Seminar

Presented by: Sumeet Ghodke

Reverse Engineering and Redesign

(Reg. No. -122090005)

Guided by- Prof. Bhagwat

M. Tech (Machine Design)

Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute, Matunga, Mumbai- 400 019. Page 1 of 41

Table of Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Abstract ............................................................................................................................................. 5 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Reasons for reverse engineering ...................................................................................................... 9 Reverse engineering of mechanical devices .................................................................................. 10 COMPUTER-AIDED REVERSE ENGINEERING .................................................................................. 11 Legality ............................................................................................................................................ 12

7. Case Study: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A PRESSURE TRANSDUCER FOR THE CONDITION MONITORING OF THE OIL LUBRICATION SYSTEM FOR GENERATOR SET ........................................... 13
A. INTRODUCTION: THE SYSTEM .................................................................................................................... 13 B. STEPS OF PROJECT WORK .......................................................................................................................... 14 C. BACKGROUND: ........................................................................................................................................... 15 HOW OIL CONDITION MONITORING OCCURS? ............................................................................................................... 15 D. MARKET SURVEY ........................................................................................................................................ 16 E. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER FOR TRANSDUCER ......................................... 21 F. CYLINDER .................................................................................................................................................... 22 G. SPRING ....................................................................................................................................................... 25 H. PISTON........................................................................................................................................................ 27 I. JOINT USED ................................................................................................................................................. 29 J. O RING ...................................................................................................................................................... 31 K. PREDICTING SEAL FRICTION ....................................................................................................................... 33 L. MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT ............................................................................................. 36 M. TESTING OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER............................................................................................. 37 N. SWOT ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................................... 40

8. 9.

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 41 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 41

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Computer-added reverse engineering framework .................................................................... 7 Figure 2: The sequence of steps required for the reconstruction of a model from multiple overlapping scans .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Figure 3: Oil lubrication system............................................................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Pressure gauge mounting on gen-set ...................................................................................... 14 Figure 5: Assembly of RICO pressure transducer .................................................................................... 17 Figure 6: Bourdon tube ........................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 7: Schematic diaphragm pressure gauge ..................................................................................... 18 Figure 8: Set of bellow pressure gauge ................................................................................................... 18 Figure 9: Single acting cylinder ................................................................................................................ 19 Figure 10: U-tube manometer ................................................................................................................ 19 Figure 11: ANSYS results for cylinder ...................................................................................................... 24 Figure 12: Cylinder .................................................................................................................................. 24 Figure 13: Spring...................................................................................................................................... 26 Figure 14: Piston with two grooves ......................................................................................................... 27 Figure 15: Piston with one groove .......................................................................................................... 27 Figure 16: Teflon piston head (Detachable) ............................................................................................ 27 Figure 17: Threaded teflon piston head (detachable) ............................................................................ 28 Figure 18: Threaded joint used ............................................................................................................... 29 Figure 19: ANSYS results for head hex .................................................................................................... 29 Figure 20: ANSYS results for end hex ...................................................................................................... 30 Figure 21: Basic O-Ring............................................................................................................................ 31 Figure 22: Gland and O-Ring Seal ............................................................................................................ 31 Figure 23: O-Ring under pressure ........................................................................................................... 31 Figure 24: O-Ring Extruding .................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 25: O-Ring Under Extrusion Failure .............................................................................................. 31 Figure 26: O-Ring ..................................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 27:Friction due to O-ring compression ........................................................................................ 34 Figure 28: Friction due to fluid pressure ................................................................................................. 34 Figure 29:Variation in Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) with Cylinder ID .................................... 35 Figure 30: Principal of linear potentiometer ........................................................................................... 36 Figure 31: Principal of LVDT .................................................................................................................... 36 Figure 32: Bonded resistance strain gauge ............................................................................................. 36 Figure 33: Variable area capacitors ......................................................................................................... 36 Figure 34: Test rig suggested................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 35: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 8mm ID cylinder .......................................................... 38 Figure 36: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 10mm ID cylinder ........................................................ 39

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List of tables
Table 1: Design selection chart ............................................................................................................... 20 Table 2: Cylinder Thickness for 8mm ID Cylinder .................................................................................... 22 Table 3: Selected thickness for 8 mm ID cylinder ................................................................................... 23 Table 4: Cylinder Thickness for 10mm ID Cylinder .................................................................................. 23 Table 5: Selected thickness for 10 mm ID cylinder ................................................................................. 23 Table 6: Stresses on cylinder by ANSYS ................................................................................................... 24 Table 7: Spring manufactured ................................................................................................................. 26 Table 8: Stresses on head hex by ANSYS ................................................................................................. 29 Table 9: Stresses on end hex by ANSYS ................................................................................................... 30 Table 10: Important parameters for friction determination .................................................................. 33 Table 11: Determined values for friction determination ........................................................................ 34 Table 12: Values from graph ................................................................................................................... 34 Table 13: Total available force for piston movement ............................................................................. 35

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1. Abstract
Reverse engineering is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device, object, or system through analysis of its structure, function, and operation. It often involves taking something (a mechanical device, electronic component, computer program, or biological, chemical, or organic matter) apart and analyzing its workings in detail to be used in maintenance, or to try to make a new device or program that does the same thing without using or simply duplicating (without understanding) the original. Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage. The purpose is to deduce design decisions from end products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in the original production. The same techniques are subsequently being researched for application to legacy software systems, not for industrial or defence ends, but rather to replace incorrect, incomplete, or otherwise unavailable documentation.

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2. Introduction
Engineering is a growing field that continues to evolve to suit the rapid changes of the 21st century. Engineering fields are constantly improving upon current designs and methods to make life simple and easier. When referring to technology, simple and easy can be directly related to fast and accurate. Simple meaning that, you do not use up valuable time in assembly or doing a specific task. Easy meaning how many times you will have to do the process or task. When we think of engineering we think of the general meaning of designing a product from a blue print or plan. Engineering is described as the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems. This type of engineering is more commonly known as Forward Engineering. An emerging engineering concept is utilizing forward engineering in a reverse way. This method is more commonly referred to as Reverse Engineering. Reverse Engineering is the practice of studying a finished product, a physical device or a software package, in order to learn something about how it works or how it was manufactured. Reverse engineering is the opposite of forward engineering. It takes an existing product, and creates a CAD model, for modification or reproduction to the design aspect of the product. It can also be defined as the process or duplicating an existing component by capturing the components physical dimensions. Reverse engineering is usually undertaken in order to redesign the system for better maintainability or to produce a copy of a system without access to the design from which it was originally produced. There has been a mandatory need for 3D reconstruction of scenes and objects by the manufacturing industry, medical industry, military branches and research facilities. Manufacturing industry utilizes reverse engineering for its fast rapid prototyping abilities and accuracy associated with the production of new parts. This fast prototyping is done through the use of CAD model designs for inspection purposes. Military branches also utilize reverse engineering to perform inspection task that are associated with safety. The goal of reverse engineering an object is to successfully generate a 3D CAD model of an object that can be used for future modelling of parts where there exists no CAD model. To generate clean, smooth 3D models which requires a strong, robust image acquisition system that can acquire data with a high level of accuracy in a sufficient time frame. Our system uses range and intensity images of objects as input. The output is transformed data that is represented as 3D reconstructions of geometric primitives.
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Figure 1: Computer-added reverse engineering framework

There are several building blocks or steps, which determine the process of building a complete 3D model from range and intensity data. These steps, listed in Figure 1 show the format of how range image data is acquired, transformed and generated. This flowchart can be characterized as a generic basic principle for reverse engineering. The steps shown often overlap during the process of each stage. There are many different approaches to acquiring 3D data of objects of various structural shapes. All 3D-based machine vision systems ultimately acquire and operate on image data. Acquisition can be based on collecting the Z-axis data using linear area, laser radar laser scanning techniques, point detectors, or other approaches. These systems incorporate the computer power to manage process and analyze the data acquired. In addition to these tasks, make decisions relating the data to the application without operator intervention. This characterizes what is meant by the term 3D-based machine vision. Although both systems primary focus is reconstruction of real world objects and scene, we will investigate the limitation of both systems. Although the structured lighting system is not designed for reverse engineering use, we will compare the modelling aspects of this system for reverse engineering of automotive parts to the laser range system.

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Figure 2: The sequence of steps required for the reconstruction of a model from multiple overlapping scans

Figure 2 is a more detailed description of Figure 1. The blue area best describes the data capturing section, while the yellow and orange highlights the data pre and post-processing steps and the final outcome is a 3D CAD model. In the data segmentation stage several steps are taken to generate noise free, smooth models of the part. In data reduction, data such as the noise, outlier or erroneous background information is eliminated. Outliers are false data points that are captured during acquisition. Surface smoothing and multi-view registration are included in data integration. Surface smoothing is an additional feature to eliminate noisy data and make the surface of the object more uniform in texture. This can be performed both before and/or after several views of the part are merged. After all the steps are complete a final 3D CAD model is generated.

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3. Reasons for reverse engineering

Interoperability. Lost documentation: Reverse engineering often is done because the documentation of a particular device has been lost (or was never written), and the person who built it is no longer available. Integrated circuits often seem to have been designed on obsolete, proprietary systems, which means that the only way to incorporate the functionality into new technology is to reverse-engineer the existing chip and then re-design it. Product analysis. To examine how a product works, what components it consists of, estimate costs, and identify potential patent infringement. Digital update/correction. To update the digital version (e.g. CAD model) of an object to match an "as-built" condition. Security auditing. Military or commercial espionage. Learning about an enemy's or competitor's latest research by stealing or capturing a prototype and dismantling it. Removal of copy protection, circumvention of access restrictions. Creation of unlicensed/unapproved duplicates. Academic/learning purposes. Curiosity Competitive technical intelligence (understand what your competitor is actually doing versus what they say they are doing) Learning: learn from others' mistakes. Do not make the same mistakes that others have already made and subsequently corrected.

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4. Reverse engineering of mechanical devices

As computer-aided design (CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD, CAM, CAE and other software. The reverse-engineering process involves measuring an object Testing and then reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured using 3D scanning technologies like CMMs, laser scanners, structured light digitizers or computed tomography. The measured data alone, usually represented as a point cloud, lacks topological information and is therefore often processed and modelled into a more usable format such as a triangular-faced mesh, a set of NURBS surfaces or a CAD model. The point clouds produced by 3D scanners are usually not used directly since they are very large unwieldy data sets, although for simple visualization and measurement in the architecture and construction world, points may suffice. Most applications instead use polygonal 3D models, NURBS surface models, or editable feature-based CAD models. The process of converting a point cloud into a usable 3D model in any of the forms described above is called modelling.

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5. COMPUTER-AIDED REVERSE ENGINEERING

Reverse Engineering originally emerged as the answer to provide spares for replacing broken or worn out parts for which no technical data was available. This can be the case if the part was originally imported (without drawings) or the drawings being misplaced or lost. Reengineering or reverse engineering such parts can be a less expensive option compared to re-importing, not only for immediate replacement, but also to create additional spares to maintain the product over a longer period. Reverse Engineering has been defined as a process for obtaining the technical data of a critical spare component. Computer-aided reverse engineering relies on the use of computer-aided tools for obtaining the part geometry, identifying its material, improving the design, tooling fabrication, manufacturing planning and physical realization (Figure 1). A solid model of the part is the backbone for computer-aided reverse engineering. The model data can be exported from or imported into CAD/CAE/CAM systems using standard formats such as IGES, STL, VDA and STEP. The three most important sets of data in reverse engineering activities relate to the CAD model generation, material identification and rapid manufacturing. These are described in the following sections.

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6. Legality
United States In the United States even if an artifact or process is protected by trade secrets, reverseengineering the artifact or process is often lawful as long as it is obtained legitimately. Patents, on the other hand, need a public disclosure of an invention, and therefore, patented items do not necessarily have to be reverse-engineered to be studied. (However, an item produced fewer than one or more patents could also include other technology that is not patented and not disclosed.) One common motivation of reverse engineering is to determine whether a competitor's product contains patent infringements or copyright infringements. The reverse engineering of software in the US is generally a breach of contract as most EULAs specifically prohibit it, and courts have found such contractual prohibitions to override the copyright law which expressly permits it; see Bowers v. Baystate Technologies. European Union Article 6 of the 1991 EU Computer Programs Directive allows reverse engineering for the purposes of interoperability, but prohibits it for the purposes of creating a competing product, and also prohibits the public release of information obtained through reverse engineering of software. In 2009, the EU Computer Program Directive was superseded and the directive now states: The unauthorised reproduction, translation, adaptation or transformation of the form of the code in which a copy of a computer program has been made available constitutes an infringement of the exclusive rights of the author. Nevertheless, circumstances may exist when such a reproduction of the code and translation of its form are indispensable to obtain the necessary information to achieve the interoperability of an independently created program with other programs. An objective of this exception is to make it possible to connect all components of a computer system, including those of different manufacturers, so that they can work together. Such an exception to the author's exclusive rights may not be used in a way which prejudices the legitimate interests of the rightholder or which conflicts with a normal exploitation of the program.

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7. Case Study: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A PRESSURE TRANSDUCER FOR THE CONDITION MONITORING OF THE OIL LUBRICATION SYSTEM FOR GENERATOR SET
A. INTRODUCTION: THE SYSTEM
In the system, the oil is forced under pressure through the oil line by a pump. In the oil line it passes through the filter and then to the manifold. The manifold supplies the oil to the main lubrication system and various components requiring oil. One oil line is passed to the pressure gauge which measures the pressure in the oil line produced by the pump.

Figure 3: Oil lubrication system

Looking at the schematic, many factors come into play when setting oil pressure. Each of the manifold outputs is designed for certain volume, and the individual calculated circuit resistances come into play to determine overall resistance to oil flow. This is much like having four or five hoses connected to one hose bib on the side of the house if one bursts, all will lose pressure. If one is plugged up, the pressure increases for the rest. This system is much the same. So if an output is clogged, like the governor line for instance, pressure will rise. If your transmission has worn out main bearings allowing much of the oil to slide back into the crankcase prematurely, pressure will be lower. The bottom line here is that any rather sudden rise or fall in oil pressure should be taken as a signal that your engines oiling system needs attention. This way pressure gauge plays an important role oil lubrication system.
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PRESSURE GAUGE MOUNTING ON GEN-SET

Figure 4: Pressure gauge mounting on gen-set

B.

STEPS OF PROJECT WORK

Market survey Analyzing available market products Brain storming for all possible concepts of pressure transducers Studying for best workable concept Drawing the basic structure of the pressure transducer Optimizing the design with dimensions, material, joining processes, surface finish, etc. Manufacturing the prototype of the product Testing the product and reviewing design Working on the steps of aesthetics, durability, safety, recyclability, ease of use, etc. Finalizing the design with optimum parameters
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C. BACKGROUND: How oil condition monitoring occurs?

An oil condition monitoring service gives you an ongoing program of sampling, analysis and reporting. It provides the information you need to pinpoint and solve equipment problems as well as implement a more effective maintenance system. Lubricating oils contain all the requisite additives to protect the equipment from wear, corrosion and excess friction. The additives in the oil are multi-functional, therefore, it is important they do not deplete (and is one of the reasons oil types should not be mixed). This is particularly important in long term usage.

a) On-line oil condition monitoring

Oil is forced under pressure through the oil line by a pump. Filtered oil is then forced through oil lines to the manifold. The manifold supplies the oil to the main lubrication system and various components requiring oil. One oil line from manifold is passed to the pressure gauge which measures the pressure in the oil line produced by the pump. An oil pressure gauge gives an excellent indication of the health of various systems in the engine. The key is to establish baseline readings when the engine is healthy, and then be aware of any changes over the time.

b) Cause of low pressure:

The contaminant in oil line and mostly in the filter block the flow of oil in the system which tends to reduce the pressure at which the is to be supplied to the engine and other parts. Low oil level Damaged oil pan or pick-up tube Worn Oil Pump - This could be anything from a slight reduction all the way to catastrophic failure (which is rare unless the pump has ingested bits of metal from some other failure).

c)

Cause of high pressure:

High oil pressure is not generally a concern, but if pressure suddenly increases, there may be a problem with the pressure relief valve. Switching to higher viscosity oil will also show higher readings.

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D.

MARKET SURVEY

The project started with a search for all available and possible mechanisms for the particular objective of condition monitoring of lubrication system ie. pressure gauge. Starting with internet, we found many makers of such pressure transducers with different principles been utilized some of which are also used for automobiles application.

a) COMPETITOR MANUFACTURER
Pricol RICO Saudamini VDO

b) RICO COMPONENT ANALYSIS

ADVANTAGES Robust construction Small in size Ease of mounting

DRAWBACKS Hystersis due to torsional spring Not precisely and accurate Assembly not easy to repair Less life due to use of diaphragm

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Figure 5: Assembly of RICO pressure transducer

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c) DIFFERENT MECHANISMS FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT a) Bourdon tube:

Figure 6: Bourdon tube

b) Diaphragm :
The diaphragm pressure gauge uses the elastic deformation of a diaphragm instead of a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown pressure and a reference pressure.

Figure 7: Schematic diaphragm pressure gauge

c)

The set of bellow:

Figure 8: Set of bellow pressure gauge

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Bellow type pressure gauges use a spring loaded elastic material bellow to measure the pressure and the indication is with linkages.

d) Single acting cylinder:

Piston cylinder type is utilized in this kind of pressure gauge assembly, where on one side of piston there is the application of pressure and on the other side a counter weight is applied which also measures the deflection, hence giving pressure reading.

Figure 9: Single acting cylinder

e)

Manometer:

Manometers are working on the principle of hydrostatic balancing. The force acting due to one liquid column on the same level or reference balances the force acting due to another liquid column.

Figure 10: U-tube manometer

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f)

DESIGN SELECTION
Single acting Bourdon tube Set of bellow

Parameter Diaphragm

Ease of manufacturing Ease of assembly Ease of calibration Design strength Output accuracy Product reliability Long product durability Low product cost

Table 1: Design selection chart

INFERENCE
Single acting cylinder assembly has the most no. of checks, which indicates that it has the most no. of desired properties with this mechanism. For this particular application of condition monitoring of lubrication system the output is required for the change in pressure not for accurate readings, hence the single acting cylinder mechanism is best suited for the application of pressure measurement.

Manometer
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cylinder

E.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER FOR TRANSDUCER

1. Cylinder Design 2. Helical Compression Spring Design 3. Piston Design 4. Joint Used 5. O Ring Selection 6. Protective Cover 7. Electronic System and Pointer Arrangement These are the major components of the single acting cylinder assembly for the pressure transducer. Designing for strength, manufacturing, assembly, aesthetics and environmental impact completes the primary design of pressure transducer.

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F.
i.

CYLINDER

Different theories of failures used in the design of the cylinders subjected to internal pressure are

1. Maximum principal stress theory (Lames theory) 2. Maximum principal strain theory 3. Maximum shear stress theory 4. Distortion energy theory

ii.

Formulae Used: A. Maximum principal strain theory (Clavarinos theory)

t=[

( (

) )

]]

B. Maximum principal strain theory (Birnies theory)

t=[
C. Maximum shear stress theory

( (

) )

]]

t=[
D. Distortion energy theory

]]

t=[ iii.
SET-1

]]

1. Pressure=P = 5 bar = 0.5 N/mm2 2. Dia. Of Piston=Di= 8 mm 3. Factor of safety= 4 material syt per. stress (sper) (MPa) 120 50 per. shear stress (ss) (MPa) 60 25 thickness by clavarinos theory (mm) 0.014218550 0.034300754 thickness by birnies theory (mm)
0.016722480 0.040323599

thickness by maximum shear stress theory

(mm) 0.016771562 0.040610178

Steel Brass

(MPa) 480 200

thickness by distortion energy theory (mm)

0.014512351 0.035097611

Table 2: Cylinder Thickness for 8mm ID Cylinder

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The cylinder is provided with a threading at both ends hence forming a critical thickness at that section. Thread used: M121.25 The thickness allowance for the threads t=0.77mm Total thickness required= t+safe value of thickness from chart Material Steel Brass Total thickness required (mm) 0.77+0.01677=0.78677 0.77+0.04061=0.81061 Approximated thickness (mm) 2 2

Table 3: Selected thickness for 8 mm ID cylinder

(with considering the manufacturing limitation the thickness is assumed as 2mm)

iv.

SET-2 1. Pressure=P = 5 bar = 0.5 N/mm2 2. Dia. Of Piston=Di= 10 mm 3. Factor of safety= 4

material

syt

per. stress (sper) (MPa) 120 50

per. shear stress (ss) (MPa) 60 25

thickness by clavarinos theory (mm) 0.017773187 0.042875942

thickness by birnies theory (mm)

0.020903101 0.050404499

thickness by maximum shear stress theory

(mm) 0.020964452 0.050762722

Steel Brass

(MPa) 480 200

thickness by distortion energy theory (mm)

0.018140443 0.043872014

Table 4: Cylinder Thickness for 10mm ID Cylinder

The cylinder is provided with a threading at both ends hence forming a critical thickness at that section. Thread used: M141.5 The thickness allowance for the threads t=1.08mm Total thickness required= t+safe value of thickness from chart Material Steel Brass Total thickness required (mm) 1.08+0.02096=1.10096 1.08+0.05076=1.13076 Approximated thickness (mm) 2 2

Table 5: Selected thickness for 10 mm ID cylinder

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v.

INFERENCE

1. With the consideration of material availability, ease of manufacturing and the critical thickness required for brass and M.S., they are selected for the prototype design purpose. 2. Not knowing the critical diameter for least friction between O-ring and cylinder the two diameters 8mm and 10mm are selected for analysis.

a) ANSYS REPORT FOR CYLINDER

Figure 11: ANSYS results for cylinder

i.

INFERENCE
Type Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Maximum Shear Principal Stress Stress -1.1213 MPa 0.28252 MPa 5.6626e-004 MPa 0.88713 MPa Total Deformation 0. mm 3.0369e-005 mm

Minimum 1.1252e-003 MPa Maximum 1.6202 MPa

Table 6: Stresses on cylinder by ANSYS

With reference to allowable stress on brass (50 MPa), the maximum stress developed in cylinder (1.6202 MPa) from ANSYS, the cylinder is safe.

Figure 12: Cylinder

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G.

SPRING

The design of a new spring involves the following considerations: i. ii. iii. iv. Space into which the spring must fit and operate. Values of working forces and deflections. Accuracy and reliability needed. Tolerances and permissible variations in specifications.

SPRING CHARACTRISTICS
End style- Square and ground end Spring material- Unalloyed, oil hardened and tempered spring steel valve spring wire (VW) Expected deflection- 22.5mm for 7.5 bar pressure

FORMULAE AND DATA USED FOR DESIGN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Modulus of rigidity (G) = 83170 N/ Spring Index (C) = Wahls Factor (

)=

( (

) )

Number of Turns (N) =

Total number of turns ( Working Length ( Solid Length ( ) = )=

)=N+2

*d

Clearance Allowance ( ) = 15% of working length Total Length ( ) Pitch (Ps) = +

10. 11.

Shear Stress (= )

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Dimensions of the springs manufactured: Parameter Mean spring diameter Inner diameter Outer diameter Pitch Total no. of turns Wire diameter Free length Material Type of end Spring hand Spring 1 5.8 mm 5 mm 6.6 mm 3 mm 15 0.8 mm 42 mm Spring steel Square and ground end Right handed
Table 7: Spring manufactured

Spring 2 8 mm 7 mm 9 mm 4.5 mm 10 1 mm 40.5 mm Spring steel Square and ground end Right handed

Figure 13: Spring

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H.

PISTON

The function of piston is to take pressure of oil on one side and on the other side the spring force. As the stresses acting on the piston are very small compared to the piston strength hence the piston is not designed on strength basis.

DIFFERENT PISTON DESIGNS a) PISTON WITH TWO GROOVES

Figure 14: Piston with two grooves

Characteristics No leakage observed Two O-rings helps in avoiding oscillation of piston

b) PISTON WITH ONE GROOVE

Figure 15: Piston with one groove

Characteristics Leakage was observed after 3.2 bar pressure

c) TEFLON PISTON HEAD AND BRASS ROD (DETACHABLE)

Figure 16: Teflon piston head (Detachable)

Characteristics Leakage was observed after 1.2 bar pressure Kinematic constraints are utilised for improving manufacturing

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d) THREADED TEFLON PISTON HEAD AND BRASS ROD

Figure 17: Threaded teflon piston head (detachable)

Characteristics Leakage was observed after 3.2 bar pressure Threads reduce contact area, O-ring gives positive sealing With lack of precise manufacturing process the piston was prone to leakage

INFERENCE
Piston with two grooves was the best design which avoided leakage. It also has simple construction and does not need precise machining; hence piston with two groove design is selected.

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I.

JOINT USED

Currently the market trend is to make the product such that it wont be possible to open the assembly and repair or get the mechanism behind the joints. As the product is in the design phase we assumed the threaded joints to be most appropriate for the primary design.

Figure 18: Threaded joint used

a)

ANSYS REPORT FOR HEAD HEX

Figure 19: ANSYS results for head hex

i.

INFERENCE Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Principal Stress -1.2119 MPa 4.7225 MPa Maximum Shear Stress 3.5209e-007 MPa 1.4901 MPa Total Deformation 0. mm 4.9975e-005 mm

Type

Minimum 6.5967e-007 MPa Maximum 2.8344 MPa

Table 8: Stresses on head hex by ANSYS

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With reference to allowable stress on brass (50 MPa), the maximum stress developed in cylinder (4.7225 MPa) from ANSYS, the cylinder is safe.

b) ANSYS REPORT FOR END HEX

Figure 20: ANSYS results for end hex

i.

INFERENCE Equivalent (vonMises) Stress Maximum Principal Stress -1.4534 MPa 1.8894 MPa Maximum Shear Stress 6.8174e-006 MPa 1.3525 MPa Total Deformation 0. mm 4.727e-005 mm

Type

Minimum 1.1977e-005 MPa Maximum 2.345 MPa

Table 9: Stresses on end hex by ANSYS

With reference to allowable stress on brass (50 MPa), the maximum stress developed in cylinder (2.345 MPa) from ANSYS, the cylinder is safe.

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J.

O RING

a) INTRODUCTION
An O-ring seal is used to prevent the loss of a fluid or gas. The seal assembly consists of an elastomer O-ring and a gland. An O-ring is a circular cross-section ring moulded from rubber.

Figure 21: Basic O-Ring

Figure 22: Gland and O-Ring Seal

VARIOUS STAGES O-RING UNDER APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL PRESSURE STAGE I- PRESSURE APPLIED

Figure 23: O-Ring under pressure

STAGE II PRESSURE LIMIT REACHED

Figure 24: O-Ring Extruding

STAGE III EXTRUSION FAILURE

Figure 25: O-Ring Under Extrusion Failure

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i.

COMMON MODES OF FAILURE

a) abrasion b) compression set c) chemical degradation d) explosive decompression e) extrusion f) installation damage g) outgassing / extraction h) overcompression i) plasma degradation

j) spiral failure k) thermal degradation

ii.

O-RING FAILURE ANALYSIS

From the end-users point of view, a seal can fail in three (3) general ways: Leaking Contamination Change in Appearance

Contributing factors to seal failure in the sealing environment include: Chemical the type of chemical(s) in service Thermal the operating ranges of the seal (also any thermal cycling) Pressure/Vacuum the range of pressures or vacuum levels in the process

Figure 26: O-Ring

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K.

PREDICTING SEAL FRICTION

Friction and Wear

O-rings load a sealing surface due to their own resilience compounded with any system pressure. When the surface to be sealed moves relative to the O-ring, frictional forces are set up, producing two effects: one leads to wear and the other reduces the useful load which a cylinder can transmit. In dynamic applications difference must be made between break-out and running friction. Break-out friction must be overcome at the beginning of movement and also is known as startup friction. Once movement is established the frictional forces drop to a lower level and gliding begins. This can be clearly seen in reciprocating cylinders.

Calculation Method from Literature

A commonly accepted method of predicting coulomb friction between a seal and a piston rod includes the use of curves that isolate the friction due to seal squeeze and the friction due to pressure. The friction value is given by the following sum:

F = FC + FH
Parameter Fc FH fC fh Lf Ar Value fc x Lf fh x Ar Given in fig: Given in fig: x Piston OD /4 x ((Gland ID)2-(Rod OD)2) Description Total friction force due to seal squeeze Total friction force due to pressure Friction (lb per inch seal contact length) Friction (lb per sq. inch seal projected area) Piston circumference Seal projected area

Table 10: Important parameters for friction determination

The friction per inch length (fc) of the seal due to seal squeeze is given in Figure 65 & Figure 66 gives the friction per square inch of the seal projected area (fh) due to cylinder pressure. Graphs shown below are taken for required surface roughness (200m).

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Figure 27:Friction due to O-ring compression

Figure 28: Friction due to fluid pressure

Measured Parameters Parameters Value Seal Thickness (in) 0.0709 Cylinder ID (in) 0.394 Piston Rod ID (in) 0.256 Seal Shore A Hardness 70 fc(N/mm2) 0.0323

Calculated Parameters Parameters Value Arq (in2) 0.0514 Seal Squeeze (%) 3 Ar2 (in2) 0.0727

Chart Values Parameters Value fc(lb/in2) fh(lb/in2) 0.184 3.623 Ar2(mm2) 46.935

Table 11: Determined values for friction determination

fh(N/mm2) 0.025

Ar1(mm2) 33.161

Table 12: Values from graph

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Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) Vs Diameter 4 Pressure Force (Fp) Friction Force (Fc)

Pressure Force(Fp) in N & Friction Force(Fc) in N

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

4 5 6 Cylinder ID in mm

10

Figure 29:Variation in Pressure Force (Fp), Friction Force (Fc) with Cylinder ID

For Dp=8mm Total Frictional Force (F1) Pressure Force (Fp1) Avail. Force (Fp1 - F1)

1.641 N 2.513 N 0.872 N

For Dp=10mm Total Frictional Force (F2) Pressure Force (Fp2) Avail. Force (Fp2 F2)

2.1884 N 3.927 N 1.7386 N

Table 13: Total available force for piston movement

INFERENCE
From the above table we can see that to give the deflection at 0.5 bar pressure 10mm diameter cylinder has more force value as compared to 8mm cylinder, hence the 10mm cylinder is finalised.

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L.

MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR DISPLACEMENT

a) LINEAR POTENTIOMETER

Figure 30: Principal of linear potentiometer

b) LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

Figure 31: Principal of LVDT

c)

BONDED RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE

Figure 32: Bonded resistance strain gauge

d) VARIABLE AREA CAPACITORS

Figure 33: Variable area capacitors

INFERENCE
From the different possible linear displacement measurement methods, the linear potentiometer is selected because of its ease of application.

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M.

TESTING OF THE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

a) PRESSURE TRANSDUCER TESTS:

1. Calibration test 2. Over load test 3. Endurance Test of Fluctuating pr. Test 4. Flick test

b) TEST RIG:

Figure 34: Test rig suggested

The test rig consists of a rotary type piston cylinder type manual pump which is required for applying continuous pressure on the pressure transducer. A fixture is for holding a pressure gauge to get reading, holder for holding pressure transducer and a fixed scale to get the deflection readings. It also has an exit valve to release the pressure and one opening for getting pressurized oil from the pump. A sink basin is provided for storing the oil at the bottom.

c)

ERRORS IN THE PRESSURE GAUGES

Zero error Span Error Angularity error (non-linearity) Hysteresis error Backlash error

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d) OBSERVATION SET 1:
Specifications: Cylinder: 8mm (ID), M.S. Spring: Spring Steel (Dm=5.8mm, pitch=3mm, Nt=15, d=0.8mm, Free Length=42mm) O Ring: 5*1.6, Silicon

Graph:
Pressure Vs Displacement curve 20 UPPER LIMIT LOWER LIMIT IDEAL LOADING UNLOADING

15

Displacement in mm

10

-5

3 Pressure in Bar

Figure 35: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 8mm ID cylinder

e)

OBSERVATION SET 2:

Specifications: Cylinder: 10mm (ID), Brass Spring: Spring Steel (Dm=8mm, pitch=4.5mm, Nt=10, d=1mm, Free Length=40.5mm) O Ring: 6.5*1.8, Silicon

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Graph:
Pressure Vs Displacement curve 20 UPPER LIMIT LOWER LIMIT IDEAL LOADING UNLOADING

15

Displacement in mm

10

-5

3 Pressure in Bar

Figure 36: Pressure Vs Displacement Graph for 10mm ID cylinder

f)

INFERENCE
From the plotted results we can observe that the cylinder with diameter 10 mm works better in the initial region of the graph and give deflection at about 0.5 bar compared to the one with diameter 8 mm which gives deflection at about 0.75 bar.

The main reason behind this difference is the fact that the acting force is directly proportional to the square of the diameter and the frictional force is directly proportional to the diameter.

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N.

SWOT ANALYSIS
STRENGTHS WEAKNESS Advanced manufacturing processes are not used Required accuracy (+/-5%) is not obtained Vibration testing has not been carried out due to lack of the necessary testing apparatus

Use of brass enhances the aesthetic appeal Reliable testing methods adopted Due to elimination of diaphragm, life of the product increases significantly

OPPORTUNITY If manufacturing capabilities are improved , accuracy will improve significantly Could be used for other low pressure range applications If the same product is manufactured in plastics would prove to be economical

THREATS If the oil used is having SAE rating greater than 30 then leakage failure is possible.

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8. CONCLUSION
There is an increasing interest in reverse engineering of parts whose drawings (geometric, material and manufacturing details) are not available, especially those required one-off or in a few numbers, such as for replacement of broken and worn-out parts. It is facilitated by the availability of technologies such as non-contact scanning, rapid tool manufacturing (using rapid prototyping and rapid tooling methods) and process parameter optimisation through simulation. This investigation focussed on integrating these technologies, to achieve a dramatic reduction in manufacturing time and associated costs for one-off products compared to conventional routes. This has been demonstrated by design of pressure transducer assembly belonging to gen-set, which had no drawings or any other data related to its manufacturing.

9. REFERENCES
Ingle, Kathryn A., Reverse Engineering, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, p.1-35. Puntambenkar, N.; Jablokow, A. & Sommer, H., A unified review of 3D model generation for reverse engineering. Computer Integrated Manufacturing Systems, 1994, 7, 259-268. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited-Trainning Manual on Process Measuring instruments- Course no. SA-C&I # 2.4 Material properties- The DuPont Oval Logo, DuPont., The miracles of science. Diphragm design manual -Freudenberg and NOK Group Parker O-Ring Handbook -ORD 5700 Principles of Pressure Measurement- Franklin L. Scamman, MD CE319F - Elementary Mechanics of Fluids Laboratory UT Austin Macro sensors-Division of Howard A. Schaevitz Technologies, Inc. - Technical Bulletin 0103 Machine Design II- Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram Machine Design- V. B. Bhandari

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