VERNIER CALIPERS Expt. No.

: Aim: To measure the external diameter, internal diameter and length of the given object. Apparatus required: 1. Vernier Calipers 2. Object of different regular size & shape hollow object Description : The Vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions which is equivalent to 9 main scale divisions. So the value of 1 vernier scale division (VSD) is equal to 9/10 main scale divisions (MSD). The value of 1 main scale division is 0.1 cm. Procedure No error: If the zero of the Vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main scale exactly, the instrument has no zero error (fig.a) Zero error: If the zero of the Vernier scale does not coincide with the zero of the main scale, then the instrument has an error called zero error. Determination of the least count LC Value of 1 M.S.D. Number of divisions on the Vernier scale Since 9 M.S.D are divided into 10 V.S.D. 10. V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D 1 V.S.D. = 9/10 M.S.D 1 V.S.D. = 9/10 X 1/10 = 9/100 cm But L.C. = 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D. = 1/10 9/100 = (10-9) / 100 = 1/100 CM L.C = 0.01 cm = 1 M.S.D. 1 V.S.D = 1/10 cm = 0.1 cm = 10 divisions Date :

TO FIND THE INTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE OBJECT Least count: --------- cm S.No Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Main Scale Reading (MSR) cm Vernier scale Coincidence (VSC) cm Zero error = ------ cm Observed Reading O.R = M.S.R + (V.S.C. x L.C) cm Correct Reading OR ZC cm

Mean = ---------------- x 10-2 m Positive Zero Error If the 5th Vernier scale division coincides with a main scale division. (Fig.b) Zero error = Vernier coincidence x least count = 5 x 0.01 = + 0.05 cm Zero correction = - 0.05 cm Negative Zero Error If the 6th Vernier scale division coincides with a main scale division.. (Fig. c) Zero error = - (n Vernier coincidence) x L.C. = - (10-6) x 0.01 = - 0.04 cm Zero correction = + 0.04 cm Result Internal diameter of the given objects = . X 10-2 m

SCREW GAUGE Expt. No.: Aim To measure the thickness of a given object. Apparatus required 1. Screw gauge 2. Glass object Description The Screw gauge consists of a U shaped metal frame (F), one end of which carries a fixed stud (A) whereas the other end is attached to a cylindrical tube (C) which carries a millimeter scale called Pitch Scale (P). Formula Pitch (i) Least Count = .. Total number of head scale divisions Where pitch is the thickness moved by the screw tip for one rotation. Pitch = Number of divisions moved by the head scale on the pitch scale .. Number of rotations given = Pitch Scale Reading Date:

(ii) Correct Reading (CR)

(Head Scale Coincidence x Least Count) Zero Correction = PSR + ( HSC x LC) ZC Procedure Step I Determination of Least Count To find the pitch, the head (or) the screw is given 5 rotations and the distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale is noted. Then least count is calculated using the formula. Pitch L.C. = .. Total number of head scale divisions Pitch = 5 mm 5 1 mm 100 = 1 mm

L.C.

= 0.01 mm

Step II - Determination of Zero Correction The Screw head is rotated until the two plane faces ( A and B) are just in contact. Zero Correction If the Zero of the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale and also lies on the reference line (Fig.1) there is no zero error and hence no correction is required. Positive zero error If the zero of the head scale lies below the reference line of the pitch scale (Fig.2) the zero error is positive and hence the zero correction is negative. Example If 5th division of the head scale coincides with the reference line of the pitch scale then, Zero Error = + 5 division = + 5 x L.C. = + 5 x 0.01 mm Zero correction = -0.05 mm
MEASUREMENT OF THICKNESS OF THE GLASS PLATE L.C. = .. mm O.R. = PSR + (HSC X LC) Zero error = ................. div Zero correction = (ZE x LC)

S.No.

Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm

Unit 1 2 3 4 5

Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) mm

= .. mm. Observed Correct Reading Reading (OR) CR= OR ZC mm mm

Mean = ..x 10-3 m Negative Zero Error : If the zero error of the head scale lies above the reference line of the pitch scale (fig.3). The zero error is negative and hence the zero correction is positive. Example : If 95th division of the head scale coincides with the reference line of the pitch scale, then Zero error = -5 div, - (100 - 95), -5 x Lc = -5 x 0.01 mm, - 0.05 mm Zero Correction = + 0.05 mm Result Thickness of the given glass plate = .. x 10-3 m

TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE Expt. No. : Aim To determine the length between two line in a glass slab. Apparatus required 1. Travelling Microscope 2. Glass slab 3. Reading lens Procedure Determination of least count It is the small length which can be measured using traveling microscope. It is the difference between one Main Scale Division and one Vernier Scale Division. Least Count (L.C) = 1 Main Scale Division 1 Vernier Scale Division L.C = 1 MSD 1 VSD The values of one main scale division (MSD) and one Vernier scale division are noted. Least Count of Travelling microscope Least count = 1 MSD 1 VSD 20 MSD = 1 cm Value of 1 MSD = 1/20 cm = 0.05 cm Number of Vernier scale division (n) = 50 50 VSD = 49 MSD 1 VSD = (49/50) MSD = (49 / 50) x 0.05 = 0.049 LC = 0.05 0,049 = 0.001 cm Travelling microscope readings For example on Fig. (a), MSR = 4.05 cm VSC = 20 VSR = 20 X 0.001 = 0.020 cm TR = 4.05 + 0.020 = 4.070 cm Position Reading when line 1 is focused R1 Reading when line 2 is focused R2 MSR cm 4.05 VSC div 20 TR = MSR + (VSC x LC) cm 4.070 Date :

Result The distance between two horizontal lines is measured.

SPECTROMETER Expt. No.: Aim To study the different parts and functions of the spectrometer Apparatus required 1. Spectrometer Description Spectrometer is an instrument to obtain a pure spectrum. It is used to find the refractive index of the prism. A standard form of the spectrometer. It mainly consists of three parts. 1. Collimator 2. Telescope 3. Prism table Determination of Least Count (L.C.) 2 M.S.D. 1 MSD LC 1 M.S.D. = = = = 1 = 30 ( 1 = 60 ) 1 MSD 1 VSD 0.50 = 30 2. Glass Prism 3. Reading lens Date:

Number of Division in Vernier Scale = 30 30 V.S.D 1 VSD L.C. = = = = 29 M.S.D. (29/30) MSD 30 29 1 (One minute) = (29/30) x 30 = 29

Example in Fig. Vernier A MSR VSC VSR TR = = = = = = 120.5 = 12030 5 div 5 x L.C. = 5 MSR + VSR 120 30 + 5 120 35 MSR VSC VSR TR Vernier B = = = = = = 300.5 = 30030 5 div 5 x L.C. = 5 MSR + VSR 300 30 + 5 300 35

Total reading = MSR + (VSC x L.C.) Ver A MSR VSC Total Ray Reading Deg. div. Deg. Refracted 12030 5 12035 Ray Procedure Initial adjustments 1. Eye piece : 2. Telescope : 3. Collimator : 4. Prism table :

Ver B MSR 30030 VSC 5 Total Reading Deg. 30035

Focusing the cross wires Focusing distant object to receive parallel rays Adjusting for with & focusing of incident ray Adjusting level using spirit level

Result The different parts and functions of the spectrometer are studied.

1. LASER : (A) PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING DIODE LASER

Expt. No.:

Date :

Aim: To determine the size of the micro particle using LASER. Apparatus required : 1. Laser source 2. Fine micro particles of nearly uniform size (lycopodium powder) 3. Glass plate 4. Screen 5. Stands 6. Meter scale Theory When laser is passed through a glass plate spread with fine micro particles the beam gets diffracted by the particles and circular rings are obtained on the screen. By measuring the radii of the rings and the distance between the glass plate of and the screen, the size of the particle can be determined. Formula _________ n Xn2 + D2 Size of the micro particle (diameter) 2d = _____________ m Xn Where n order of diffraction. wavelength of the laser source (m) Xn distance of the nth order from the central spot of the diffraction pattern Ddistance between the glass plate and the screen (m) Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sprinkle the fine micro particles (Lycopodium powder) on the glass plate. Mount the LASER source on a stand. Place a screen in front of the LASER source at some distance. Mount the glass place plate on a separate stand and place it between the laser source and the screen. Switch on the LASER source and allow the beam to pass through the glass plate. Adjust the distance between the glass plate and the screen to get a clear circular fringe pattern (diffraction pattern) on the screen. The intensity is found to decrease from zeroth order (central spot) to higher orders. 7. Measure the distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen using metre scale. 8. Measure the distance (Xn ) of the first order, second order and so on from the central bright spot (radii of the rings). 9. Repeat the experiment by varying the distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen. 10. Enter all the values in Table 1 and calculate the mean size of the micro particle .

Table - 1 . Determination of the size of the micro particle = . X 10-10m Particle size nXn2 +D2 _______ 2d =------------Xn2 + D2 Xn x 10-2m x 10-5m

S.No. Unit

Distance between the Order of glass plate diffraction and the (n) screen (D) x 10-2 m 1 2

Distance between the central spot and nth fringe (Xn) x 10-2 m

Xn2 x 10-4m

D2

x 10-4 m

1 3 1 2 2 3

Mean 2d = --------------------- x 10-5 m

1.
Expt.No.: Aim:

(B)

DETERMINATION OF LASER PARAMETERS WAVE LENGTH, AND ANGLE OF DIVERGENCE

Date :

a). To determine the wavelength & angle of divergence, of the given laser source of light using grating. Apparatus required : 1. Laser source 2. Grating 3. Metre scale 4. Screen 5. Stand Theory : (i). Laser Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. (ii). The wavelength of Laser light is determined by using the optical grating. (iii). Diffraction Means the bending of light rays around the edges of the obstacle. (iv). To get the diffraction pattern, spacing between the lines of grating element should be the order of wavelength of the light is used. (v). The laser light is allowed to fall on the grating and it gets diffracted. (vi). By using Braggs equations for the diffracted ray, the wavelength of Laser light is determined as, Formula: Sin = _________ A Nn Where N n = = = = Wavelength of the given laser source of light ( A) Angle of diffraction in degrees. Number of lines in the grating per meters Order of diffraction.

Procedure : 1. Extreme care should be taken to avoid direct exposure of laser light on eyes. 2. The grating is held normal to the laser beam. 3. This done by adjusting the grating in such a way that the reflected laser beam coincides with the beam coming out of the laser source. 4. After adjusting for normal incidence,the laser light is exposed to the grating and it is diffracted by it. 5. On the other side of the grating on the screen the diffracted laser spots are seen. 6. The distances of different orders from the centre spot ( Xn ) are measured. 7. The distance between the grating and screen (D) is measured, using the formula, is measured.

Tabulation : Distance between grating and screen (D) = meters Number of lines in the grating per meters = . Lines / metre

(n)Order of diffraction

Reading for the diffracted image Left side Right side Distance of different order (X) from the central spot x 10-2 m Distance of different order (X) from the central spot x 10-2 m

Mean Angle of divergence

= Sin / Nn A

S.No.

=tan -1( Xn ) _____ D

= tan -1 ( Xn ) _____ D

1 2 3 4 5 Mean

= _______________ A

Wavelength of Laser

1. (C) DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE IN AN OPTICAL FIBER

Expt.No.: Aim To determine the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of an optical fiber. Apparatus Required 1. Laser light source 2. Laser Power meter 3. Optical fiber cables of various length 4. Optical fiber connectors 5. Numerical aperture jig 6. Mandrel for optical fiber Formula W NA = ____________ (4L2 + W2 ) Date :

Where W L -

= Sin -1 (NA)

Diameter of the circular image in metre Distance of the screen from the optical fiber end in metre.

Procedure Numerical Aperture 1. Using LASER, we can find the numerical aperture of the fiber cable. 2. The given LASER source is connected to the optical fiber cable. 3. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place. 4. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper. 5. Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen. 6. The distance from the fiber and to circular image (L) is measured using metre scale. 7. Similarly the diameter of the circular image (W) is also measured. 8. Thus, the Numerical aperture is calculated. 9. From the Numerical aperture, the acceptance angle of the cable is found on by using the formula.

Determination of Numerical Aperture of the Optical fiber cable.

S.No.

Distance between the Optical fiber Cable and the screen L x 10-2m

Diameter of the Circular image W x 10-3 m

W NA =________ (4L2 + W2) No Unit

Acceptance angle = Sin-1(NA) Radian

1 2 3 4 5 Mean Result (a) (b) (c) (d) Wavelength of the laser light source The size of the micro particle measured using laser source Numerical aperture of the optical fiber Acceptance angle of the optical fiber = ________________ = ________________ =_________________ =_________________

2. DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A THIN MATERIAL USING AIR WEDGE METHOD Expt. No.: Aim To determine the thickness of a thin material by forming interference fringes using air wedge arrangement. Apparatus required 1. Two optically plane rectangular glass plates 2. Thin wire 3. Rubber band 4. Travelling microscope 5. Reading lens 6. Sodium vapour lamp 7. Condensing lens with stand 8. Wooden box with glass plate inclined at 45 Theory A wedge shaped air film is formed when a thin wire is introduced between two optically plane glass plates. When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on this arrangement, interference occurs between the two rays, one reflected from the front surface and the other at the back. These two reflected rays produce a pattern of alternate dark and bright interference fringes. Formula l Thickness of the thin wire t = ________ m 2 Where l = distance between the edge of contact and the wire (m) = Wavelength of sodium light (5893 A) = mean fringe width (m) Procedure 1. Place two optically plane glass plates one over other and tie it together by means of rubber band at one end. 2. Introduce the given wire at the other end perpendicular to the length of the plate so that an air wedge is formed between the glass plates. 3. Place the air wedge set inside a wooden box, which has an inclined glass plate at an angle 45 4. Place this entire arrangement on the horizontal bed plate of the traveling microscope, such that open side of the box should face the sodium vapour lamp. 5. Introduce the condensing lens in front of the sodium vapour lamp so that parallel beam of monochromatic light incident on the inclined glass plate. 6. Adjust the microscope so that a clear view of interference fringes are obtained. 7. Make the vertical cross wire to coincide with one of the edge of a dark fringe (nth fringe) by adjusting the horizontal screw of the microscope and note the horizontal scale reading. 8. Move the microscope across the fringes in the same direction and make the vertical cross wire to coincide with every successive 5 th dark fringe ( n+5, n+10, . . . ,n+50) and record the reading. 9. Calculate the mean fringe width . 10. Measure the distance (l) between the edge of contact and the wire using traveling microscope. 11. Substitute the values of l , and in the formula and find the thickness of the wire. Date :

Table 1 Measurement of the distance between the edge of contact and the wire LC = 0.001 cm TR = MSR + (VSC x LC) cm Microscope reading Position MSR Unit Edge of contact (Rubber band) (P1) cm VSC div TR cm

Hair / Wire (P2)

L = P1 ~

P2 = .. x 10-2 m

Table 2 Determination of Fringe width TR = MSR + (VSC x LC) Microscope reading Position MSR Unit n n+5 n + 10 n + 15 n + 20 n + 25 n + 30 n + 35 n + 40 n + 45 n + 50 cm VSC cm TR cm cm L.C. = 0.001 cm

Width of 25 finges

Mean width of 1 fringe cm

Mean = x 10-2 m

Calculation Distance between the edge of contact and the wire/hair Wavelength of sodium light Mean fringe width Thickness of the thin material l t =.. 10-2 m = 5893 x 10-10 m = 10-2 m l = m

Result

Thickness of the given thin material

= .. m.

3. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUID USING ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER Expt. No.: Date : Aim (i). To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves, compressibility of liquid in the medium of different liquids using ultrasonic interferometer. Apparatus Required 1. Ultrasonic interferometer 2. Quartz crystal of natural frequency 2 MHZ 3. Micrometer and sensor 4. Liquids (Kerosene, Benzene and CCL4 ) as source. Formula (i) (ii) (iii) Where Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid Wavelength of ultrasonic waves m/sec (2d / n) metre 1 Compressibility of liquid = (______)m2 /N V2 Frequency of the generator which excites the crystal hertz d Distance moved by the oscillator metre n Numbers of oscillations -- Density of the liquid kilogram / metre3 V = =

Description Ultrasonic interferometer technique gives a very accurate value in measurement of sound velocity. The ultrasonic interferometer consists following two parts as shown in Fig.(ii & iii) High frequency generator and Measuring Cell. High frequency generator : It generates alternating field of variable frequencies. The frequency generator is used to excite the quartz plate placed at the bottom of the measuring cell at its resonant frequency. The excited quartz crystal generates ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid in the measuring cell. Measuring Cell : Measuring cell shown in fig. (iii) has a double walled vessel with a provision to maintain temperature constant. At the top of the cell a fined micrometer screw is fitted. With the help of this screw, the reflector plate placed in the cell can be lowered or raised through a known distance. The reflector and the quartz crystal (mounted at the bottom of the cell) are parallel to each other. When the alternating field from the frequency generator is applied to the crystal, it gets into resonant vibrations. Procedure 1. The high frequency generator is switched on and the alternating field from the generator is applied to quartz crystal 2. The quartz crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves. 3. The ultrasonic waves pass through the liquid and gets reflected at the surface of the reflector plate. 4. If the distance between the reflector and crystal is exactly a whole multiple of the sound wavelength, standing waves are formed within the medium. This results in the formation of acoustic resonance and causes a change in the potential difference at the generator which excites the crystal . Due to this, anode current of the generator becomes maximum. 5. The change in the anode current can be measured from the micrometer fitted with the frequency generator. 6. The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw such that the anode current decreases from maximum and then increases upto a maximum.

7. The distance of separation between successive maximum or minimum in the anode current is equal to half the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid. (fig. iv) 8. By noting initial and final position of the micrometer for one complete oscillation (maxima minima maxima), one can determine the distance moved by the parallel reflector as shown in figure. Thus n number of successive maxima or minima are recorded for a distance d. The total distance moved by the micrometer screw is given by n d = _______ 2 n or wavelength d =_______ 2 9. From the value of , the velocity of the longitudinal ultrasonic waves is calculated using the relation , = n where is the frequency of the generator which is used to excite the crystal. 10. After determining the velocity of the ultrasonic waves in liquids, the compressibility of the liquid is calculated using the formula 1 = ________ V2 Where is the density of the liquid. 11. The experiment is repeated for different liquids. Reading for n oscillations Given liquid : Micrometer Reading Number of Maxima n n+5 n + 10 n + 15 n +20 n + 25 PSR mm HSC div Correct Reading = PSR +(HSC x LC) mm L.C. = 0.01 mm Distance moved by the oscillator d mm 2d = n mm

Mean = x 10-3 m

Calculation : 2d i). Wavelength of ultrasonic waves = = n

= (ii). Velocity of ultrasonic wave V = =

m =

.. m 1

(iii)

Compressibility of liquid

= V
2

..m2 / N

Result (i) Wavelength of Ultrasonic wave = (ii) Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the given liquid = (iii). Compressibility of liquid = m metre /second .. m2 / N

4. DETERMINATION OF WAVE LENGTH OF MERCURY SPECTRUM SPECTRO METER OF GRATING Expt. No.: Date : Aim To determine wavelength of prominent spectral lines using a diffraction grating and spectrometer. Apparatus required 1. Spectrometer 2. Spirit level 3. Reading lens 4. Plane transmission grating 5. Sodium vapour lamp 6. Mercury vapour lamp. Theory If there are a number of parallel narrow slits, each will produce its own diffraction pattern of light on the screen. A plane sheet of transparent material on which a large number of equidistant opaque rulings are made with a diamond point forms a grating. The spaces between the rulings are transparent and constitute the parallel slit. When light passes through such a grating, diffraction takes place. Angle of diffraction depends upon the wavelength of the light diffracted and the number of lines per metre on the grating. If N is the number of lines per metre of the grating, the wavelength of the light diffracted, m order of the spectrum and be the angle of diffraction, then Sin = N m. Formula i. The number of lines per metre drawn on the grating N= Where m Sin ______ lines / metre m angle of diffraction order of the spectrum wavelength of sodium vapour lamp (5893)

ii.

The wavelength of prominent lines of mercury spectrum = Sin _________A Nm angle of diffraction Number of lines per metre of the grating order of the spectrum

where Procedure

N m

Part 1 Determination of the number of lines per metre of the given grating 1. Switch ON the sodium vapour lamp. 2. Make all the preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Release the telescope and place it in line with the collimator. Illuminate the slit and make it coincide with the vertical cross wire. Adjust the vernier scales to read 0 and 180 for the direct ray reading and fix the Vernier table. Rotate the telescope through an angle 90 and fix it at that position. Mount the plane transmission grating on the grating table. Rotate the grating table so that the reflected image of the slit, from the surface of the grating, coincides with the vertical cross wire. 9. Now fix the grating table at this position. 10. Rotate the Vernier table in an appropriate direction through an angle 45 so that light rays from the collimator incident normally on the grating. 11. Release the telescope and bring it in line with the direct image of the slit. The grating is now in the normal incidence position. 12. Rotate the telescope to one side and adjust such that the vertical cross wire coincides with the first order diffracted image. 13. Note the corresponding readings from the two Verniers (VA and VB) in Table 1. 14. Rotate the telescope towards the other side and note the Vernier readings in the same way. 15. Calculate the difference between these two readings, which gives twice the angle of diffraction 2. 16. Calculate the number of lines per metre of the grating from the values , and m. Part 2 Determination of the wavelength of mercury spectrum 1. Replace the sodium vapour lamp by mercury vapour lamp and switch ON 2. Rotate the telescope and observe the diffracted spectrum of first order on either side of the direct ray. 3. Move the telescope to the left and make the vertical cross wire to coincide with the most diffracted red line at the extreme end of the first order and note the readings VA and VB in Table 2. 4. Move the telescope gradually towards the direct ray and note the readings for the prominent Yellow II, Yellow I, green, greenish blue, blue and violet. 5. Move the telescope to the right and note the readings, for all the first order spectral lines starting from least diffracted violet line to red line. 6. Calculate the difference between these two readings which gives 2 for that line. 7. Calculate the wavelength of the spectral lines from the values , N, and m. (i) Least count (L.C) = 1 Reading for the diffracted image Left Side Vernier A MSR Deg VSC div Total Reading Deg To find the number of lines per metre of the grating Spectrometer readings Order of the diffraction (m) = . Vernier B MSR Deg VSC div Total reading Deg

Right Side 2 = (R1 ~ R2) = = 2 = (R1 ~ R2) = =

Mean angle of diffraction ( ) =

(ii . Determination of Wavelength ( ) of the prominent the line of the mercury spectru

L.C = 1

Order of the spectrum (m) =

N = . Lines / meter Diffracted ray reading

Left Side Vernier - A Vernier - B M VS TR MS VS SR C (A1 R C ) De Div De Deg Div g. . g. . . Violet I Violet II Blue Bluish Green Green Yellow I Yellow II Red LC)

Right Side Vernier A TR MS VS (B1 R C ) De Deg Div g. . .

Vernier B TR MS VS (A2 R C ) De Deg Div g. . .

TR (B2 ) Deg .

VA VB A1~A B1~B
2 2

Deg.

Deg.

Deg Deg A . .

Result ii. The number of lines per metre of the given grating (N) = .. Lines / m iii. The Wavelength of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum are : Violet I = A Violet II = A Blue = A Greenish Blue = A Green = A Yellow I = A Yellow ii = A Red = A

Nm =.Sin

Total Reading = MSR+(VSC X Difference Mean (2 )

5. DETERMINATION OF THERMEL CONDUCTIVITY OF A BAD CONDUCTOR LEES METHOD Expt. No.: Aim To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by Lees disc method. Apparatus required 1. Lees disc apparatus (metal disc) 2. Bad conductor (thin card board or glass disc of uniform thickness ) 3. Two thermometers (range0C to 100c ) 4. Steam boiler 5. Heater 6. Stop clock 7. Screw gauge 8. Vernier calipers 9. Balance Theory When steam is passed through a hollow steam chamber (S) to metal disc (D) through a bad conductor (B) placed between the steam chamber and the metal disc the temperature of the disc continuously increases and reaches steady state (i.e.) the temperature of the disc will no longer rise. During the steady state, the quantity of heat radiated by the exposed area of the disc is equal to the quantity of heat conducted through the bad conductor to the disc. Formula Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor MSd K = __________ r2 (1 - 2) Where M S d r h 1 2 (d / dt ) 2 (r + 2h) d __________ (________). (2r + 2h) dt ( 2 ) Date :

mass of the metal disc (Kg) Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc (JKg-1K-1) Thickness of the metal disc using screw gauge. (Table 1) radius of the metal disc (m) Thickness of the metal disc (m) steady state temperature of the steam chamber ( C) steady state temperature of the metal disc ( C) rate of cooling at steady state temperature 2 ( CS-1)

Procedure 1. Measure the thickness of the metal disc using screw gauge. (Table - 1) 2. Measure the diameter of the metal disc using Vernier calipers and calculate the radius of the disc. (Table 2) 3. Measure the thickness of the bad conductor (card board) and find its value. (Table - 4) 4. Determine the mass of the disc using a balance. 5. Suspend the metal disc by means of three strings from a stand. 6. Place the card board between the hollow steam chamber and the metal disc. 7. Insert the thermometer (T1 and T2) into holes provided on the side of the steam chamber (S) and the metal disc (D). 8. Allow the steam to pass through the steam chamber from a boiler which is placed on a heater, until the steady state is reached (i.e.) the temperature of the lower disc no longer rises.

9. Note the steady state temperatures of the steam chamber 1 and the metal disc 2 shown by the thermometers T1 and T2 respectively 10. Now remove the card board and heat the lower disc directly by keeping it in contact with steam chamber. 11. Remove the steam chamber when temperature of the lower disc attains a value of 10 C more than its steady state temperature 2 and allow the lower disc to cool down. 12. Start a stop clock when the temperature of the disc reaches 5 C above the steady state temperature of the disc (i.e.) (2 +5) C, and note the time taken for every 1c fall of temperature until the temperature of the disc falls 5 C below 2 (Table 3) Graph Draw a graph (cooling curve) with time along X-axis and temperature along Y axis. Determine rate of cooling (d /dt) .2 from the graph ................ div ..mm

Table 1 : Measurement of thickness of the metal disc using screw gauge L.C = 0.01 mm Zero error = O.R = PSR + (HSC X LC) Zero correction= Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Observed Reading (OR) mm

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

Mean h = .. X 10-3 m Table 2 : Measurement of diameter of the metal disc using Vernier Calipers LC = 0.01 cm Zero error = ------ cm

O.R.= MSR + (VSC X LC) Vernier scale Main Scale Coincidence S.No Reading (VSC) (MSR) Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. cm cm

Zero correction = ------ cm Observed Correct Reading Reading (O.R.) = M.S.R + OR ZC (V.S.C.X L.C) cm cm

Mean 2r = ---------------- x 10-2 m

Table 3 : Determination of rate of cooling of Lees disc S.No Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Temperature (T) C Time (t) Sec d C dt sec d/ dt C / sec

Mean d/ dt = . C Slope at 2 = ( d / dt ) 2 2 = AB / AC

Table 4: Measurement of thickness of the card board using screw gauge L.C O.R = = 0.01 mm PSR + (HSC X LC) Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm Zero error Zero correction Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Observed Reading (OR) mm = = ................ div ..mm Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mean d = .. X 10-3 m

Calculation Mass of the metal disc Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc Thickness of the bad conductor Radius of the metal disc Thickness of the metal disc Steady state temperature of the steam chamber Steady state temperature of the metal disc Rate of cooling at steady state temperature Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor MSd K = r 2 (1 - 2 )

M = . kg S = .J kg-1 k-1 d = . m r = .. m h = . m 1 = C 2 = C (d / dt )2 = .. C / sec

(r + h) (2r + 2h)

( d / dt ) 2

= .. Wm-1 K-1

Result Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor = .. Wm-1 K-1

6. DETERMINATION OF HYSTERESIS LOSS IN FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL Aim: To trace the B-H curve for ferro magnetic materials using CRO and hence to determine the hysteresis loss. Apparatus Required : CRO, B-H curve apparatus with pick-up coil, ferromagnetic rod etc. Formula : _ _ [ NP 2 (V / R) ] [ 22 NP (V/R) rp2 ] [ Area of ] Energy loss = [ ] [.. ] x [ the loop ] j/cycle /volume [ LX ] [ LY / 2 ] [ in m2 ] Np V R Lx LP LY Theory : Electrical or magnetic oscilations can be displayed on the screen of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO). To accomplish, the solenoids primary is fed by alternating current. The primary carries a specimen core in it and wound round by a secondary of large number of turns. The magnetising field H is proportional to the current through primary. A drop of voltage across a low series resistance is displayed across X plates of the CRO. While the induced emf in the secondary is integrated by RC combination to give an equivalent magnetic induction B and it is displayed across the Y plates of CRO. The energy loss due to hysteresis is calculated from the hystersis curve displayed on the screen. Procedure : A solenoid is wound on a non-metalic frame of diameter 2 to 3 cm and length 30 cm. A Centrally situated secondary of nearly 1000 turns is wound on a spool. A transformer of 2 to 20 volts and 2 to 3 amperes is used for the experiment. 1. The specimen is taken in the form of ferro magnetic rods. 2. The specimen rod is inserted into the solenoid completely. 3. The points are connected to X and Y plates of CRO, as shown in fig.1. The X,Y gains in the CRO are adjusted to yield the shape of the hysteresis loop as shown in fig.2. 4 The loop is traced on a tracing paper and LX, LY are measured. Then the specimen is moved out of the tube slowly until the LY value gets reduced to LY /2. 5. Y gain is increased to restore back LY , implying that Y gain is doubled. 6. The values are observed and substituted in the given formula. Thus the hysteresis losses in a ferromagnetic material can be found using the given formula. Number of turns in solenoid Voltage applied in B-H curve apparatus Resistance in integrator circuit (470 K 1 M ) Maximum deflection on x axis Radius of pick up coil Length of the line along Y axis no unit Volt Ohm meter meter meter

Observations : Number of turns in ths solenoid (N) = Length of the solenoid (L) = Number of turns in the pick-up coil = Radius of the pick-up oil (rp) = Maximum deflection on X-axis (LX) = Length of the line along Y axis (LY ) = Result : The hysteresis loss per unit cycle of the specimen is calculated to be =_____J /cycle/ volume .. turns .. meter .. meter .. meter .. meter .. meter

7. DETERMINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL OF THE ROD BY NON UNIFORM BENDING Expt. No. : Date :

Aim To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of the beam by non-uniform bending method. Apparatus required 1. Beam (Metre scale) 2. Two knife edge supports 3. Weight hanger with slotted weights 4. Pin 5. Travelling microscope 6. Vernier calipers 7.Screw gauge Theory When a beam is loaded at the mid point and symmetrically supported on two knife edges, the bent beam would not form an arc of a circle. This type of bending called non-uniform bending. The maximum depression is produced at its mid point. Formula Mgl3 The Youngs modulus of the material of the beam Y = __________Nm-2 4 bd3 y Where M Load applied (Kg) g acceleration due to gravity (ms-2) l distance between the two knife edges (m) b breadth of the beam (m) d thickness of the beam (m) Y depression produced for the load (m) Procedure 1. Place the beam horizontally and symmetrically on two knife edge supports (A and B) 2. Measure the distance (l) between the knife edges A and B 3. Fix a pin (P) vertically up at the mid point (C) of the beam using wax. 4. Suspend the weight hanger at the mid point of the beam using thread 5. To bring the beam to elastic mood, and weights one by one then removed them like wise for a number of times. 6. Adjust the traveling microscope such that the horizontal cross wire coincides with the image of the tip of the pin. 7. Note the reading on the vertical scale of the microscope for the dead load (weight hanger alone) 8. Add the weights in steps of 50 g and adjust the microscope every time and note the reading on the vertical scale. 9. Remove the weights in steps of 50 g and adjust the microscope and note the reading. 10. Calculate mean of the readings for each load. 11. Calculate the depression for every 50 g from the mean readings. 12. Repeat the experiment for two more lengths between the knife edges and enter all the readings in Table 1 13. Remove the beam and measure its breadth using Vernier calipers and enter it in Table 2 14. Measure the thickness of the beam using screw gauge and enter it in Table 3

15. Substitute all these values in the formula and calculate the Youngs modulus of the material of the beam.

Table 1 Measurement of depression using traveling microscope Length between two knife edges l = . X 10-2 m Observed Reading ( OR ) = MSR + ( VSC X LC ) LC = 0.001 cm Microscope reading Load Depression S.No (M) Mean (Y) for Loading Unloading 50g MSR VSC OR MSR VSC OR -3 Unit x 10 kg cm div cm cm div Cm cm x 10-2 m W W + 50 W + 100 W + 150 W + 200 W + 250 W + 300 W + 350 Mean ( Y ) = x 10 -2 m Table 2 : Measurement of breadth of the beam using Vernier Calipers LC = 0.01 cm Zero error = ------ div

O.R.= MSR + (VSC X LC) Main Scale Reading (MSR) cm Vernier scale Coincidence (VSC) cm

Zero correction = ------ cm Observed Reading (O.R.) = M.S.R + (V.S.C.X L.C) cm Correct Reading OR ZC cm

S.No Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mean (b) = ---------------- x 10-2 m

Table 4: Measurement of thickness of the beam using screw gauge L.C O.R = = 0.01 mm PSR + (HSC X LC) Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Zero error Zero correction Observed Reading (OR) mm = = ................ div ..mm

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

Mean d = .. X 10-3 m Calculation Load applied at mid point Acceleration due to gravity Breadth of the beam Thickness of the beam M g b d = = = = .. x 10-2 Kg 9.8 ms-2 .. x 10-2 m .. x 10-3 m

Youngs modulus of the material of the beam Mg l3 Y = ..{...) Nm-2 4bd3 y Result : The Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam = ..Nm-2

8. Expt. No.: AIM

DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL Date :

To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor (Semiconductor using post office box. Apparatus Required 1. Thermistor 2. Thermometer 3. Post office box 4. Power supply 5. Galvanometer 6. Insulating coil 7. Glass beakers. Formula Band gap for the given thermistor 2.303 log 10 RT Eg = 2K ()J 1/ T Where K RT = = Boltzmanns constant Resistance of thermistor J/K ohm

Procedure 1. The connections are given as in the fig. 1 in P and Q 2. In P and Q 10 ohm resistance is included. 3. Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tap key, until the deflection in the galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to right. 4. After finding an approximate resistance range in F, which differ 1 ohm, are to be found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these resistances will be on either side of zero. 5. We know RT = (Q / P) x R, thus keeping the resistance in Q the same, the Resistance in P is changed to 10, 100, 1000 ohms. 6. Thus, the resistance of the thermistor is found out accurately to two decimals, at Room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be RT ( 0.01R).

To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures S. No . Temp. of thermistor Temp. of Thermistor T = t + 273 K Resistance Of the Thermistor Q RT = .. R P Ohm log1 0 RT 2.303 log10 RT ohm

1/T

Resistance In P

Resistance In Q

Resistance In R

C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

K-1

ohm

ohm

ohm

Then, the thermistor is heated by keeping it immersed in oil. For every 10C rise in Temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out. The readings are entered in the tabular column. Graph : A graph is drawn between 1/T x axis and in 2.303 log 10 RT along Y axis which is shown in the fig. 2 from the graph.

Band gap (Eg) dy ___ dx

= = =

2k x slope of the graph 2k x (dy / dx) Joule 2.303 log 10 RT () 1/T

Calculation

Slope = (AB / BC) Boltzmanns constant

= =

. 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

Band gap energy of the given thermistor = = = =

2.303 log 10 R T 2k x ( ..) 1/T 2k x slope .. J eV = -19 1.602 x 10

Result Band gap of the material of the thermistor = . eV

9. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF A GIVEN COIL OF WIRE CAREY FOSTER BRIDGE Expt No : Aim To determine the resistance of a given coil of wire and determine its Specific resistance Apparatus Required 1. Carey Fosters Bridge 2. Two equal resistances 3. Leclanche cell 4. Standard resistance box 5. Galvanometer 6. High resistance etc. Formula 1. = r .. ohm / meter AJ2 - AJ1 Resistance per meter of Carey Fosters Bridge, Resistance in resistance box Balancing length R + (AJ2 AJ1 ) Resistance of given coil of wire Resistance in resistance Box Balancing length r2 x .. l Specific resistance of given wire Radius of given wire Resistance of given wire Length of given wire ohm / meter ohm meter ohm ohm meter ohm meter ohm meter ohm meter meter ohm meter Date :

= r = AJ1, AJ2 2. X =

X = R = AJ2 , AJ1 3. r x l Theory = = = = =

Carey Fosters bridge is a modified form of the Metre bridge. It consists of a uniform wire AB, one metre long stretched on the wooden board. Thick copper strips are fixed on the board as shown in fig. So that four gaps are provided. Since the strips are thick and broad, their resistance may be considered negligible. A meter scale is fixed on the wooden board parallel to the wire.. Procedure 1). Determination of resistance per meter length of the bridge wire AB.

2). The connections are made as shown in fig. P and Q are equal resistances. 3) A thick copper strip of zero resistance is connected in the place of x and a standard low resistance r (= 0.1 ohm ) in the place of R 4). The jockey is pressed near A and moved towards B touching every point on the wire AB. The balancing point J1 is found out at which the deflection in galvanometer is zero. If J 1 is position of the jockey for null deflection, the balancing length AJ1 is zero. If J1 is position of the jockey for null deflection, the balancing length AJ1 is noted. 5). The copper strip and the standard resistance are interchanged. Now the new balancing length AJ2 is measured.. 6. The experiment is repeated for values of = 0.2 and 0.3 ohms 7. The mean value of is found. The reading are tabulated. 8. The given coil is connected in the place of x and Resistance R Box is connected in the box in R, If J 1 is the balancing point, the balancing length AJ1 is measured. The coil and R are interchanged. The new balancing length AJ2 is measured. Table to determine the resistance per meter of Carey Foster Bridge Sl. No. ohm AJ1 x 10-2 m AJ2 x 10-2 m = r .ohm / meter AJ2 AJ1

mean = To determine the specific resistance of the material of the given coil of wire, Resistance R Ohm Balancing length AJ1 x 10 m
-2

ohm/meter

Sl. No

AJ2 x 10 m

-2

X = R + ( AJ2 AJ1 ) ohm

mean X =

ohm

Table to find the radius of the wire r L.C O.R = = 0.01 mm PSR + (HSC X LC) Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Zero error Zero correction Observed Reading O.R = PSR + (HSC X LC) mm = = ................ div ..mm

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

Mean (r) = .. X 10-3 m The length of the coil of wire Radius of the given coil of wire Result Specific resistance of the material of the wire = = = = x r2 l meter meter

10.
Expt. No.: Aim

DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF LIQUID POISEUILLES FLOW METHOD Date :

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by poiseuilles method. Apparatus required 1. Graduated burette 2. Burette stand 3. Capillary tube 4. Rubber tube 5. pinch cock 6. wooden stand 7. Beaker 8. Liquid 9. Stop watch 10. Metre scale 11.Travelling microscope Theory Suppose the liquid is flowing through a uniform capillary tube which is held horizontally, under constant pressure difference between the two ends of the capillary. The flow of liquid through the tube is stream-line and the layers which are in contact of the walls of the tube are at rest. The maximum velocity is in the centre of the tube. Volume of the liquid collected for a known time is calculated and the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is determined. Formula gr4 ht Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid = ....................... Nsm-2 8lv Where in g r h h1 h2 h0 t l v Procedure density of the given liquid ( Kgm-3 ) acceleration due to gravity (9.8 ms-2 ) radius of the capillary tube (m) h1 +h2 Average Height [ h = ................. h0 ] m 2 - height of the initial level of liquid in the burette from the surface of the work table (m) - height of the final level of liquid in the burette from the surface of the work table (m) - height of the mid portion of the capillary tube from the surface of the work table (m) -time taken for 5 cc of liquid to flow (sec) -length of the capillary tube (m) -volume of the liquid ( 5 x 10-6(m3) ) -

Step I Determination of ht 1. Fix a clean dry burette in the stand 2. Attach the capillary tube to the lower end of the burette using rubber tube. 3. Keep the capillary tube parallel to the work table using wooden stand in order to get uniform flow of liquid.

4. 5. 6. 7.

Place the beaker on the work table to collect the liquid from the capillary tube. Fill the burette with the given liquid above the zero mark. Open the pinch cock slightly and allow to flow through the capillary tube. When the liquid crosses zero mark, start the stop watch and note the time when the liquid level crosses 5,10,15, . . . . . . . 40 cc in clock Table 1 8. Measure the height h1 from the surface of the table to the zero mark of the burette and the height h2 from the surface of the table to 5 cc. mark of the burette for the first observation (when the liquid flows from zero mark to 5 cc mark ). 9. Record h1 and h2 values for other observations also. 10. Measure the height h0 from the surface of the table to the mid portion of the capillary tube. 11. Calculate the time taken for the flow of 5 cc. of liquid. It is seen that as the height (h) decreases, the time of flow of liquid (t) increases and the product (ht) is a constant. Step II Determination of the radius of the bore of the capillary tube 1. Detach the capillary tube from the experimental setup and mount it over a stand such that it is parallel to the work table. 2. Adjust the travelling microscope to view the inner diameter of the capillary tube. 3. Make the vertical cross wire of the microscope to coincide with the left edge V 1 of the capillary bore and note the readings ( in Table 2) from the horizontal scale of the microscope. 4. Adjust the vertical cross wire to coincide with the right edge H1 of the capillary bore and note the reading from the vertical scale of the microscope. 5. Make the horizontal cross wire to coincide with bottom H2 of the capillary bore and note the reading from the vertical scale of the microscope. 6. Adjust the horizontal cross wire to coincide with bottom H2 of the capillary bore and note the reading. 7. Calculate the diameter of the capillary bore by finding the difference between V1 and V2,H1 and H2. 8. Find the mean diameter and calculate the radius of the bore. Step III Determination of coefficient of viscosity of the liquid 1. Measure the length of the capillary tube using scale. 2. Substitute the relevant values in the formula and find the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid. Table 1 Determination of ht h0 = ........................ x 10-2 m Time Average Height Time taken Height to Height recorded h1 + h2 Burette for the flow initial to final S.No. while Range h =.............. . .. ht reading of 5 cc of reading reading crossing h0 liquid (t) (h1) (h2) level 2 x 10-2 m Unit cc sec cc sec x 10-2 m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m Sec 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. Mean ht = ........................ x 10-2 m sec Table 2. TR = MSR + (VSC x LC ) Microscope reading Position Unit Vertical Crosswire Horizontal Cross wire Left V1 V1 ~ V2 = Right V2 Top H1 H1 ~ H2 = Bottom H2 Mean r = ...............x 10-2 m MSR cm Diameter VSC div TR cm cm Radius r cm Determination of the diameter of the capillary bore LC = 0.001 cm

Calculation Density of the given liquid Acceleration due to gravity Radius of the capillary tube Length of the capillary tube Volume of the liquid

g r l v

= = = = = = =

........................... Kgm-3 ............................ ms-2 ............................ 10-2 m ............................ 10-2 m ............................ m3 gr4 ht ............................... Nsm-2 8lv ............................. Nsm-2

Coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid

Result : Coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid = .............................. Nsm-2

11. Expt. No..: Aim :

SPECTROMETER DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM Date :

To determine the dispersive power of a given prism for any two prominent lines of he mercury spectrum. Apparatus required : 1. Spectrometer 2. Mercury vapour lamp 3. Prism 4. Spirit level 5. reading lens. Formula : 1. Refractive index of the prism for any particular colour. = Sin (A+D) / 2 ................................ (no unit) Sin (A/2)

A Angle of the prism in (deg) D Angle or minimum deviation for each colour in (deg) 1 2 2. The dispersive power of prism is = .................................... ( no unit ) [ {1 + 2) / 2 ] 1 Where 1 and 2 are the refractive indices of the given prism for any two colours Procedure : The initial adjustments of the spectrometer : (i) Adjustment of the telescope for the distant object. (ii) Adjustment of the eyepiece for distant vision of cross wires. (iii) Leveling the prism table using spirit level, and adjustment of collimator for parallel rays are made as usual. (iv) Next the slit of the collimator is adjusted by the mercury vapour lamp. Part 1: To determine the angle of the prism (A) : 1. The given prism is mounted vertically at the centre of the prism table, with its refracting edge facing the collimator figure. 2. The base of the prism must face the telescope. 3. Now the parallel rays of the light emerging from the collimator is incident of both the refracting surfaces of the prism. 4. The telescope is released and rotated to catch the image of the slit as reflected by one refracting surface of the prism. 5. The telescope is fixed with the main screw and the tangential screw is adjusted until the vertical cross wire coincides with the fixed edge of the image of the slit. 6. The main scale and the Vernier scale readings are taken for both Verniers. 7. Similarly the readings corresponding to the reflected image of the slit on the other face are also taken. 8. The difference between the two sets of the readings gives twice the angle of prism (2A). Hence the angle of prism A is determined.

Part 2 : To determine the angle of the minimum deviation (D) 1. The prism table is turned such that the beam of light from the collimator is incident on the polished face of the prism and emerges out from the other refracting surface. 2. The refracted rays are received in the telescope. 3. Looking through the telescope the prism table is rotated such that the entire spectrum moves towards the direct ray, and at one particular position it retraces its path. This position is the minimum deviation position. 4. Minimum deviation of one particular line, say yellow is obtained. In this manner, the prism must be independently set for minimum deviation of every prominent line of the spectrum and the readings of both verniers are taken. 5. Next the prism is removed and the direct reading and the refracted ray reading corresponding to the minimum deviation (D) for prominent colours. 6. Thus the refractive index for each colour is calculated, using the general formula. Sin (A+D) / 2 1 - 2 = ............................... and dispersive power of the prism = ..................... Sin (A /2 ) ( 1 + 2 ) .............. - 1 2 1. To determine the angle of the prism (A) : Vernier - A Ray MSR Degree VSC div Total reading = MSR + (VSC X LC) Degree MSR Degree LC = 1 Vernier B VSC div Total Reading = MSR + (VSC X LC ) Degree

Reading of image refracted from one side (Left)

R1 R1

Reading of image refracted from one side (Right) R2 2A = (R1 ~ R2 ) = A = (R1 ~ R2 ) / 2 2A = ( R1 ~ R2 ) = A = (R1 ~ R2 ) / 2 Mean A =

R2

(ii) To find D and for different colours. LC = 1 Min. deviated ray reading Line Vernier A B A B A B A B MSR Deg VSC div TR Deg Direct readings Deg Difference (Minimum deviation ) Deg Mean D Deg

Yellow Green Blue Violet

Result : The mean dispersive power of the material of the prism is ..................................

12. DETERMINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS OF A MATERIAL UNIFORM BENDING Expt. No.: Aim To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale) by uniform bending. Apparatus Required 1. Travelling microscope 2. Two knife edges 6. Vernier calipers 7. Screw guage Formula Youngs modulus of the material of the beam ( metre scale ) 3Mgal2 E = ........................ 2bd3 y Where y M g a l b d Procedure : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges and weight hangers are suspended at equal distance from the knife edges. A pin is fixed vertically at the mid point of the beam. A suitable dead load W is suspended from each hanger. Using Travelling Microscope, the reading corresponding to the tip of the pin is taken. The load is increased in steps of 50 gram and adjust the microscope and is taken. Readings are also taken when the load in each hanger is decreased in the same step. The readings are tabulated and the mean elevation is determined in Table 1 the length L and a measured. The breadth (b) of the scale is determined using vernier calipers and enter all the readings in table 2. The thickness (d) of the scale is determined using a screw gauge and enter at the reading in Table 3 From the observation, the Youngs modulus of the material of the scale is calculated. Elevation for a load M kg Load applied Acceleration due to gravity Distance between the point of application of load and the nearest knife edge Distance between the two knife edge Breadth of the beam (metre scale ) Thickness of the beam (metre scale ) metre kg m / s2 metre metre metre metre 3. Two set of weights 4. Pin 5. Metre scale Date :

newton / metre 2

1.

To find Elevation y using Travelling Microscope

Total Reading (TR) = MSR + ( VSC x LC ) M = ________________________ x 10 -3 kg Length between two knife edges l = __________________ Microscope Readings S. No. Load MSR cm Loading VSC div TR cm MSR cm Unloading VSC div TR cm Mean Elevation Y for M kg cm LC = 0.001 cm

Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

x 10 kg W W + 50 W + 100 W + 150 W + 200 W + 250 W + 300 1.

-3

cm

To find the breadth of the beam using vernier calipers (b) Zero error = ------ div Zero correction = ------ cm Vernier scale Coincidence (VSC) Observed Reading O.R = M.S.R + (V.S.C.X L.C) Correct Reading OR ZC

LC = 0.01 cm O.R.= MSR + (VSC X LC) S.No Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Main Scale Reading (MSR)

cm

cm

cm

cm

Mean (b) = ---------------- x 10-2 m

3. To find the thickness of the beam using screw gauge (d) L.C O.R = = 0.01 mm PSR + (HSC X LC) Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Zero error Zero correction Observed Reading O.R = PSR + (HSC X LC) mm = ................ div = ..mm

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm

Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

Mean d = .. X 10-3 m Calculation Elevation for load applied Load applied Acceleration due to gravity Distance between the point of application of load and the nearest knife edge Distance between the two knife edges Breadth of the beam Thickness of the beam Youngs modulus of the material of beam 3 Mgal2 E = ________________ 2 bd3 y E = ___________________ N / m2 RESULT Youngs modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale = _______________ Newton / metre2 Y M g = = = ______________________ x 10-2 metre

_______________________ x 10-3 metre 9.8 m / sec2

(a) (l) (b) (d)

= = = =

________________________ x 10-2 metre ________________________ x 10-2 metre ________________________ x 10-2 metre _________________________x 10-3 metre

13. TORSIONAL PENDULUM DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS Expt. No. : Aim To determine (i). the moment of inertia of the disc and (ii). the rigidity modulus of the material of the suspension wire by torsional oscillation. Apparatus required 1.Circular disc 2. Suspension wire 3. Clock 4. Two identical cylindrical masses 5. Screw gauge 6. Metre scale Theory When the suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the wire., the wire undergoes shearing strain. This is called torsion. Because of this torsion, the disc executes oscillations called torsional oscillations. The angular acceleration of the disc is proportional to its angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean position. Hence the motion ofthe disc is simple harmonic. Formula (i) Moment of inertia of the disc I = 2m ( d22 d12 ) T02 ___________________ Kgm2 T22 T12 Date :

8 Il (ii). Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire = ...................Nm-2 T02 r4 Where m d1 d2 T0 T1 T2 L r mass of one of the cylinders placed on the disc (Kg) closed distance between the suspension wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder (m) farthest distance between the suspension wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder (m) time period without any masses placed on the disc (sec) time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d1 (sec) time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d2 (sec) length of the suspension wire between the point of suspension and the tip of the chuck attached to the circular disc (m) radius of the wire (m)

Table 1 : Measurement of period of oscillation for the first length of the wire l = __________________ x 10-2 m Position of the equal masses Unit Without masses Without masses d1 = _______ x 10-2 m With masses at d2 = ________ x 10-2 m Table 2 Measurement of the diameter of the wire using screw gauge L.C O.R = = 0.01 mm PSR + (HSC X LC) Head Scale Coincidence (HSC) div Zero error Zero correction Observed Reading O.R = PSR + (HSC X LC) mm = = ................ div ....mm Time for 20 oscillations Mass m = _____________ x 10 -3 kg Trial 1 Sec Trial 2 Sec Mean Sec Time period (Time taken for one oscillation ) sec T0 = ................. T1 = ..................

T2 = ..................

S.No. Unit 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Pitch Scale Reading (PSR) mm

Correct Reading CR = OR ZC mm

Mean diameter of the wire (d) = ................ x 10-3 m Mean radius of the wire (r) = ................ x 10-3 m

Procedure

(a). To determine T0 : 1. Suspend a thin wire, whose rigidity modulus has to be determine, from a rigid support. 2. Attach the circular disc to the other end of the wire using adjustable chuck provided at the centre of the disc 3. Adjust the wire so that its length l cm. 4. Make a vertical chalk mark on the disc when it is at rest as a reference . 5. Set up Torsional oscillations by giving a small twist to the disc. 6. Omit first few oscillations and then start the stop clock when the chalk mark on the disc passes the equilibrium position. Note the time taken for 20 complete oscillations (without any masses on the disc). 7. Repeat the experiment (Trial 2) and calculate the mean. 8. Determine the time period T0. (b). To determine T1 : 1. Draw a line on the disc passing symmetrically through the centre. 2. Place the two identical cylindrical masses at equal distance on either side of the central chuck as close as 3. possible on the line drawn. 3. Measure the distance (d1) between the wire and the centre of the cylinder. 4. Twist the disc with masses to execute torsional oscillations. 5. Note the time taken for 20 oscillations. 6. Repeat the experiment (Trial 2 ) and calculate the mean. 7. Determine the time period T1. (c). To determine T2 : 1. Move the masses along the line such that edges of masses coincide with the edge of the disc and the centre of the cylinder. 2. Measure the distance (d2 ) between the wire and the centre of the cylinder. 3. Set the pendulum to make torsional oscillations. 4. Note the time taken for 20 oscillations. 5. Repeat the experiment (Trial 2) and calculate the mean. 6. Determine the time period T2. (d). To determine the radius of the wire : 1. Measure the diameter of the wire accurately using screw gauge. 2. Calculate the radius of the wire (Table - 2) Result 1. Moment of inertia of the disc 2. Calculate the radius of the wire (Table 2) I = ............................. = .............................. kgm2 Nm-2-