing, and maintaining
records. Records retention, protection, preservation, change, traceability, accountability, and
retrievability should also be specified. The records management system should have
schedules for records retention and disposition consistent with the requirements of DOE O
200.1A, Information Technology Management.
The hardware and software tools used to create and store records should be maintained to
ensure that the records can be retrieved. The National Archives and Records Administration,
36 CFR parts 12001299, provides a recommended approach for maintenance of records,
including electronic records management.
Audits
The following is taken from DOE G 414.1-1A.
An independent assessment may be an audit, surveillance, for cause review, or inspection
conducted by individuals within the organization or company but independent from the work
or process being evaluated, or by individuals from an external organization or company. In
general, the purpose of this assessment is to perform the following:
Evaluate compliance with standards and requirements
Evaluate the performance of work;
Measure the quality of the item or service;
Examine process effectiveness/adequacy; and
Promote improvement.
The organization or staff performing independent assessments should have sufficient
authority and freedom from the line organization to carry out its responsibilities. Individuals
should be technically qualified and knowledgeable in assessment techniques and in the areas
being assessed.
Independent assessments evaluate the performance of work processes with regard to
requirements, compliance, and expectations for safely performing the work and achieving the
goals of the organization. The focus of independent assessments should be the items and
services produced and their associated processes. Thus, management receives an objective
view of the assessed activity. Independent assessments are typically performed less
frequently than management assessments but go into greater depth.

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j. Discuss the site organizational roles, responsibilities, and authorities for
development of process control systems software (i.e., applications software for
Programmable Logic Controllers-(PLCs), Distributed Control Systems-DSCs, etc.).
k. Discuss the site requirements and guidance for the software quality assurance
process for development of process control systems software.
l. Discuss the techniques the site uses to verify and validate process control
systems software.
Items jl are performance-based KSAs. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
33. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to apply problem
analysis techniques necessary to identify problems, determine potential causes of
problems, and identify corrective action.
a. Given event and/or occurrence data, apply problem analysis techniques, identify
the problems, and determine how they could have been avoided.
b. Participate in a contractor or Department of Energy (DOE) problem analysis and
critique the results.
c. Interpret a fault tree analysis.
Items ac are performance-based KSAs. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.
34. Instrumentation and control personnel shall demonstrate the ability to perform
technical reviews of procedures related to instrumentation and controls.
a. Given one of the listed documents, review it for the following elements:
[Note: The standard does not include a list of documents.]
Technical adequacy
Technical accuracy
Proper format
Sufficient level of detail
Properly defined responsibilities
Procedural steps are concise and easily understood
Current references are accurate
b. Given an instrumentation and controls surveillance, test, maintenance, or
operating procedure, verify procedural adequacy in the following areas:
Acceptance criteria are identified and accurate
Quality control is addressed
Notification requirements are identified
Procedural cautions are identified
Proper equipment and material are identified
Safety concerns are addressed
Compliance with technical safety requirements

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Compliance with the safety analysis report
c. Given an instrumentation and controls surveillance, test, maintenance, or
operating procedure, perform a safety evaluation to determine that an unreviewed
safety question is not involved.
Items ac are performance-based KSAs. The Qualifying Official will evaluate their
completion.

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SelectedBibliographyandSuggestedReading
Code of Federal Regulations
10 CFR 50.49, Environmental Qualification of Electric Equipment Important to Safety
for Nuclear Power Plants. January 1, 2009.
10 CFR 830, Subpart A. Quality Assurance. January 1, 2009.
29 CFR 1910.120, Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response. July 1,
2008.
29 CFR 1910.1200, Hazard Communication. July 1, 2008.
36 CFR parts 12001299, National Archives and Records Administration. July 1, 2008.
40 CFR 266, Standards for the Management of Specific Hazardous Wastes and Specific
Types of Hazardous Waste Management Facilities. July 1, 2008.

All About Circuits
Analog and Digital Signals.
Analog Integrated Circuits.
Averager and Summer Circuits.
Battery Ratings.
Current Signal Systems.
Digital-Analog Conversion.
Programmable Logic Controllers.
Protective Relays.
Switch Types.
Time Delay Relays.
Voltage Comparator.
Voltage Signal Systems.
Volume VI, Experiments, Discrete Semiconductor Circuits.
Winding Configurations.
American National Standards Institute
ANSI/IEEE C37.90.1, IEEE Standard for Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Tests for
Relays and Relays Systems Associated with Electric Power Apparatus. 2002.
ANSI/IEEE 603-1998, IEEE Standard Criteria for Safety Systems for Nuclear Power
Generating Stations. May 1, 1998.
ANSI/EIA-649, National Consensus Standard for Configuration Management. April
2004.
ANSI/ISA S18.1, Annunciator Sequences and Specifications. 1992.
ANSI/ISA-67.04.01-2006, Setpoints for Nuclear Safety-Related Instrumentation. May 16,
2006.
ANSI/ISA-84.00.01-2004, Functional Safety: Safety Instrumented Systems for the
Process Industry. September 2, 2004.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASME QME 1, Qualification of Active Mechanical Equipment Used in Nuclear Power
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