THE TOOLS OF QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY9/18/2012 2:20:00 PM

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1: Units of Measurement: Doing chemistry requires making quantitative measurements All measurements require a numerical value and appropriate unit of measure Important units for chemistry (consistent with metric system): Mass: grams (g) actually quantity of the matter there Length: meters (m) 3d space that matter occupies Volume: Liters (L) Temperature: Celsius (C) Time: second (s) Energy: Joule (J) A modified metric system (SI) is used placing appropriate prefixes in front of base units (LOOK AT TABLE 2 IN BOOK) o Kilo k 10^3 (thousand) o Deci d 10^-1 (tenth) o Centi c 10^-2 (hundredth) o Mili m 10^-3 (thousandth) i.e. 20.0 g -> .0200 kg

Precision, Accuracy, Error: Precision of a measurement indicates how well several determinations of the same quantity agree (ability to repeat same results over and over again, even if not accurate) Accuracy is the agreement of a measurement with the accepted value of the quantity Experimental Error if you measure a quanitity in the laboratory, you may be required to report the error in the result Error (in measurement) = Experimentally determined value Accepted Value % Error = Error in Measurement x 100% Accepted Value Problem (p 31): A coin has an accepted diameter of 28.054 mm. in an experiment, 2 students measure this diameter. Student A makes four measurements using a precision tool called a

micrometer. Student B measures the same coin using a plastic ruler: Student A Student B 28.264 27.9 28.244 28.0 28.264 27.8 28.248 o Solution: o Avg value for student A: 28.264 mm o Avg value for student B: 28.0 mm o Although student A has 4 values very close together (high precision), this student is less accurate than student B because the % error for student A is higher. o Student A: % Error = 28.264 28.054 x 100% = 0.684% 28.054 o Student B: % Error = 28.0 28.054 x 100% = -0.2% o 28.054 Standard Deviation Laboratory measurements can be in error for two basic reasons: o Determinate errors: faulty instruments and human error o Indeterminate errors: uncertainties in a measurement where the cause is not known and cannot be controlled by the lab worker One way to judge the indeterminate error in a result is to calculate the standard deviation Standard Deviation =

(Sum of the squares of the deviation from the mean (Number of observations 1)

1/2

Problem (p.33) o Student A

Mean (8.19 + 8.22 + 8.21 + 8.25) divided by 4 = 8.22 Deviations: (8.22)-(8.19) = 0.03 (8.22) (8.22) = 0 (8.22) - (8.21) = 0.01 (8.25) - (8.22) = 0.03 SD = square root (0.03)^2 + 0 + (0.01)^2 + (0.03)^2 Divided by 4-1 = 0.025 = 0.03 final result: 8.22 plus or minus 0.03 g

o Student B Mean (8.22 + 8.2210 + 8.2209 + 8.2210) divided by 4 = 8.2210 (8.2210) - (8.2210) = 0 (8.2210) - (8.2210) = 0 (8.2210) - (8.2209) = 0.0001 (8.2210) - (8.2210) = 0 DO THIS FOR HOMEWORK

FINAL RESULT = 8.2210 PLUS OR MINUS 0.0001 g Significant Figures When doing calculations using measured quantities, we follow some basic rules so that the results reflect the precision of all the measurements that go into the calculations o A calculated result can be no more precise than the least precise piece of information that went into the calculation o Significant Figures (Sig Figs) represent the digits that we have complete confidence in when performing a measurement Rules for Sig Figs o (1) in a number representing a scientific measurement, the last digit to the right is taken to be inexact common practice to assign an uncertainty of plus or minus to the last significant digit

o (2) exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures and do not affect calculations examples: 1000 mL = 1 L constants such as (pie) o (3) all non-zero digits are significant examples: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (4) zeroes between two other significant digits are significant example: 1001 (the zeroes are significant) o (5) ZEROES TO THE RIGHT OF A NON-ZERO digit are significant only if a decimal point can be seen in the value Example: 250 = 2 Sig Figs; 25.0 = 3 Sig Figs o (6) zeroes that are place holders are not significant examples: 0.0065 and 65000 in both cases, the zeroes are not significant often the base way to express trailing zeroes that are significant: use scientific notation Rules for Sig Figs when doing calculations o (1) Adding/Subtracting: the number of decimal places in our answer = the number of the decimal places in the value which is least precise example #1: 0.122 + 1.9 + 10.925 = 12.945 report 12.9 since the 1.9 represents least precise value example #2: 10.26 + 0.063 = 10.323 report 10.32, since 10.256 represents least precise value o (2) Multiplication/Division: the number of Sig Figs in the answer is determined by the value with the fewest Sig Figs example #1: 0.01208 divided by 0.0236 = 0.512 Note: the value 0.0236 has only 3 Sig Figs Example #2: 10.26 x 0.063 = 0.6464 = 0.65 Note: the value 0.063 has only 2 Sig Figs Scientific Notation Scientific notation is a way of presenting very large or very small numbers in a compact and consistent form that simplifies calculations

o 2 Parts: (1) Digit (Numerical) term Only displays significant figures (2) Exponential term Based on the base number 10 raised to some power o Example #1: 135,000 o Move implied decimal point to the right of 1 Coverts to 1.35 10^5 o Example #2: 0.000248 o Decimal point moves to the right of 2 Converts to 2.48 10^-4 o Example #3: 876.0 (four sig figs) o Decimal point moves to the right of 8 Converts to 8.760 10^2 Dimensional Analysis This is a mathematical technique which enables us to solve many chemistry problems without the benefit of specific formulas (on first test) o It is extremely dependent on the units of measure, which guide us through the calculations o It uses values expressed as fractions o Many of these values are conversion factors, which enable us to relate to different values o Example: 1000 mL = 1 L 1000 mL 1 L or 1 L 1000 mL Problem (p39) Oceanographers often express the density of sea water in units of kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3). If the density of sea water is 1.025 g/cm^3 at 15C, what is its density in kg/m^3 o Solution: 1.025 g 1 kg = 1.025 10^-3kg 1 1000 g 1 cm^3 (1 m)^3 = 1 cm^3 1 m^3 = 110^-6 m^3 1 (100 cm)^3 1 1 10^6 cm^3 Denisty = ?

Problem: the recommended adult dose of Elixophylin, a drug used to treat asthma, is 6 mg/kg of body mass. Calculate the dose in milligrams for a 150 lb person. (always start with one unit of measure) [2.2064 lb = 1 kg] Solution: 150 lb 1 kg 6 mg 1 2.0246 lb 1 kg (body) = 4 x 10^2 mg

Problem: the average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25C is 515 m/s. Convert this speed to miles per hour. [1.6093 km = 1mi] 515 m/s 1 km 1 mi 60 s 60 min = 1.15 x10^3 1s 1000 m 1.6309 km 1 min 1 hr mi/hr

Graphs there are many instance where graphs can be used to analyse experimental data o Goal: help us predict new results If the graph represents a linear relationship, then the result will be a straight line, which has the equation: o y = mx + b y = dependent variable x = independent variable m = slope of the line b = y-intercept

Ch. 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Atomic Mass

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Objective: show how the composition of the atom relates to its mass and then to the mass of the compounds All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons in the nucleus o This number of protons = atomic number (Z) o # above chemical symbol: Periodic Table o Very important: provides the identity of the element Example: only Na can have an At # = 11 The masses for each element uses Carbon (6 protons + 6 neutrons) as the standard o C (carbon) assigned a mass value of exactly 12 The mass of all other elements are assigned relative to carbon. Masses of fundamental atomic particles often expressed in atomic mass units (amu) o 1 amu = 1/12 of the above carbon-12 o 1 amu = 1.661 10^-24 g Proton and neutron masses are both so close to 1 amu, & the electron mass is 1/2000 of this value, approx. mass of atom can be estimated LOOK AT TABLE 2.0 Mass Number (A) : Sum of the number of protons and neutrons for an atom o Example: Na (A) = 11p + 12 n = 23 Using isotopic notation: 23NA Most elements consist of atoms having several different mass numbers o Boron: B-10 and B-11 o Tin: 10 different masses! Isotopes: atoms with the same atomic # but different mass numbers Isotope abundance = # of atoms of given isotope 100% Total # atoms of all isotopes of that element Example: 19.91% abundance for B-10 80.09% abundance for B-11

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