The Urban Drainage Problem

Effects of New Development and Redevelopment on Local Hydrology

Aaron Shaffer
Dept. of Geography and Regional Planning Indiana University of Pennsylvania

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I.

Introduction
We live in an era of constantly changing urban landscape, which impacts various aspects of our lives. New development/redevelopment has an impact on the on the landscape, community and urban environment, including local hydrology. There are often unseen repercussions when streams are changed to accommodate the new construction. New impervious surfaces create an increase in storm water run-off, causing local streams to meet or breach their carrying capacity. Growing public concern about flooding and the overall level of impact it has appropriates further research to determine causational factors in the forms of construction and stream alteration. This study will focus on finding a correlation between areas of new

development/redevelopment and local flooding events, using the Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex as a case study to prove and replicate research executed by previous researchers.

II.

A Review of Available Literature

In recent years, there has been an increasing concern over natural weather events, specifically flooding. In our modern era of development and redevelopment, every change we make has an impact to some degree on the landscape, both culturally and ecologically (Chorley, 1974). New development/redevelopment causes a change in the local hydrology, both atmospheric and topological, which in part contributes to an increase in specific events of flooding. Changing aspects of the landscape, such as

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vegetation, topography or rerouting streams and local hydrology causes an increase in storm water runoff at a faster velocity, often times causing streams capacity to carry floodwaters to decrease significantly (Konrad, 2003). Much of the current research is focused on determining, describing and collecting evidence to support claims of the correlations between changes in land use and local flooding events. One slightly overlooked complication of new development is the alteration to the urban hydrology. While this has been occurring for much of the past century (Konrad, 2003), it has only recently been recognized as a global issue as environmental concerns have increased due to the fast paced urbanization in the U.S. Environmentalists such as George Perkins Marsh first argued that natural resources are not infinite and that overdevelopment and over extraction of resources would have a detrimental effect on the environment (Marsh, 1864). This was the beginning of establishing conservation principles, however the problem with researching a topic such as this is that collecting current data to support claims takes time, most of which must be used in making day-today decisions. While reviewing available literature and background information is useful, there is still urgent need for improved understanding of specific interactions between urban development and its effects on the environment, the hydrologic cycle and the efforts made to manage, conserve and improve methods of flood prevention in urban areas. Until recent years, there have been few compilations of background information and even fewer comprehensive investigations of specific urban situations. Although general overviews of the effects of development on the hydrologic cycle can now be described in

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part, water managers face the need to make immediate decisions on a daily basis. Using existing data, such as stream flow velocities, to analyze areas of recent urbanization, construction or development/redevelopment play a crucial role in determining flood patterns and prevention techniques (Asante 2005). More recent data will aid in the investigation of practices such as improved flood control, methods and concepts, as well as improved instrumentation for measuring future data as it becomes readily available. While primarily focusing on instances in the United States, specifically areas in western Pennsylvania, examples from other parts of the world will be included as reference and evidence that the problems of urban hydrology are similar in all parts of the postindustrial world. Understanding the causes behind flooding involves looking at several factors, both direct and indirect. While there is evidence of many factors that directly impact flooding, as well as research to support it, there is a significantly lesser amount of data and research to support claims of factors that indirectly affect urban flooding. This essay will discuss and review both direct and indirect influences. The primary factors directly leading to an increase in flooding are best illustrated by using stream flow velocity data from the United States Geologic Surveys data loggers that show an increase in velocity for streams that have recently been modified or in areas where new construction has taken place. When comparing stream flow velocities of a rural stream with an urban stream, one can see that streams in an urban environment have a much higher rate of flow. Increases in impervious surfaces, lack of vegetation, soil erosion, surface grading, and urban storm water drainage networks can all be directly

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linked to an increase in storm water runoff, therefore limiting stream channels ability to convey floodwaters (Konrad, 2003). With a dramatic increase in surface water and storm water runoff, local streams exceed their carrying capacity at a much faster rate during storms as there is spike in the initial amount of runoff that would normally be contained and diverted in a natural environment. With a lack of vegetation comes an increase in soil erosion as well as a disruption of the natural drainage basins which are accustomed to handling a specific volume of water runoff. When these are replaced by buildings, parking lots and other impervious surfaces, the natural distribution of the storm water is limited to a few small stream channels with a much lower carrying capacity, causing them to flood at a more frequent rate (Chorley, 1974). In addition to this, many other factors are currently being discovered that point to fact that construction not only has a direct effect on the surrounding environment, but also an indirect effect on a much larger scale affecting communities in a much larger radius. It has recently been reported that the construction of large dams and reservoirs can impact the climate of the entire local region, causing an increase in rainfall and more frequent severe storms (Hossain, 2009; Williamson, 2012). When an increased amount of rainfall occurs in areas where surface hydrology and topography have already been impacted by development and urbanization, the risk of flooding becomes a much greater threat to the community as a whole.

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III.

Methodology

The characteristics of this project require a specific type of literature to be studied in stages relevant to a steadily developing process. The scope of the project is to apply a conceptual model using data from a different site, so literature that represented this type of abstract modeling was required in addition to material relevant to the scope of the project overall. Several criteria were considered in the selection process throughout the various stages of completion. Literature relevant to hydrologic and surficial water processes serve as the foundation of academic knowledge to the project. Being unfamiliar with hydrologic modeling using stream velocity data, a basic understanding of these concepts was required prior to further analysis. Once review of this literature was complete, the next stage in the projects development could begin. Applying an overall conceptual model in a specific scenario required literature in addition to hydrology primarily in the fields of climatology, environmental science and urbanization. Texts were selected on basis of information most relevant to the scope of the project, regardless of how recent they were. The scientific evidence found in studies conducted over the past few decades remain a viable source of accurate information. This allowed for a broad range of works to be studied and included without compromising the accuracy or legitimacy of relevant information. More recent studies and surveys were chosen primarily from current news articles and scientific research published credible researchers. This includes, but is not limited to Dr. Faisal Hossain of the Tennessee Technological University, professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering (tntech.edu), and Christopher Konrad, Research Hydrologist for the U.S. Geological Survey in

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Tacoma, Washington. Konrads research was published in 2003 and, more recently, Hossains survey using historical climate data published in 2011. With a historic arsenal of hydrologic studies, academic resources and current hydrologic research, the next phase of this project was to construct a conceptual model that could be applied to a current, local weather anomaly.

IV.

Analysis and Discussion

The review of available literature uncovered several reoccurring ideas led to conceptualization of two main methods in which to evaluate the capacity for a stream to flood. The first method utilized the creation of a hydrologic model using stream flow data to accurately predict flooding by combining stream runoff data with the surrounding topography. This method was adopted as the basis for comparison in constructing the conceptual model. The difficulty with utilizing this method is the collection of the stream flow data, especially in instances where both time and resources are limited. First, the site must be surveyed for the best location for installation of a data logger, which must then be installed so that data is able to be collected. To conduct a successful research study using this data, however, a minimum amount of time must first elapse in order for a large enough quantity of data to be available. The reality of this makes this option difficult in some areas and near impossible in locations which do not have a basis or funding for such a project, restricting further analysis. For the remaining portion of the report, a secondary method was developed and will be used that will allow analysis of an

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area with the potential for an increase in flooding due to a recently constructed complex, The Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex (KCAC), which was recently constructed in Indiana, Pennsylvania. This site and the surrounding area have recently experienced a perceived increase in flooding, but do not have stream velocity data available. Analysis of the reviewed resources led to an overall concept of urban flooding which could be applied to this specific instance through descriptive research in order to describe the current state of flooding in the area using research and analysis of other areas. The resulting criteria that have been found to potentially lead to an increase in flooding in an area are as follows: vegetation removal, soil erosion and degradation, sedimentation, alteration of a stream bed, and an increase in impervious surface. The KCAC met three of these five criteria and along with the potential inadequacy of the storm water management system since construction, called for further analysis. A report published by the Pittsburgh Geological Society also included much of the above mentioned criteria for flooding, and further stated that most of the recent damage caused by flooding in western Pennsylvania is directly related to flash floods. Flash floods are caused by rainfall in quantities greater than what can be absorbed by the soil, or distributed into tributaries and other waterways (Chorley, 1974). The methodology, location of the study area and research results published by the USGS and Christopher Konrad most closely corresponded to the perceived impacts of the KCAC on the area directly downstream from the complex. Konrad compared stream flow velocity data from two sites; Mercer Creek (USGS Gaging Station 12108500), located in an urban environment

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which had seen recent development and urbanization and the other at Newaukum Creek (USGS Gaging Station 12120000), a rural location. Both areas are located in western Washington. Using 40 years worth of stream flow data from USGS data loggers located near both sites revealed a correlation between urbanization and flooding.
Annual maximum discharge increased with urban development in Mercer Creek from 1960 to 2000, but remained essentially the same in nearby rural Newaukum Creek during that period. USGS Fact Sheet FS-076-03, Nov 2003

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Also concluded in the research study was the ability of a rural stream to convey flood waters more efficiently than that of its urban equivalent. On analyzing stream flow data of both sites during a one-day storm event, Konrad noted the following:
Streamflow in Mercer Creekincreases more quickly, reaches a higher peak discharge, and has a larger volume during a one-day storm on February 1, 2000, than streamflow in Newaukum Creek, a nearby rural stream

USGS Fact Sheet FS-076-03, Nov 2003

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This correlation led to the conclusion that urbanization has a profound impact on an areas hydrology and that replacing permeable soil by impermeable surfaces leads to an increase in stormwater runoff at a higher velocity into nearby streams, therefore increasing the risk of flooding in the downstream area. This concept is both applied and demonstrated by an incident that occurred shortly after the construction of the KCAC. Construction was completed and the complex was opened in March of 2011, encompassing a total of 1.4 million square feet of area. The building footprint itself accounts for 150,000 ft 2 (kovalchickcomplex.com). Using aerial and satellite photography to map out the land area, an estimated 190,095.84 ft2 of new impervious surface now occupies the entire area, not including parking lots that are part of the college campus behind the complex. Due to the timing of the photo and because more current versions are unavailable, the newly constructed parking lot to the north west and south west of the complex were omitted as well.

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During construction, vegetation was removed and replaced with less absorbent open area, also increasing the velocity of storm water runoff (Konrad, 2003) into the stream that runs directly in front of the property and along Wayne Ave until meeting with Stony Run downstream. Onsite inspection of the area revealed several drainage ditches that lead straight into the stream as well, allowing collected rainwater from across the front complex lawn to be drained directly into the stream. In the image, the stream flows in a north east to south west direction, putting areas that were flooded directly downstream from the KCAC. As a case study, the one-day storm event that occurred on July 26, 2012 served as the applicant of the conceptual model developed using a combination of reviewed literature, Pittsburgh Geological Society and C. Konrads USGS study. According to the Indiana Gazette, 3.3 inches of rain fell over the course of a 24 hour period (Kusic, 2012). Chuck Kelly, Indiana Fire Association chief was quoted in the article saying, "We had areas we pumped that we never pumped beforeNear the (Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex), it was like a river. We had reports of manholes (covers) blowing off the sewer system. (Kusic, 2012) Franks flowers, also mentioned in Kusics article in the Indiana Gazette, was closed the next day due to the amount of water that covered Wayne Avenue at the Rose Street intersection.

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Area of stream affected/altered by KCAC construction

Arrow in light blue shows direction of stream flow.

Franks, a local floral shop, is located directly downstream from the KCAC, which resulted in the shop experiencing major flooding due to stormwater draining at a higher velocity due to the upstream complex.

The owner was unavailable for interview or comment during the restricted time period of this research.

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V.

Conclusions
At the beginning of this project, it was hypothesized that new urban development causes storm water to run off at a higher velocity, causing a significant decrease in streams capacity to carry floodwaters. The cause behind urban flooding was found to involve several factors, both direct and indirect. The goal of this project was to apply a conceptual model to compare data from urban and rural streams to find a correlation between new development/re-development and flooding using descriptive research. Indirect factors include Hossains new research proving that dams and reservoirs cause a regional increase in rainfall by increasing the surface area and rate of evaporation. Other factors include seasonal driven processes such as variations in weather patterns, snow melt and yearly increases in rainfall. Direct factors include vegetation removal, soil erosion and degradation, sedimentation, inadequacy of storm water management systems and the newly utilized idea that an increase in storm water runoff from new impervious surfaces causes flash flooding in the downstream area. Flash flooding due to recent construction is becoming more widespread as the urban environment continues to expand, leaving many communities previously unaffected by flooding covering damages due to storm events. USGS and PGS studies confirmed that an increase in impervious surfaces due to urbanization leads to an increase in flooding in the downstream environment. USGS data used to compare a rural stream with a urban stream in western Washington showed that the maximum annual

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discharge increased as area was developed into an urban environment and that, during the same period of time, the nearby rural stream remained relatively unchanged. It also proves that urban streams reach a higher peak of discharge and carries much larger quantities of water during oneday storm events. Applying these principles to the Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex, using the oneday storm event at the end of July 2012 as a case study, revealed that all of the proposed factors led to the flooding. The increase in stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces of the newly constructed complex led to an increase in the peak discharge of the stream at the time of the storm event, with the ultimately breaching of its banks directly leading to flash flooding in the downstream area.

A comparison in aerial photography of the site before and after construction.

Before

After

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In order to handle the increased runoff due to the newly constructed complex, the existing stormwater management system will need to be improved or modified in order to prevent future flash floods in the area. One-day storm events have the potential to continuously flood the area, costing residents and business owners time and resources repairing damages. The area falls under the jurisdiction of White Township, whose responsibility it would be to provide necessary changes. Time constraints and lack of data for this project limits the credibility of any further recommendation. In order for changes to occur, data would need to be collected and the area would require hydrologic testing along with a review of the best course of action. There are several natural biofilter systems that have the potential to be utilized in order to naturally decrease stream velocity to the downstream area. Time restrictions and lack of available data were the primary constrictive factors in the overall scope of the project. Future research using topographic mapping and/or hydrologic data collection are the most applicable courses of action building on the descriptive research method. A data logger could also be installed to track peak flow during storm events and compare to an existing rural USGS data logger in the area, using a replication of Konrads research methods to apply to the area.

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Included below are several photographs detailing the changes made to the stream by the construction of the Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex:

Northern culvert directly in front of the complex. Sedimentation is apparent in forefront (A), with a drainage pipe from storm drains installed for complex parking lots (B).

Drainage ditch for which runoff from front of complex runs more readily into stream (C).

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Alteration, simplification and removal of vegetation from the stream due to construction (D).

A panoramic image showing the alterations from the front of the complex, ranging from the newly constructed parking lot on the far left (E), to the newly installed culvert (F), left center and an overview of the stream simplification on the right of center (G).

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VI.

References
Artan, Guleid A., et al. (2007, Mar. 16) Adequacy of Satellite Derived Rainfall Data for Stream Flow Modeling. Springer Science+Business Media. Asante, Kwabena O., et al. (2005, Nov. 14) Integration of hydrologic and geographic models with remotely sensed data for real-time flood mapping applications. Proceedings of the First All-USGS Modeling Conference: 1 - 2. Chorley, Richard J. ed. (1974). Introduction to Geographical Hydrology: Spatial Aspects of the Interactions Between Water Occurrence and Human Activity. London, GB: Chaucer. Hossain, Faisal. (2009, Feb. 9) Large Dams Can Affect Local Climates, says new study. Tennessee: Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences. Jurries, Dennis. (2007). Biofilters for Storm Water Discharge Pollution Removal. Konrad, Christopher. (2003). Effects of Urban Development on Floods. USGS Fact Sheet 07603. Kovalchick Convention and Athletic Complex. (2010, October 20). Turning Vision Into Reality. http://www.kovalchickcomplex.com/arena-info/news/article/?article_id=3 Kusic S. and Ross C. (2012, August 7). Indiana Inundated: Fierce rains cause flooding. Indiana Gazette. Retrieved from http://www.indianagazette.com/a_news/article_2df6f14d-f62152e1-b90f-5f71c4afdbf4.html Thomas, E., Griffiths, B. (2007, April 19). Capel Celyn, Ten Years of Destruction: 1955-1965. Gwynedd, GB: Cyhoeddiadau Barddas. Turk, Amos, et al. (1974). Environmental Science. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.

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US Department of the Interior, U.S. Geologic Survey. (02 Feb. 2012). EarthExplorer. Retrieved on 23 Oct. 2012 from http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/. Williamson, Jamie. (5 Feb. 2010). Dams Can Trigger More Frequent Fierce Storms. TopNews. Retrieved 25 Oct. 2012 from http://topnews.in/usa/dams-can-trigger-more-frequentfierce-storms-23430.