THE RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF THOMAS PAINE

Ben Crenshaw
Colonial America HIS 341
Dr. Messer
December 8, 2009
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The concept of individualism is a hallmark of western civilization and specifically American culture and

identity. It defines and dictates every facet of our lives: government and policy, rights and liberties, business and

consumerism, and family and personal life. However, the perspective that man is primarily responsible for himself

and then secondarily to others is a relatively recent concept. The majority of cultures around the world and

throughout human history have been collective societies that placed emphasis upon the family and social

organizations above individual needs and wants. It was during the fourteenth century Italian Renaissance and later

the eighteenth century Enlightenment that man was elevated to the status of a supreme being whose potential was

limitless. The rise of humanistic thought placed an emphasis upon mans dignity, capabilities, and especially

rationality, making him the measure of all things. Later, liberalism gave birth to the belief of individual freedom,

which rejected the medieval notions of the Divine Right of Kings, aristocratic rule, hereditary succession, and

religious establishments. As the role and ability of the individual was emphasized and idealized, certain persons

rose to the heights of human potential, seemingly embodying these beliefs and proving them correct.

Key Dates in Thomas Paine's Life Thomas Paine was one such individual. Born in
1737 Birth in Thetford, England
1754-1757 At sea England in the early eighteenth century, he lived through the
1757-1759 Worked in London and studied
end of the Enlightenment (1648-1789)1 and witnessed the
Newtonian physics
1759 Moved to Kent and married Mary
dawning of the modern age (1789).2 Paine was a product of
Lambert
1759-1765 Excise officer in England his environment and he enthusiastically and boldly
1766-1774 Lived in Lewes, Sussex and
married Elizabeth Ollive participated in the new and exciting ideas of his time. Paine
1774 Sailed for America
1776 Wrote Common Sense was very skilled with his pen and his many books and
1776-1783 Wrote The American Crisis
1787 Traveled to Europe on scientific pamphlets were well received, widely read, and greatly
business
1791 Wrote The Rights of Man influential both in America and Europe. Paine did not limit
1793 Wrote part one of the Age of
Reason the scope of his writing, and the variety of topics he touched
1795 Wrote part two of the Age of
Reason on evidenced his active, thoughtful, and creative mind. In
1796 Wrote Agrarian Justice
1809 Died in New York City many respects, Paine was ahead of his time. His progressive

ideas on republican government, human equality, freedom, liberties, and natural rights inspired many of his

contemporaries and helped form the foundation for democratic and republican political systems of government.3

Paine contributed to the maturation and popularity of Deism, socialism, and biblical criticism; his scientific work is

also quite notable.4 Throughout his life he continually manifested a humanitarian spirit and concern to serve other
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people. In more practical ways he was instrumental in championing the American cause of independence during the

Revolutionary War (1775-1783). His pamphlet, Common Sense, written in the early winter of 1776, argued strongly

for separation from England and helped rally the American people behind the war effort. His numerous American

Crisis letters during the conflict encouraged soldiers and citizens alike, providing hope and timely reports on the

progress of the war.

Paine was involved in more than one revolution. He happened to be in England when the French

revolution began in 1789, and he soon became active in championing the cause of the common French man. 5 In

response to Edmund Burkes Reflections on the French Revolution (in which Burke defended King Louis XVI and

condemned the revolt),6 Paine wrote the Rights of Man, setting forth his political philosophy in defense of mans

rights and freedoms. Later in his life, Paine purposely explained his views on religion, specifically regarding

Christianity. The Age of Reason created quite a stir since it was a clear denunciation of both Christianity and the

Bible and instead promoted and embraced Deism. His last major work, Agrarian Justice, written in 1796, advocated

property rights and an end to poverty in England. 7 By the time he died in 1809 at the age of 72, his name and

writings were well known in America, England, and France.

Although time has dampened Paines popularity, his words and ideas are just as powerful and relevant

today as they were two centuries ago. Americans especially should have respect and gratitude for this man who

played such an integral and vital role in helping shape the United States of today. Much has been written about

Paine since (and even before) his death. He has tended to be a polarizing figure, either evoking adoration and

respect, or hatred and envy from those who came into contact with him or who have studied his life. Many have

undertaken to write his biography, some being more biased and slanted than others. Generally speaking, Paine was

greatly criticized during the nineteenth century and it has not been until recently that more favorable memoirs have

been written about him.8

Books and articles have abounded over the years critiquing his political views, his arguments for socialism

and equality, his religious and theological works, his rhetoric and writing style, and the impact he has had on many

different disciplines and fields of study. Due to the many volumes that have been written about Paine, it might be

temping to think that not much more can be said. However, the predominant focus has been on his political, social,

and economic opinions and assertions. Paine has accurately been judged and evaluated by his words, yet it is easy

to read what he wrote but not understand who Paine was and why he said what he did. The goal of this paper is to
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discover the religious and theological convictions of Thomas Paine since they constituted the core of his life and

beliefs.9 It is not enough just to known what Paine said; the key to understanding what he said is to know who he

was and what he believed.

To a great extent, Paines religious and spiritual beliefs were molded by his environment and the

circumstances surrounding his early life and adolescent development. Despite the early influence of his fathers

Quaker beliefs, Paine was predominantly a child of the Enlightenment and his religious beliefs were all interpreted

through the lens of natural laws and reason, eventually resulting in him adhering to a purely Deistic religious

philosophy.10 The religious and intellectual context both in his hometown and in England in the early eighteenth

century contributed greatly to his personal and spiritual development. His mothers and especially his fathers

religious beliefs (Anglicanism and Quakerism) were formative in his childhood years, yet eventually were eclipsed

by the Newtonian education he received that led him to embrace Deism. Like most people, Paines beliefs were not

static and lifeless but continually changed and evolved. This is most evident when comparing his beliefs in

Common Sense (1776) with his religious work, The Age of Reason, written 17 years later. In the end, Paine

completely and utterly rejected Christianity and the God of the Bible; still, he did not totally abandon religion11 but

remained an adamant theist who sought to stem the coming tide of atheism.

Tracing the development and evolution of Paines religious beliefs is a difficult task since Paine did not

formally express his religious perspectives until he was fifty-six. The Age of Reason clearly outlines what he

believed as of 1793 and 1795, but these beliefs cannot be projected back to 1776, let alone his childhood and young

adult years, for he could have believed something else earlier in his life.12 Therefore, it is necessary to start at the

beginning and in the most accurate and unbiased way possible discover the progression of Paines spiritual and

religious life. The conclusion of this journey will hopefully yield a more intimate and comprehensive understanding

of the person of Thomas Paine.

Paine was born in the market town of Thetford, England, in 1737. Thetford was located in the lower-lying

Norfolk county in east England and was situated along the main route connecting London and Norwich. 13 Thomass

father, Joseph Pain, was 11 years younger than his wife Frances Cocke Pain, 14 and he worked in the staymaking

business.15 His family lived in a plain thatched cottage house on Bridge Street16 and Paine was an only child after

his younger sister died.17

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It is important to consider the

political, religious, and intellectual

environment which surrounded Paine in

Thetford and throughout England since it

can be a clue to the development of his

religious beliefs. During the time that

Paine lived in Thetford, the town and its

surrounding area was owned and

controlled by the Dukes of Grafton. This

family maintained complete aristocratic

control and were the towns

representatives to the English Parliament. 18

In typical aristocratic fashion, the powerful

and wealthy Dukes would often displace

farmers and poor commoners without due

compensation as they confiscated land,

Map of England. Thetford is highlighted by the yellow star on the red road
farms, roads, forest, and streams in order to between Norwich and London.

increase their own acreage and revenue. In addition, significant wealth gaps between the rich and poor led to crimes

of theft and burglary against the rich. Justice in the courts (controlled by the Dukes) was rare and petty property

crimes were often punishable by death, while the wealthy and influential walked free. 19 Just outside the city and

within view of Paines house stood Castle Hill (also called Gallows Hill), which was a large medieval earthwork last

used by the Normans as a fortified motte. 20 Public executions of the guilty were held each March and these events

brought a multitude of crowds and a festival mood to Thetford.21 How often Paine witnessed these executions or

felt the presence and control of the aristocratic power is not known. Likewise, the prosperity and social standing of

his family is a mystery; yet it is reasonable to conclude that his fathers job as a staymaker, while not overly

profitable, was adequate to provide a living for the family. 22 It is also possible that Paine developed his disdain and

animosity toward absolute power and government during these years. Later in his life, Paine would write

extensively on the abuse of power that arose from illegitimate monarchical government and hereditary succession.
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Paines birth toward the end of the Enlightenment also meant that the thoughts, ideas, and discoveries of

that time influenced him in a direct way. To understand the roots of the Enlightenment it is necessary to go back to

the Middle Ages. For over a millennium, Europe had come under the sway and spiritual influence of the Roman

Catholic Church, which strove to achieve universal Christendom.23 By the late fifteenth and early sixteenth

centuries cracks in Catholicisms European hegemony began to show as the cultural and religious revolutions of the

Renaissance and Reformation occurred. The Renaissance, which began in Italy and spread throughout Europe, was

a revival of interest and study in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, and politics. Erasmus of Rotterdam

(1467-1536) was perhaps the greatest of all the humanists who criticized monasticism, the Church, and scholastic

teachings.24 The Reformation, led by Martin Luther (1483-1546), threw off the restraints of Catholic theology and

opened the door for new interpretations and practices of the Bible. The goal of reaching a united European

Christendom slowly disintegrated as splinter religious groups created social unrest and disorder; Europe had began

to fragment.

At the same time, great scientists and mathematicians made discoveries that began to alter accepted views

of society, God, and the universe. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) proved that that the sun, not the earth, was the

center of the universe; Johann Kelper (1571-1630) discovered that the suns magnetic force caused the planets to

rotate; and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) popularized the telescope and proved that the acceleration of falling objects

was constant.25 Yet it was Isaac Newton (1642-1727) who brought all these and other discoveries together and

successfully postulated a single principle, a never-changing, all-encompassing law that governed the entire universe:

the law of gravity.26

In addition, religious conflicts that had raged for many years triggered cries for peace, harmony, toleration,

and a search for common truth. A new order was emerging where faith in God and Scripture was replaced by faith

in law and order as spiritual authority was subjugated to reason and knowledge.27 The Age of Reason28 had arrived

and while it was primarily an intellectual movement, it touched every aspect of life as it sought to unify everything

into one harmonious and systematic worldview. Scientific principles and human reason alike were applied to law

and government, art, philosophy, politics, psychology, ethics, and religion. The concepts of the modern state and

society as a social contract took form and the pursuit of knowledge, freedom, and happiness abounded. 29 It was an

international movement that reached around the world and eventually trickled down to the common man. When it
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touched Paines life it made an indelible mark, and it was one of the most fundamental influences that shaped him

throughout his entire life.

Before Enlightened thoughts and ideas could make their way to Paines doorstep, another equally important

influence began to mold and shape him in his youth. Paines parents were quite religious (as were many at that

time):30 his mother was part of the Church of England,31 and his father was a Quaker. Because of this, Thomas was

baptized into the English Anglican Church, taught to recite catechisms, and confirmed by the bishop of Norwich. 32

His father was apparently an active and conscientious Quaker who trained his children in Quaker beliefs and

morality. Between his parents faiths, Quakerism most assuredly influenced Paine more than Anglicanism.33 In The

Age of Reason, Paine, reflecting on his childhood, talked briefly about the role of religion in his life as a child. My

father being of the Quaker profession, it was my good fortune to have an exceedingly good moral education, and a

tolerable stock of useful learning. 34 Paine spoke quite positively of his fathers religion and he credited Quakerism

with helping him gain a solid ethical foundation and valuable knowledge. 35 However, even though Paine attended

Quaker meetings as a child he never once in his life professed to be a Quaker. 36

The Quakers, who were officially known as The Society of Friends, began as a religious sect in England in

the mid-seventeenth century. This was a tumultuous time of social and cultural unrest in Englands history as civil

war between King Charles I and Parliament broke out in 1640. A clash of religious ideologies lay behind each side

as the Anglicans supported Charles and the Stuart line and the Puritan sects backed Parliament. 37 Conditions such as

these were perfect for the emergence of religious sects that sought to find new truths and a new way. The Quakers

were one such group that began in the 1650s under George Fox (1624-1691) who believed that each person

contained within themselves the source of pure truth. 38 The most dominant and defining belief of the Quakers was

the doctrine of an Inner Light, which was either the conscience or the Spirit of Christ (Holy Spirit) that would

illumine and guide the individual to truth. This inner light removed the need for clergy or any other spiritual

mediators, and was the ultimate source for religious authority to be obeyed at all costs. Quakers embraced the view

of a universal priesthood of believers and held that personal salvation was not dependent upon a savior. Still, they

did not reject the Scriptures completely, but sought to follow the spirit of the Bible instead of its rule and law.

Personal experiences of God and revelations were emphasized and proclaimed to be more important than biblical

revelation. In a more outward expression, Quakers desired this meekness and humility to characterize their lives and
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they sought to exercise true justice and goodness. Most of them adhered to pacifism and promoted peace,

humanitarian efforts, and service to one another.39

There is a big difference between knowing the traditional views and beliefs of Quakerism and knowing

exactly what Thomas Paine was taught and what he incorporated into his life. Not only was Quakerism fairly new

(even by the early 1700s), but the issue is complicated by the fact that his father belonged to a small sect of Quakers,

who were more anti-orthodox than other Quakers and the only religious dissenting group in Thetford at that time. 40

In addition it is believed that his father was expelled from the Thetford Quakers after his marriage to Frances

(Paines mother) due to her membership in the Church of England.41 To be sure, the Thetford Quakers were anti

Catholic-orthodoxy, but to what extent they taught and embraced Quaker beliefs is unknown, although they most

likely practiced the core values mentioned above.42

Paines own words regarding the Quakers do not clarify the issue. Paine never professed to be a Quaker

(although once he swore allegiance to both the Church of England and to Deism),43 but at times he wrote positively

about the Quakers, praising their humanitarianism and philanthropy; 44 yet at other times he criticized them for

leaving the works of God out of their system, and for being too severe and restrictive.45 At the end of Common

Sense Paine devoted special attention to addressing a group of Philadelphia Quakers who had written a pamphlet

opposing American independence and the impending war, and were calling for reconciliation with Great Britain.

Paines words were sharp and cutting as he rebuffed their arguments and exposed their inconsistencies. 46 Also, it is

interesting to note that Paine himself misrepresented the Quakers when he wrote about them in The Age of Reason.

Robert Falk tackles this issue in his article Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker? Falk compares and contrasts the two

religions and uses Paines statements to prove that Paine did not truly understand the Quaker creed. At one point

Paine wrote regarding the Quakers that they do not believe much about Jesus Christ, and they call the Scriptures a

dead letter.47 By using the words of George Fox and John Woolman against Paine, Falk demonstrates that this

statement is false and that the Quakers are wrongly represented. 48

All of this begs the question, how much was Paine influenced by the Quakers as a child? Was it the

primary moral foundation that directed him for the rest of his life, or a periphery belief incorporated into another

worldview? Moncure D. Conway, a nineteenth century biographer of Paine, insisted that Paine can only truly be

understood in the light of his Quakerism, which was the foundation of his religious and political beliefs. 49

Quakerism certainly did have an impact on Paine in a number of ways, but Conways claims are exaggerated. To
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understand how Paine was influenced by Quakerism it is necessary to know the political and religious context in

which this religion began. To do this, we must go back to seventeenth century England, a time of great upheaval

and social unrest.

The state of religious toleration in England by the 1730s and 1740s was a work in progress. Voices from

the Enlightenment had been calling for an end to religious conflicts and greater acceptance of religious diversity. 50

The Glorious Revolution in England in 1688 resulted in the Catholic monarch, James II, being overthrown and

William and Mary of Orange coming to power. This effectively kept a Roman Catholic king off the throne and

firmly established Parliament as the ruling power in England. 51 One of the first moves by Parliament was to issue

the Toleration Act of 1689 granting freedom of worship to dissenting Protestant sects as long as they swore oaths of

allegiance to the throne and state.52 Despite this progress, Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants were still very

hostile and antagonistic toward each other.53 Although it was perfectly legal for the Thetford Quakers to practice

their beliefs, tensions between Paines Anglican mother and Quaker father most certainly existed to some degree. 54

It is very possible that such religious tension was an early source of Paines skepticism and questioning of authority.

Certainly the non-orthodox Thetford Quakers instilled in the young boy a distaste for all things traditional and

caused him to question the prevailing spiritual convictions.55 As one biographer of Paine phrased it, Paine may

well have acquired from the Thetford Quakers his habits of nonconformity his ease in rejecting accepted ways and

opinions.56

On the other hand, it is possible to see the positive effects of Quakerism in Paine. The Quaker emphasis on

humanitarianism and the civil duty men have toward each other took root in Paines life and was a constant trait

until the day he died.57 More than once Paine wrote favorably about the philanthropy and giving spirit of the

Quakers.58 In addition, Paine acquired from the Quakers the confidence in himself and his personal judgments that

made his Revolutionary literature so powerful and convincing. 59 These outward manifestations are clear examples

of the influence of Paines early spiritual environment, but one might still ask if Quakerism ever took a more inward

role in transforming Paine personally. Robert Falk sheds light on this issue when he addresses Paines

mischaracterization of the Quakers beliefs. Perceptively, Falk does not just critique what Paine wrote, but he

notices Paines attitude. This attitude, Falk asserts, is distinctively un-Quaker, and is the direct antithesis of the

meekness and humility found in true Quakers such as George Fox and John Woolman. 60 At one point in his life,

Paine was given the nickname Citizen Egotism, a play off an earlier title of Citizen Paine he earned for his
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positive role in the American Revolution. 61 Harry Hayden Clark, late professor at the University of Wisconsin, also

did a detailed comparison of Paine to Fox and Woolman and came to the conclusion that Paines character was

unlike theirs at a fundamental level. Paine was an arch egotist, arrogantly critical of others, and distinguished by an

overweening pride in himself and his achievement. Due to his worldliness, coarseness, and pugilistic spirit, Paine

was clearly different from true followers of Quakerism. 62 Thus it seems that while certain aspects of Quakerism

produced outward changes in action and purpose in Paines life, it failed to take hold in his spirit and really

transform him personally.

Besides Quakerism, Paine was also taught Anglican orthodoxy and belief from his mothers side. Paine did

not talk much about the role of Christianity in his early life, but at one point in The Age of Reason, he recounted an

incident that is worth taking a closer look at.

I well remember, when about seven or eight years of age, hearing a sermon read by a relation of mine, who
was a great devotee of the Church, upon the subject of what is called redemption by the death of the Son of
God. After the sermon was ended, I went into the garden, and as I was going down the garden steps (for I
perfectly recollect the spot) I revolted at the recollection of what I had heard, and thought to myself that it
was making God Almighty act like a passionate man who killed His son when He could not revenge
Himself in any other way, and, as I was sure a man would be hanged who did such a thing, I could not see
for what purpose they preached such sermons (emphasis in the original). 63

To have had such a powerful religious experience at this age seems to have deeply impacted the boy, so

much so that Paine clearly remembers the incident almost fifty years later. His child-like and initial reaction to the

story of the death of Jesus is understandable in light of the profound complexity and mystery of Jesus incarnation

and self-sacrifice on mans behalf. Whereas some children often experience Jesus death as a positive event from

which they can benefit (and for many a personal reality that evokes gratitude and devotion), Paines mind as a child

seems to reveal a different analysis, reflection, and perspective. As a seven or eight year old child he was struck by

the injustice and criminality of the event and he believed that God was too good to do such an action, and also too

almighty to be under any necessity of doing it. For Paine this was not a small matter, but what he called a serious

reflection.64

For a boy of this age to engage in deep thought about Christs death and come to the conclusion that God

would never do such a thing on the basis of his goodness and power (let alone the fact that it would be considered

murderous) is striking and surprising. This is evidence of Paines mental and intellectual capacity. Such thoughts

led the boy to feel quite skeptical of the whole affair and Paine later wrote that from a young age he either doubted

the truth of the Christian system or thought it to be a strange affair. 65 Although Paine eventually came to reject
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orthodox Christianity, it is worth noting that he did not reject God, for even as a child he affirmed the existence of

the Almighty. His steadfast belief in Gods benevolence and omnipotence as a young lad would continue with him

as he matured and eventually found expression in a completely different religion. This religion was not founded on

the tenets of Catholic or Protestant Christianity, but on an entirely new concept, hot from the kiln of the

Enlightenment. This religion was based on science and reason instead of scripture and revelation, and it took the

intellectual world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by storm. This concept was Newtonian physics and

Paine was about to discover it.

Thomas Paine did not receive much formal education. He attended grammar school in Thetford for a time

as a child, but was pulled out by his father when he was thirteen to begin a staymaking apprenticeship for three

years.66 Although Latin was taught at the grammar school, Paine did not learn it himself, partly because he was not

interested and partly because of the Quaker objections to the books that were written in Latin. Despite this set-back,

Thomas sought to understand the variety of subjects that were taught at the school. 67 After grammar school Paine

spent the next few years working with his father, yet he was restless. So, at seventeen he signed on board the

privateer Terrible commanded by a certain Captain Death and began his sailing adventures. Paine stayed at sea

aboard a number of ships until he was twenty. 68

In 1757 he returned to London and worked for two years as a staymaker for a firm owned by a Mr.

Morris.69 These were some of the most important years in Paines life because it was at this point that he began a

serious study of science, working during the day and attending lectures in his spare time. Paine later confessed that

the natural bent of my mind was to science, and after purchasing a pair of globes and an orrery, 70 he began going

to hear philosophical lectures by Benjamin Martin and James Ferguson. 71 Martin and Ferguson were students of

Newtonian science and respected

scholars in their own right. Martin had

recently written three books on

Newtonian philosophy72 and the year

before (1756), Ferguson had published

Astronomy Explained upon Sir Isaac

Newtons Principles and made Easy to

Picture of an orrery like the one Paine would have used.
those who have not studied
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Mathematics. This was a very popular book and it went through more than ten editions by 1800.73

Evidentially, Paine was being instructed by some of the best minds in science in England and was strongly

influenced by Newtonian teachings during these London years. Paine must have learned much about astronomy,74

gravity, and mathematics. However, and more importantly, Paine would have come to understand the religious

implications of Newtonianism. It is known that Martin and Ferguson both took strong theological approaches to the

study of Newtonian philosophy75 and Newton himself wrote on the religious application of his scientific discoveries.

Newton had died in London in 1727 only ten years before Paines birth, and his famous work, Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy, had been published in 1687. In it, Newton explained his laws of motion, a theory

on tides, and the law of gravitation, all of which laid the foundation for modern theories of mechanics and planetary

motion.76 At the end of his Principia, Newton offered his own views on religion, which he further explained in

Four Letters from Sir Isaac Newton to Dr. Bentley containing some Arguments in Proof of a Deity published in

1756. In these letters Newton stated, when I wrote my Treatise about our System, I had an Eye upon such

Principles as might work with considering Men, for the Belief of a Deity, and nothing can rejoice me more than to

find it useful for that Purpose, and Gravity may put the Planets into Motion, but without the divine Power it could

never put them into such a circulating Motion as they have about the Sun; and therefore, for this, as well as all

Reasons, I am compelled to ascribe the Frame of this system to an intelligent Agent. 77 Whether or not Paine

actually read Newtons Principia or other works is unknown, but these concepts and ideas were most certainly

known and taught in scientific and intellectual circles, and especially by Martin and Ferguson. 78

It is at this point that Thomas Paine began to develop his own religious and spiritual beliefs based around

the truths of Newtonian science. Specifically, Paine began to compare the Christian religion with scientific

discoveries of the universe.

After I had made myself master of the use of the globes and of the orrery, and conceived an idea of the
infinity of space, and the eternal divisibility of matter, and obtained at least a general knowledge of what is
called natural philosophy, I began to compare, or, as I have said before, to confront the eternal evidence
those things afford with the Christian system of faith.79

Paines conclusion, explained in detail over a number of pages, was that since Newtonian science

demanded that there be a plurality of worlds throughout the universe (and consequently other life not on earth), it

contradicted the Bibles implicit teaching that the earth is a unique planet.80 Because of this, Paine said Newtonian

truth renders the Christian system of faith at once little and ridiculous, and scatters it in the mind like feathers in the
 Crenshaw 12

air.81 Whether Paine completely rejected Christianity at this point is unknown, but it seems clear that he considered

it quite doubtful, if not ridiculous.82

What can be known for certain from this time in Paines life is that his political theories were formed after

and on the basis of his religious beliefs. After talking about his education under Martin and Ferguson, Paine touched

briefly on the issue of politics. I had no disposition for what is called politicsWhen, therefore, I turned my

thoughts toward matter of government I had to form a system for myself that accorded with the moral and

philosophical principles in which I have been educated.83 Not only did Paine say that he sought to form his

political views on the basis of his moral beliefs (Quakerism and orthodox Christianity remember Paine attributed

his fathers Quaker profession with providing him with a good moral education84), and philosophical foundation

(Newtonianism), but he did not even care about politics! Paine saw himself primarily as a scientist, not a politician,

theologian, or writer.

By 1759 at the age of twenty-two, Paines had life settled into a regular pattern. A staymaker by day and a

student by night, one can see him bent over his books late in the evening, studying as the candle burned low. With

his globes and orrery nearby, Paine might have straightened up every now and then to peer inquisitively at the orrery

with its mechanical planets, his coarse hands gentle spinning the spheres in their orbital tracks. A sense of

exhilaration and excitement must have surged through him as the structure and order of the universe unfolded before

his eyes. Pushing back his chair and going to the dirty and cracked window, he would have tried to get a glimpse of

the heavenly bodies he was studying. He might have even stepped outside to get a better view. Paine would have

peered through the lights and London fog, possibly making out a few stars and perhaps even Venus.85 He knew that

the universe was not a freak accident or had somehow spontaneously generated itself, for he testified again and

again that it was the hand of the Almighty which had created everything and directed its course. Did Paine worship

his Creator-God for the goodness, wisdom, and awesomeness displayed in His handiwork? Whether Paine had a

personal relationship with God is unknown, but he definitely pondered deeply Gods attributes and nature.

The God that Paine believed in was primarily the God of creation and not the God of the Bible, Koran, or

any other religious book.86 The God that Paine professed was in fact the God of Deism, which was a naturalistic

religion that came from the early Enlightenment. Deisms origins can be traced to the English writer Edward

Herbert during the early 1600s, and was the result of reason applied to religion. 87 Renaissance humanism during the

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries helped pave the way for Deism by rejecting the Christian teaching that mans
 Crenshaw 13

reason and nature were corrupted by sin. Instead, humanism embraced the idea that man was capable of discerning

knowledge and truth using his own resources apart from divine revelation or church aid. This truth was not just

limited to mathematics and science but included knowledge of God and morality as well. Deism was based on a

growing trust in human wisdom and knowledge, and its supporters reacted with distrust and disgust against the

established church and the intolerance and dogmatism that the church promoted. Before long reason had displaced

revelation and mystery as the standard by which everything was judged. Deists believed in one God a rational

and omnipotent God who was the master architect of the universe. He was not unpredictable and capricious but

reliable and beneficent. The order and rationality built into the universe that Newton discovered simply reflected the

God who had made it all.88

Deists also claimed that God had a system of rewards and punishments for mankind which accounted for

the good and evil present in the world. The religion promoted the search for common moral codes and universal

truths and encouraged men to seek for virtue and piety. Although Deists believed in God, most believed in what

was termed a Watchmaker God, where God set in place all the natural laws to govern the world and then removed

himself. The Christian understanding of a personal God who was actively involved in human affairs and

providentially directing human history was rejected. However, there were some dissenting Deists who supported a

more theistic view of God, claiming that God was continually sustaining and caring for the universe. 89 The high

point of Deistic thought in England occurred between 1689-1742, overlapping with Paines childhood for a number

of years.90 At what point Paine became a full-blown Deist is unknown, but the fact that he was a Deist is undeniable

because in The Age of Reason Paine praises the Deistic religion and Deity as being superior to the Christian faith

and God.91 It seems most plausible that Paine began to more formally adhere to Deistic thought and teaching during

his education under Martin and Ferguson. In short, it was Newtonian principles applied to Paines religious

background and beliefs that made him a Deist.

Since Paines death, historians and biographers have debated the relative influences of Quakerism and

Deism in his life. Was Paine more a Quaker or a Deist? To what extent did these two different religions overlap in

his life? Robert Falk approaches this issue in a number of articles he wrote and his thoughts and conclusions help

shed light on these questions. From a distance, Quaker ideology seemed to parallel that of Deism to a large extent.

Both religions stressed the divine nature of man and his ability to find his own way. 92 Both agreed on the human

right of private judgment, shared a distaste for priests and the clerical class, and neither considered the Bible to be
 Crenshaw 14

very important. Interestingly, both religions also stressed the vital role of humanitarianism in the world. Yet there

were significant differences. While the Quakers mainly perceived God in their hearts, the Deists beheld God in their

minds. Consequently, Quakers were concerned to reform mans heart by teaching the indwelling of the Holy Spirit,

while Deists sought more to change mans outward behavior. For the Deists, the central conflict of humanity lay not

in the battle over mens hearts, but between naturally good men and the ecclesiastical and monarchical powers that

reigned. In addition, while the Quakers still respected the Bible and held parts of it as truth, the Deists believed the

Bible was fallacious and threw it out completely. 93

After comparing the doctrines of these religions to Paines own faith confession in The Age of Reason, Falk

concludes that Paine appears to be in harmony with most of the principles of Deism and distinguished from those

of the Quakers.94 Conways theory in the late 1890s that Quakerism was the defining influence in Paines life has

been rejected by most historians in favor of the Deistic stance. This does not mean, however, that Paine did not

incorporate Quaker morals into his religious philosophy, for he certainly did, most specifically in regards to

humanitarianism. What is still unknown is what kind of Deist Paine became and where on the Deistic continuum he

fell. How did his Deistic beliefs develop and is there any way we can trace their evolution? The only way to answer

these questions is to explore Paines own writings and search them for clues. And that starts with Common Sense,

his first major work that was wildly popular in America.

Let us return to London where we left Paine under the teaching of Martin and Ferguson and Newtonian

science. Between 1759, when Paine finished his staymaking and studies in London, and 1776, when Common Sense

was written, his life took on a very pedestrian and common flavor. Earlier in 1759 Paine moved to Kent and

continued staymaking there; and in September he took a wife by the name of Mary Lambert. When she died a few

short months later, Paine left the staymaking business and entered the excise service after being exposed to the trade

by Marys father.95 Paine was relatively successful (though not wealthy) as a customs officer, but the corruption in

the business eventually entangled him and he was caught and dismissed in 1765 for stamping, which was a form

of dishonest book keeping.96 For a year Paine drifted between staymaking and teaching English until in early 1766

he drafted a letter of apology and was reinstated by the excise board. In February 1768, he was assigned as an

appointment officer to Lewes, Sussex, where he befriended and lodged with a tobacco-shop owner Samuel Ollive.

When Ollive died the next year, Paine moved in with Samuels wife and daughter and in 1771 he was wed to

Elizabeth Ollive, his second marriage.97

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Paine served as an officer in Lewes for six years, and it was at this point that he became politically involved

and socially outspoken. He took up the case of the excise officers who were receiving low pay and wrote Case of

the Officers of Excise, which was a list of wrongs submitted to his superiors and distributed to Parliament and other

hopefully sympathetic ears. Instead of aiding the officers cause Paines appeal garnered him negative attention and

in April of 1774 he was once again dismissed from service. 98 Without a job and facing insurmountable debts, Paine

was forced to sell his belongings and the tobacco shop; as a result, Elizabeth divorced him in June of 1774 and Paine

once again found himself single and penniless. 99 He turned his footsteps to London and in a twist of good luck

happened to meet Benjamin Franklin, who was in the capital serving as colonial agent to England. Franklin

recommended the young man try his hand in America and wrote him a letter of introduction to one of his

acquaintances in the States. So in October of 1774, at thirty-seven years old, Paine boarded the London Packet and

set his sights on the New World.100

Paine landed in Philadelphia on November 30, 1774.101 The trip across the Atlantic had not gone well for

him and he arrived very ill and with a severe fever. After settling in the area and becoming acquainted with friends

of Franklin, Paine was able to acquire a job with the Pennsylvania Magazine run by Robert Aitken. By March 1775

Paine was serving as helping editor to the magazine (and was eventually promoted to head editor), and due to his

contributions the magazines customer base grew rapidly.102 Between early 1775 and January 1776 (when he wrote

Common Sense) Paine published many different kinds of articles on a variety of topics. He tried his hand at poetry

and essays and also wrote on humanitarian issues, his most notable piece being African Slavery in America, a call

for the abolition of slavery in America.103 Besides Paines finer writings (poetry and essays) and emphasis on social

justice, his works also included political thoughts that later surfaced in Common Sense.104 Although Paines work

and contributions to the Pennsylvania Magazine were notable and significant to the publication, there was really

nothing in his life up to this point that indicated he was about to break out and write one of the most influential and

powerful pamphlets in American history. In fact, it has been noted by his biographers that up until 1776 his life was

a series of failures: two failed marriages, numerous failed jobs, and no money or property to his name. 105 But this

was all about to change.

Paine began to write Common Sense at the end of 1775, a year after his arrival in America. 106 Later he

recounted in The Age of Reason the circumstances that prompted him to write the pamphlet.

I saw, or at least I thought I saw, a vast scene opening itself to the world in the affairs of America, and it
appeared to me that unless the Americans changed the plan they were pursuing with respect to the
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government of England, and declared themselves independent, they would not only involve themselves in a
multiplicity of new difficulties, but shut out the prospect that was then offering itself to mankind through
their means. It was from these motives that I published the work known by the name of Common
Sense.107

Paine was not only concerned about the future affairs of

America, but the state of humanity and the opportunity of freedom

that was presenting itself to the world. When he wrote Common

Sense, he divided the pamphlet into four sections. The first part was

entitled Of the origin and design of government in general, and

contrasted the development of society with that of government. Paine

wrote, society is in every state a blessing, but government even in its

best state is but a necessary evil.108 Government was designed to

protect mans freedom and provide security, but when corrupted it

could turn into an oppressive tyrant. His discussion of the role of

monarchy and aristocracy in the English constitution led to the second

First page of the original print of Common Sense.
part of the pamphlet where Paine blasted monarchies and hereditary

succession as evils that grew out of the usurpation of power.109 In the third part of Common Sense, Paine gave his

thoughts on the current state of American affairs. This was the mostly lengthy part of the document as Paine

emphasized that America was ready to break away from England immediately, asserting that the time for

reconciliation and compromise had passed. Paine rebuffed a number of arguments made by advocates for peace,

and rejected the notion that America and England united could form an impregnable alliance; he also explained all

the disadvantages America faced by staying connected to Britain. Paine recounted the crimes and violence

committed against American citizens as evidence that peace was impossible and the only reasonable and natural

course of action was separation.110 In the final part of the pamphlet, Paine outlined the strengths of America and the

great natural resources at her disposal that made separation not only reasonable but assuredly successful. 111 In his

conclusion, Paine actually called for a declaration of independence and asserted that it was time for America to be

considered an equal nation in the world.112

Paines arguments were brilliant and convincing. It is no wonder that individuals like George Washington

and Abigail Adams highly praised the pamphlet for its ability to charm and change mens minds. 113 But beyond the
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political, sociological, and republican rhetoric, Common Sense revealed the theological and religious perspectives of

Paine to a great degree. To start, the existence of God was assumed as Paine made numerous references to a divine

being throughout. However, in regard to Scripture, Paine left mixed communication; at times he seemed to believe

the Bible and its history, but at other times denied its claims.

In his arguments against kingship and hereditary succession, Paine referred to the Bible, the Israelites,

creation, and other biblical characters and events. In each of these references, he regarded the Bible as an historical

and accurate document and drew on its truth to validate his position. He assumed that Mosess account of creation

and the history of the Jews was correct. Paine talked about creation in the context of all men being created equal in

Gods sight, which makes the division between king and subject, rich and poor, a distortion.114 In arguing against

kingship, Paine stated that monarchy is ranked in scripture as one of the sins of the Jews, the history of which he

recounted. Paine described in detail that after the Israelites had settled in the promised land they demanded to have

a king even though they were warned that it would only bring oppression and hardship. Paine used this incident to

prove that God never intended for man to be ruled by kings, but instead more directly by divine law.115 Paine

indicated he believed in the validity of Scriptural from 1 Samuel 8 when he stated the following: That the Almighty

hath here entered his protest against monarchical government, is true, or the scripture is false. 116 Later on, Paine

also referenced Lucifers rebellion and in the Appendix stated that this time in history was unlike any since the days

of Noah and the flood.117

Yet Paines view on Adam and Eve and original sin is difficult to determine. At one point early in the

pamphlet, during his discussion on society and government, Paine stated that government, like dress, is the badge

of lost innocence; the palaces of kings are built on the ruins of the bowers of paradise. 118 He was making an

illusion to the sin of Adam and Eve that caused them to realize their nakedness and sew fig leaves together for

clothes. Government, like Adam and Eves clothes, represents a failure by man to conduct himself in an appropriate

manner in society, since government is only necessary when corruption and violence abound. Was Paine using this

as a stylistic comparison or did he really believe in the Fall as described in Genesis 3? It is important to ascertain his

view of original sin so we can know his belief of mans natural state of being. Deists believed that man was

inherently good, which liberated him from dependency on God and ecclesiastical institutions. This produced faith

and trust in mans reason and ability to discern truth for himself. Did Paine believe this view of mans nature in

1776 or did he still cling to the Christian perspective of a corrupt and fallen race?
 Crenshaw 18

From the above quote, it may seem from a superficial glance that Paine was affirming the doctrine of the

Fall, but the issue becomes more complex. In his discussion of kingship and hereditary succession Paine outlined

three modes of kingdom establishment: lot, election, and usurpation. By choosing a king through lot or election,

hereditary succession is excluded; yet when a king is elected along with his unborn progeny and establishes

hereditary rule, this type of election, Paine emphasized, hath no parallel in or out of scripture but the doctrine of

original sin, which supposes the free will of all men lost in Adam. 119 He continued to compare hereditary

succession with original sin.

For as in Adam all sinned, and as in the first electors all men obeyed; as in the one all mankind were
subjected to Satan, and in the other to Sovereignty; as our innocence was lost in the first, and our authority
in the last; and as both disable us from reassuming some former state and privilege, it unanswerably
follows that original sin and hereditary succession are parallels. Dishonourable rank! Inglorious
connection! Yet the most subtile sophist cannot produce a juster simile. 120

Paine was certainly likening hereditary succession to original sin, but in what way? By calling the first a

parallel of the second was he saying that just as hereditary succession was an invalid way to rule, so original sin was

an invalid doctrine? It seems more likely that Paine was comparing the consequences of each, finding the parallel in

the evil that both bring upon mankind. But just because he invoked original sin in a comparison, does that mean he

believed in it? The text does not give us conclusive answers to this question, but there are a few clues. First, Paine

said that original sin supposes that all men lost their free will in Adam. He did not confirm the doctrine, but simply

states what the doctrine claims. All other statements in this section about original sin are preconditioned by this

supposition. Therefore, when he made the statements, in Adam all sinned, all mankind were subjected to Satan,

and our innocence was lost in the first, Paine was not actually confirming that he believed this, but simply that this

was what the doctrine supposedly taught. Yet it would seem strange for Paine to use such a striking and powerful

comparison if he personally disbelieved in original sin. In light of the other biblical references that can be taken at

face value, and due to the fact that Paine did not disown mans sin nature at any other point in Common Sense, it is

reasonable to conclude that Paine probably believed in original sin to some degree. 121

This tentative conclusion is slightly buttressed by other remarks Paine makes regarding mans virtue. Near

the beginning of the pamphlet, Paine commented that government was necessary due to the inability of moral

virtue to govern the world,122 and hoped it would supply the defect of moral virtue 123 that man lacks. To Paine,

some men clearly lacked virtue and goodness and were downright wicked. Again, right before his conclusion, Paine

made this truthful statement: When we are planning for posterity, we ought to remember, that virtue is not
 Crenshaw 19

hereditary.124 From these snippets we can discern two things: first, virtue is not an inherited trait but must be

developed by every individual; and second, mans virtue as a whole is not capable of governing the world properly

and this necessitates the existence of government. Paine seemed to admit that man is not naturally good but instead

is inclined toward evil. Although he never stated that man is intrinsically corrupt this seems to be what he was

implying.125

Let us also consider Paines view of Gods nature and role in the world to ascertain whether he believed in

a personally involved deity, or distant Watchmaker God. In arguing against monarchy Paine stated that as the

exalting of one man so greatly above the rest cannot be justified on the equal rights of nature, so neither can it be

defended on the authority of scripture; for the will of the Almightyexpressly disapproves of government by

kings.126 In this passage Paine used nature, scripture, and Gods will to denounce the Divine Right of Kings. Here,

God had made his will known through Israels history as described in the Bible and Paine saw it as binding to all

men. Did Paine view the rest of Scripture as also explaining Gods expressive will for man? Did he believe that

God still communicated his will to men in the current age? Paine did not say explicitly for he only talked about the

will of the Almighty at one other point in Common Sense, and this does not clarify the issue. However, the fact

that Paine believed God had a divine will that included instruction and guidance for man indicates that Paines God

was not so distant.

There are other indications that this was indeed the case. Paine made the natural argument that America

was never meant to be subversive to England simply due to the great distance between the two countries. Even the

distance at which the Almighty hath placed England and America, is a strong and natural proof, that the authority of

the one, over the other, was never the design of Heaven. 127 From this passage we can see that Paine interpreted the

ocean between the nations as Gods providential outworking and a natural proof that they should break apart. God

had designed the geographical situation in such clear terms that it would be foolish to try to join together that which

God meant to be separate. At one point Paine referred to God as the King of America, in contrast to King George

III the Royal Brute of Britain, and proclaimed that America should be ruled not by the throne, but by the divine

law, the word of God.128 He seemed to believed that God was concerned about the affairs of America and was

guiding the nation in its separation from Britain.

Paines use of Scripture, references to original sin, mans virtue, and Gods will in relation to America all

indicate a theistic view of the divine. Yet there is a continuous Deistic tone throughout Common Sense that balances
 Crenshaw 20

his direct and indirect theistic remarks. 129 First, Paine continually referred to God as the Almighty, indicating that

Paine viewed God as an awesome and omnipotent creator and ruler of the universe. 130 He never once referred to

God as his Father or Savior. Paine also appealed to reason, nature, and common sense continually throughout the

pamphlet.131 At one point he drew upon the principles of nature and common sense to judge the relationship

between America and England.132 He used reason and the belief in an universal order to argue against subjugation

to an external power.133 At times, Paine even seemed to personify nature by calling it her, making nature a living,

active, and thinking entity.134 These references and many more of a similar nature prove that Paine had already

developed strong Deistic beliefs.

Common Sense gives us an invaluable glimpse into the religious views of Thomas Paine by 1776. He

believed parts of the Bible not only as accurate historical record, but revelation of the Divine Will. Almost certainly

Paine did not believe the entire Bible for he was skeptical of Christian beliefs even as a child. Although he never

openly denounced any Scriptural passages in Common Sense, neither did he directly affirm them (except on rare

occasions). Since his writing is thoroughly saturated with religious language, examples, and allusions, Paine

obviously was not an atheist but a deeply spiritual individual. The prevalent use of arguments from reason, common

sense, and nature along with his references to God as a Creator and Almighty Being evidences Deistic strains and

Enlightenment thought from his Newtonian education. Paine had embraced many aspects of Deism, but he had not

yet rejected Christianity. He was neither fully Deistic nor fully Christian but somewhere between the two, a sort of

syncretistic faith. Knowing that Paine eventually became a pure Deist and completely rejected the Bible and

Christian faith system, it seems reasonable to conclude that by 1776 he was in personal transition. Vestiges from his

childhood Christian upbringing still persisted even as Deistic beliefs became dominant. Perhaps Paine even

considered himself to be a theistic Deist, adhering to the belief in a providential and interventionist God who was

sustaining the world and guiding its affairs. Since Paine never wrote a personal statement of faith at this point in his

life, conclusions on his religious development and perspectives are tentative at best. Still, one of the most important

things to realize was Paines positive view toward Christianity. As an example, just before he concluded Common

Sense Paine advocated for religious freedom.

For myself, I fully and conscientiously believe, that is the will of the Almighty, that there should be
diversity of religious opinions among us: It affords a large field for our Christian kindnessI look on the
various denominations among us, to be like children of the same family, differing only, in what is called,
their Christian names.135
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This passage confirms that Paine had not yet spurned Christianity. He apparently believed in Christian

kindness, which unfortunately he does not elaborate on. If by this phrase he meant Christian love, benevolence, or

acceptance, he apparently believed Christianity was capable of such action. However, in light of his statement about

denominations coming from similar roots, Christian kindness could be understood to mean Christian similarity.

Either way, here Paine was affirming the Christian religion and not denouncing it as invalid as he did years later. It

is also fascinating to note his use of the pronoun our before Christian kindness. Paine was including himself

under this term? By this did he mean that he considered himself to be a Christian at this point in his life? Or was he

using it more as a collective whole in referring to America? I am not sure it is possible to tell.

The publication and distribution of Common Sense made Paine a household name and hero of American

independence. The initial two thousand prints sold out in two days; by March 1776 it had sold 120,000 copies and

eventually ended up selling over 500,000. It was printed in America, England, and France, and went through

nineteen editions.136 His work practically made him famous overnight, yet Paine did not seek personal gain or

prosperity from this fortunate turn of events. Paine refused to accept any financial gain from the publication but

instead gave the copyright to every state in America and donated his own earnings to the war effort. 137 This attitude

of giving evidenced his genuine concern to aid humanity in the fight against tyranny and oppression and is a further

indication of the humanitarian influences from the Quakers. 138

Between 1776 and 1793 when he wrote the first part of The Age of Reason, Paine was actively involved in

the American and French Revolutions, writings many letters, pamphlets, and essays. He served in the Continental

Army as an aide-de-camp to General Nathaniel Green, and wrote The American Crisis papers, a series of

publications tracking the war effort and exhorting people to hope and bravery. 139 After the war ended in 1783, Paine

turned his mind back to science, his first love. Among other things he worked on developing a design for a single-

arch bridge that would make river passage safer during the winter.140 With the encouragement of Benjamin

Franklin, Paine traveled to France and England in 1787 to submit his design at the French Academy of Science and

the British Royal Academy.141 Two years later the French Revolution began and Paine quickly became caught up in

its affairs. In response to an essay written by his English friend Edmund Burke condemning the uprising in France,

Paine penned the Rights of Man in 1791, advocating republican government and attacking the English monarchy. 142

A battle of words began between the two men which ended with Paine making such strong statements against the

English government and society that his book was banned in the country and a warrant went out for his arrest. 143
 Crenshaw 22

Paine was well on his way to France by that point. He had been elected as a representative to the French

National Convention in September 1792 due to his rising popularity. 144 At about the same time, the Girondin party

came to power in France, which pushed out the monarchists and favored a republican government. It seemed as if

Paines dreams of representative rule would be fulfilled. Soon, however, the radical Jacobin party led by

Maximilien de Robespierre edged France closer to anarchy and the Reign of Terror. 145 While Paine was elated with

the overthrow of the French monarchy, he deplored the violence and executions. When King Louis XVI was

brought to trial just a short while after Paine arrived on the continent, he fought to save the kings life. 146 Paine

failed and the ex-monarch was executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793. Paines own life was now in danger as

the Jacobins took control of France and resented Paines efforts to prevent bloodshed. Fearing that he had little time

left, Paine withdrew from public life and began working on The Age of Reason, his personal beliefs about religion.

Paine wrote throughout the summer and fall of 1793 and upon completing the first part he was promptly arrested by

the Jacobins on December 28 and thrown into the Luxembourg prison.147 After spending a year in prison he was

released and began recuperating at the Paris home of James Monroe, the current American minister to France. It

was here that he penned part two of The Age of Reason, which was published in late 1795.148

When Paine wrote part one he did not have a Bible in front of him, so he wrote more generally about

religious beliefs, ecclesiastical institutions, and various Old and New Testament issues. In the second part, Paine

had obtained a Bible and went into great detail examining and disproving claims made in both Testaments

(sometimes book by book).149 In the beginning of part one, Paine explained why he was writing, saying, it has been

my intention, for several years past, to publish my thoughts upon religion. I am well aware of the difficulties that

attend the subject, and from that consideration, had reserved it to a more advanced period of life. 150 He had wanted

this religious piece to be the last thing he wrote, but the dangerous situation in France prompted him to write it

sooner.151 He then continued by giving a statement of his own faith, saying, I believe in one God, and no more; and

I hope for happiness beyond this life. 152 Paine stated that he did not believe in any of the scriptures of the Jews,

Christians, or Turks (Muslims) but believed instead that religious duties consist of promoting justice, loving mercy,

and seeking to make others happy.153 He discounted any holy book as being revelation because he claimed that

revelation can only take place between God and an individual on a personal basis; when revelation to one person is

written down and read by another, it ceases to be revelation and becomes hearsay. However, in terms of the
 Crenshaw 23

character of Jesus himself, Paine had respect for him and his morality, calling him a virtuous and an amiable man.

Paine believed that Jesus might have lived as the gospels recounted, but he unquestionably denied Jesus divinity. 154

Paine then launched into an examination of the historicity of the Bible and Christian Mythology, and

came to the conclusion that since the Bible closely aligns with many ancient mythological stories it is therefore

based upon them.155 The story of Satans fall, mans subsequent corruption and enslavement, and Jesus as the

Messiah was nothing but a fable erected by the Christian Church to control and manipulate men. This false theology

was derogatory toward the Almighty since it depicted him as being incapable. As of true theology, Paine pointed to

the creation of the world that man beholds with his eyes every day. 156 Paine then examined the Old and New

Testaments from memory, looking at the formation of the canon and the lack of external evidence, shaky internal

evidence, and various Bible stories and characters. 157 He then explained the concept of a prophet, claiming that it

originally referred to a poet, not someone who foretold the future. Later, he showed how the Church had imposed

religion upon mankind by the use of mystery, miracles, and prophecy, all three of which Paine claimed were

incompatible with true religion.158

Paine spent quite a bit of time considering Jesus life from the gospels and came to the conclusion that the

accounts were not historical but anecdotal. He drew comparisons between Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad and noted

that Jesus called on men to be virtuous and believe in one God, saying, the great trait in his character is

philanthropy.159 As to Jesus supposed work of redemption, Paine found no external evidence and so turned to

internal proof. He claimed that Jesus death was not an example of moral justice, but what he called pecuniary

justice, meaning a monetary debt paid on behalf of another. The doctrine of redemption made God to be unjust

because God refused to punish Adam and instead murdered an innocent man in Adams place. Not only did Paine

concluded that redemption was false, but that it also gave man a small and negative view of himself and made him

unhappy. It caused humans to despise the choicest gift of God to man, the GIFT OF REASON.160 This statement

gave Paine the opportunity to expound on his idea of true revelation and Gods word. Paine upheld creation as the

only pure and unadulterated word of God, saying that it is only in the CREATION that all our ideas and conceptions

of a Word of God can unite.161 Likewise he promoted reason as the only way of finding God.162 Paine also

asserted that the best way to serve God is to serve other people by making them happy since God does not need

anything from us.163

 Crenshaw 24

Paines tone in the first part of The Age of Reason was relatively fair and objective, but he certainly came to

the conclusion that the Bible was false theology trumped up by priests. The second part was much more charged as

Paine delivered an onslaught against Christianity and the Bible; and having acquired a Bible for himself he took a

more detailed look at authorship and internal inconsistencies. 164 His attitude toward the Christian faith had changed

remarkably since he penned Common Sense seventeen years earlier. He did not believe in the authority or validity

of the Bible, he discounted the Genesis account of creation, disbelieved in original sin, and saw the Redemption as

unjust murder.165 Paine was now a firmly rooted Deist, having expressed his belief in one God, the creation of the

world (but not as told in Genesis), and the triumph of reason and science. Paine directly referenced Deism and at

one point, after talking about the Trinity and Jesus death, declared his confidence in the religion. How different is

this to the pure and simple profession of Deism! The true Deist has but one Deity, and his religion consists in

contemplating the power, wisdom and benignity of the Deity in His works, and in endeavoring to imitate Him in

everything moral, scientifical and mechanical.166

How can we reconcile his indirect remarks about religion in Common Sense that were favorable toward the

Bible and Christianity with his direct condemnation of the same faith in The Age of Reason? Paines personal

beliefs had certainly developed and changed, but how and when? Paines major works in the intervening years

consisted of thirteen Crisis letters and the Rights of Man.167 The Crisis does not give us much of a clue since Paine

continued his sentiments and statements along similar lines as Common Sense. He reiterated his belief in

Providence and Gods governance of the world, that America was a chosen and special nation with a just and

virtuous cause, and that reason and sense were the best guides in harrowing times. 168 The Rights of Man was purely

an expression of Paines political perspectives and did not address his religious views directly. 169 The rest of Paines

writings between 1776 and 1793 almost entirely consisted of correspondence to important American political

leaders and thoughts on miscellaneous other topics, non of which were specifically religious.170 So it is not from his

writings during this period that we can understand the change in Thomas Paine. In fact, we must go back to The Age

of Reason for hints as to what caused him to write so powerfully against Christianity and the Church.

As mentioned above, in the beginning of The Age of Reason, Paine stated that he intended his thoughts

upon religion to be last thing he wrote. Yet the events of the French Revolution had precipitated the completion of

his work sooner than he imagined because he thought he was going to die. In the Preface to part one, before giving

his statement of faith, Paine explained specifically what motivated him to write.
 Crenshaw 25

The circumstance that has now taken place in France of the total abolition of the whole national order of
priesthood, and of everything appertaining to compulsive systems of religion, and compulsive articles of
faith, has not only precipitated my intention, but rendered a work of this kind exceedingly necessary, lest in
the general wreck of superstition, of false systems of government and false theology, we lose sight of
morality, of humanity and of the theology that is true. 171

At first the French Revolution seemed to be the fulfillment of Paines dreams. The common man had risen

up against the French monarchy and overthrown it, and a republican government had been proposed. However, as

power shifted to the Jacobins, public violence and executions mounted as people took revenge against the nobility

and aristocracy. Paine was greatly impacted and his disillusionment could not have been greater as he lost hope in

the spread of liberty and equality throughout Europe. 172 Paine felt very strongly about the evils of kingship and

hereditary succession, but he was not a violent man and never advocated force, cruelty, or brutality to implement

reform.173 In the Preface to the second part of The Age of Reason, Paine mentioned this violence as a major reason

why he wrote against the Church.

I HAVE mentioned in the former part of The Age of Reason that it had long been my intention to publish
my thoughts upon religion; but that I had originally reserved it to a later period in life, intending it to be the
last work I should undertake. The circumstances, however, which existed in France in the latter end of the
year 1793, determined me to delay it no longer. The just and humane principles of the Revolution which
philosophy had first diffused, had been departed from. The idea, always dangerous to society as it is
derogatory to the Almighty, that priests could forgive sins, though it seemed to exist no longer, had blunted
the feelings of humanity and prepared men for the commission of all crimes. The intolerant spirit of Church
persecutions had transferred itself into politics; the tribunal styled revolutionary supplied the place of an
inquisition; and the guillotine of the stake. I saw many of my most intimate friends destroyed, others daily
carried to prison, and I had reason to believe, and had also intimations given me that the same danger was
approaching myself.174

Paine made it very clear that he believed the violence and unrest were partially initiated by the religious

institutions in France. In this he was not wrong, since the French clergy were aligned with the monarchy and

aristocracy and were intimately involved in political affairs. 175 So it appears that Paine wrote against the Church for

four reasons: first, he wanted to break the alliance between the monarchy and clergy; second, he saw the Church as a

major source of violence and persecution and an obstacle to republican principles; third, to combat false theology

that was assuring men of forgiveness for their crimes, which excused their misdeeds; and finally, to combat atheistic

beliefs which were rising as clerical involvement in the Revolution sparked a backlash against religion and God

among the people. Paines eyes seemed to have been opened to what he perceived to be the evils of Christianity and

he was appalled that not only had it crushed his republican hopes, but it was also leading to disbelief in God. This

explains why Paines tone in The Age of Reason was so harsh and uncompromising as he delivered blow after blow

disproving and calling into doubt the Christian faith and belief system. It is also why he so gloriously promotes
 Crenshaw 26

Deism as being completely unlike Christianity and a far superior religion totally compatible with the principles of

liberty and justice.

While we can understand the French Revolution as the spark that prompted Paines severe condemnation of

Christianity, the question still remains as to whether this was a new development in his beliefs or further maturation

of long held perspectives. From our examination of Common Sense, Paine showed none of the criticism and disgust

for Christianity that appeared in The Age of Reason. Is there anyway to tell exactly how Paine felt about the

Christian institution in 1776? The only glimpse we get is from a statement he made in the beginning of part two of

The Age of Reason.

Soon after I had published the pamphlet Common Sense, in America, I saw the exceeding probability
that a revolution in the system of government would be followed by a revolution in the system of religion.
The adulterous connection of church and state, wherever it has taken place, whether Jewish, Christian or
Turkish, has so effectually prohibited by pains and penalties every discussion upon established creeds, and
upon first principles of religion, that until the system of government should be changed, those subjects
could not be brought fairly and openly before the world; but that whenever this should be done, a
revolution in the system of religion would follow. Human inventions and priestcraft would be detected;
and man would return to the pure, unmixed and unadulterated belief of one God, and no more. 176

This passage is illuminating in a number of ways. First, Paine made it clear his dislike for the close

relationship between church and state not just in America, but anywhere in the world where they cooperated. Paine

believed the church was suppressing the state, preventing it from critiquing the church, exposing falsehood, and

promoting republican rule. The church that Paine talked about was not necessarily the Christian Church, but

included the Jewish and Muslim churches as well. Even as early as 1776 Paine apparently considered all religious

institutions around the world to be human inventions and priestcraft. Does this statement about what he believed

soon after arriving in America conflict with the religious sentiments expressed in Common Sense? No it does not.

In Common Sense, Paine only spoke positively about the Bible (in a limited way) and Christian individuals, but

never once about Christianity or other religious institutions. Paine seemed to be against religion when it was

institutionalized and politicized, but not necessarily against specific beliefs and tenets that could make men virtuous

and good. Therefore, at some point after 1776 and before 1793, Paine began to believe that the teachings of

Scripture were just as evil as religious institutions. While Paine valued the moral teachings of Jesus, he rejected the

historicity of the Old Testament and anyone who believed the Bible from creation to redemption. At what point

Paine read and evaluated the Bible in its entirety is unknown, but it was definitely before the winter of 1793 when he

wrote the first part of The Age of Reason. Most likely, Paine studied the Bible and came to his conclusions after

arriving in England and France in 1787. Up to this point he had been totally devoted to the American war effort
 Crenshaw 27

(1775-1783) and to his scientific research and designs, which had led him to Europe in the first place. Still, we must

not completely limit Paines religious thinking and investigation to a certain time period, since he himself stated that

it had long been my intention to publish my thoughts upon religion. 177 How long he had been wishing to do this is

unknown.

After The Age of Reason was published Paine was widely criticized and condemned as an infidel.178

There were literally hundreds of responses both in America and in Europe, many of them coming from Anglican and

Presbyterian clergy.179 Paine did not back down from his claims, but responded on a number of occasions to those

who condemned his work.180 Not only did Paine defend his religious thoughts, but he reiterated them on occasion in

other works and essays. After 1795, Paine wrote quite a few religious works ranging from essays on the existence

of God and dreams, to Cain and Abel, the Sabbath, and a comparison between Deism and Christianity.181 Through

his later years Paine did not change his religious perspectives, but continued to denounce Christianity and advance

the cause of Deism.182

This paper has attempted to give a brief overview of Thomas Paines life with specific regard to his beliefs

about God and religion; yet what is presented only scratches the surface. The volume of Paines own writing affords

wonderful opportunities for further research about his beliefs and how they shaped him. Particularly, it would be

beneficial to do a more in-depth comparison and contrast of Paines religious sentiments in Common Sense and The

Age of Reason. Also, a more thorough study should be undertaken to trace Paines religious developments between

1776 and 1793, looking at all his publications and life activities. In addition, I think much could be gleaned about

his belief in God and ecclesiastical institutions from the Rights of Man. Finally, it would be interesting to read

Paines later works since many of them directly address religious issues. How did Paines beliefs continue to

develop until his death? Did they change at all in any significant way? Did he say anything about his religious

perspectives later in his life that might give clues to questions addressed in this paper? A more complete picture of

the spiritual person of Thomas Paine could be constructed if research in these areas was undertaken and compiled.

In the mean time, it is still possible to reconstruct in a limited manner the development of Thomas Paines

religious beliefs. Born in England during the latter years of the Enlightenment he was first shaped by his Quaker

father and Catholic mother. The most consistent influence from this time that endured with him for the rest of his

life was the humanitarian concern he showed toward other people. Paine had a bright and inquisitive mind that

motivated him to pursue science, but it also caused him to question orthodox religion and authority. When
 Crenshaw 28

presented with the truth and greatness of Newtonian science, Paine did not just incorporate it into his worldview but

he made it the touchstone of his life. The result was a belief in Deism mixed with his Christian heritage, and an

overriding confidence in reason, Gods benevolence, and the Creation as true religion. Paine was not overtly hostile

toward the teachings of Christianity as a

middle-aged man, although he was quite

skeptical of many theologies and harsh in his

views of the institutionalized Church.

Once his name became known in

America, his political thoughts and activities

increased dramatically as Paine played

important roles in both the American and

French Revolutions. In France, his political

dreams were both realized and short lived, and

his reaction to the Reign of Terror caused him

to completely turn his back on Scripture and

Christianity, utterly rejecting the Church and

its source of inspiration. From this point on

Paine actively worked to expose the

corruptions and vices of the ecclesiastical

Portrait of Thomas Paine as a middle aged man.
domains and also strongly warned against

atheism. He unashamedly promoted belief in a good, kind, all wise, and all powerful God who revealed himself to

man through creation. Paine believed that God was more than just a Watchmaker, but was actively caring for and

governing the world, guiding men and nations in their quest for truth, wisdom, justice, and equality. Although Paine

believed that God reserved the right to reveal himself to man at any point and in any way he chose, he never had a

personal relationship with God himself. He did not believe he needed to because all worship, knowledge, and virtue

could be gained through diligent study of the universe, science, and service to others. In his will, written just before

he died on June 8, 1809, Paine expressed heartfelt confidence and peace about his life. 183 I have lived an honest

and useful life to mankind; my time has been spent in doing good, and I die in perfect composure and resignation to
 Crenshaw 29

the will of my Creator, God.184 Whether these final words are true is known only to God and Thomas Paine. Yet

we are invited to find out for ourselves what good or ill this mans life had upon people and nations. Equipped with

the knowledge of Thomas Paine as a personal and spiritual being, we are perfectly positioned to impartially evaluate

his writings and ideas and the impact they had upon the world.
 Crenshaw 30

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 Crenshaw 33

Endnotes

1. Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995), 309. This source
specifically dated the Enlightenment as being from 1648-1789, however this is not uniform since this era has been
said to begin as late as 1700. The consensus is that the Enlightenment began between the middle of the seventeenth
and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries.

2. Ibid., 351. Once again, dating certain ages in history can be ambiguous and is rather artificial. Shelley
actually says that 1789-1914 is known as the Age of Progress. However, it is generally recognized that the
beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 initiated modern Europe.

3. Thomas Paine, The Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Moncure Daniel Conway, vol. 3 (New York: G.P.
Putnams Sons, 1894), 327. In the Authors English Preface to Agrarian Justice, Paine argued for human equality
on the basis of God creating Adam and Even male and female, not rich and poor.

4. Jerome D. Wilson and William F. Ricketson, Thomas Paine: Updated Edition (Boston: Twayne Publishers,
1989), 95.

5. Wilson and Ricketson, 47. Paine was in France promoting his plan for a single-arch bridge at the French
Academy of Science and then in England at the British Royal Academy.

6. Paine met Burke in England in 1788 and the two became good friends before their split over the French
Revolution (Wilson and Ricketson, 49).

7. Wilson and Ricketson, 101-103. In fact, Paine openly advocated for a socialist economic system in England
and outlined a fiscal plan for implementing it.

8. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas. At his death one New York newspaper said of Paine, he
had lived long, did some good, and much harm (Ibid.).

9. Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason, in The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Philip S. Foner
(Secaucus, NJ: The Citadel Press, 1974), 496.

10. It is easy to get confused between natural law and laws of nature. A natural law is a principle or law
that is derived from nature and reason and is ethically binding to all humanity. The laws of nature consist of the
material world and all its phenomena, and the forces and processes that control it (Random House Dictionary, s.v.
Natural law.; American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, s.v. Natural law.; American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, s.v. Nature.).

11. The official definition of religion is: the belief and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially
a personal God or gods. We tend to automatically associate religion with an established church or religious
organization, but this does not have to be the case. Paine never officially became a member of any church or
religious institution, yet he was still a deeply religious man.

12. Part One of The Age of Reason was written in November 1793 and Part Two was written in September or
October of 1795 (Foner, The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, liv-lv).

13. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas.; Wilson and Ricketson, 2; Alfred Owen Aldridge, Man of
Reason: The Life of Thomas Paine (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1959), 13.

14. It is believed that Thomass father and mother originally spelled their last name Pain without the e
which was added once Thomas came to America (The Thomas Paine Society, Poor Corset Maker,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/corset_maker.html (accessed November 18, 2009).
 Crenshaw 34

15. Wilson and Ricketson, 3. Staymaking referred to the art of making ship stays which were heavy ropes used
to brace masts or spars. Some have misunderstood this profession as being a womans corset maker since corsets
were often known as stays (Ibid.).

16. Wilson and Ricketson, 2; The Thomas Paine Society, Thetford in Norfolk, England,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/biography1.html (accessed November 18, 2009).

17. Aldridge, 13.

18. The Thomas Paine Society, Thetford in Norfolk, England,

http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/biography1.html (accessed November 18, 2009).

19. Ibid.

20. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Thetford; The Thomas Paine Society, Thetford in Norfolk, England,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/biography1.html (accessed November 18, 2009). The Oxford English
Dictionary defines motte as A large artificial earthen mound with a flattened top, usually surmounted by a fort,
castle, etc. (Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. motte.).

21. The Thomas Paine Society, Thetford in Norfolk, England,

http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/biography1.html (accessed November 18, 2009).

22. It is possible that Paines family could have been better off since his mother was the daughter of a Thetford
attorney (Wilson and Ricketson, 2). Also, Paine was apprenticed by his father in the staymaking trade and practiced
it at times throughout his life as a means of living (Aldridge, 13; Wilson and Ricketson, 3).

23. Christendom can refer to the Christian faith and religious system or the Church collectively and the
Christian domain (Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. Christendom.).

24. Shelley, 312; In a very broad definition, scholasticism was the attempt to fuse ancient classical philosophy
with Christian theology during the Middle Ages (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. scholasticism.).

25. Shelley, 313.

26. Ibid; Peter W. Williams, Americas Religions: From Their Origins to the Twenty-first Century (Chicago:
University of Illinois Press, 2008), 152.

27. Shelley, 312-314.

28. The Age of Reason is another name for the Enlightenment.

29. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Enlightenment.

30. In fact, it was the Enlightenment that ushered in secularism and eventually atheism. Although it cannot be
sweepingly said that everyone held to some religious doctrine, most people were either Catholic or some Protestant
sect (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Enlightenment.).

31. The Church of England is the mother church of what is known as the Anglican Communion, all the national
and regional Anglican churches in the world. There is no such thing as an official Anglican Church. The Church
of England is a fusion of both Catholic and Reformed theology as it believes itself to be a continuation of the
apostolic church and adheres to numerous Catholic creeds, while at the same time borrowing doctrine and practices
from the Protestant Reformation (Encyclopedia Britannica,s.v. Church of England.).

32. Aldridge, 14.

 Crenshaw 35

33. Wilson and Ricketson, 2.

34. Paine, The Age of Reason, 496.

35. Paine spoke both favorably and critically of the Quakers in his writings.

36. Wilson and Ricketson, 2.

37. Williams, 130.

38. Ibid. Other English religious sects at this time included the Ranters (pantheists), Diggers, Muggletonians,
and the Fifth Monarchy Men (Ibid.).

39. Williams, 131-132; Robert Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History
and Biography 62, no. 1 (1938): 53.

40. Aldridge, 13; Wilson and Ricketson, 2.

41. The marriage ceremony was done by a priest, offensive to the Quakers. The Thomas Paine Society,
Quaker father and an Anglican mother, http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/quaker.html (accessed November 19,
2009); Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 52.

42. Aldridge, 13.

43. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 52.

44. Paine, The Age of Reason, 498.

45. Paine, The Age of Reason, 498; The Thomas Paine Society, Quaker father and an Anglican mother,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/quaker.html (accessed November 19, 2009).

46. Common Sense, Rights of Man, and other Essential Writings of Thomas Paine (New York: Signet Classics,
2003), 61-68.

47. Paine, The Age of Reason, 597; Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 52-57; Aldridge, 13-14.

48. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 56-57.

49. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 52; Wilson and Ricketson, 2. Conway has taken a lot of heat over
the years for this claim as other writers have asserted that Deism was more fundamental in shaping and directing
Paines life and thoughts.

50. Williams, 154.

51. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Glorious Revolution.

52. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Toleration Act.; The Thomas Paine Society, Quaker father and an
Anglican mother, http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/quaker.html (accessed November 19, 2009).

53. Ibid.

54. This was complicated by the fact that Paines father was disowned by the Quakers following his marriage to
an Anglican. (The Thomas Paine Society, Quaker father and an Anglican mother,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/quaker.html (accessed November 19, 2009); Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or
Quaker?, 52).
 Crenshaw 36

55. The Thomas Paine Society, Quaker father and an Anglican mother,
http://www.thomaspainesociety.org/quaker.html (accessed November 19, 2009).

56. Aldridge, 13.

57. For example, Paine never once accepted profit from the sales of his writings but instead donated it all.

58. Paine, The Age of Reason, 498.

59. R.R. Palmer, Tom Paine: Victim of the Rights of Man, The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography 66 (April, 1942): 164.

60. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 56.

61. Ibid.

62. Harry Hayden Clark, An Historical Interpretation of Thomas Paines Religion, University of California
Chronicle 35 (1933): 59.

63. Paine, The Age of Reason, 497.

64. Ibid.

65. Ibid. Paine actually said he began to doubt Christianity from the time I was capable of conceiving an idea
and acting upon it by reflection (Ibid). Children between the ages of 5-10 would most likely fall into this
classification.

66. Paine, The Age of Reason, 496; Wilson and Ricketson, 3; Aldridge, 15.

67. Paine, The Age of Reason, 496.

68. Thomas Paine, Rights of Man, in The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Philip S. Foner
(Secaucus, NJ: The Citadel Press, 1974), 405; Wilson and Ricketson, 4; Aldridge, 15.

69. Wilson and Ricketson, 4.

70. Globes would have certainly been maps of the world as it was understood in the mid 1700s. An orrery was
a mechanical model of the solar system which showed the planetary orbits around the sun invented by George
Graham in the eighteenth century. It is also known as a planetarium (Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Orrery).
Paine actually explained what an orrery was, saying, it is a machinery of clock-work, representing the universe in
miniature, and in which the revolution of the earth round itself and round the sun, the revolution of the moon round
the earth, the revolution of the planets round the sun, their relative distances from the sun, as the center of the whole
system, their relative distances from each other and their different magnitudes, are represented as they really exist in
what we call the heavens (Paine, The Age of Reason, 498).

71. Wilson and Ricketson, 4; Paine, The Age of Reason, 496, 498. Martin lived from 1704-1782, Ferguson
from 1710-1776 (Clark, 64).

72. Martin wrote Philosophia Britannica, or a New and Comprehensive System of the Newtonian Philosophy
(1747); A Panegyrick on the Newtonian Philosophy (1749); and A Plain and Familiar Introduction to the Newtonian
Experiential Philosophy (Clark, 64).

73. Clark, 64; Wilson and Ricketson, 4; In fact, by 1811 there were thirteen additions (Ibid.).
 Crenshaw 37

74. Paine made friends with Dr Bevis, an excellent astronomer from the Royal Society (Paine, The Age of
Reason, 496; Wilson and Ricketson, 4).

75. Clark, 64-65.

76. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Newton.

77. Isaac Newton, Four Letters from Sir Isaac Newton to Doctor Bentley containing some Arguments in Proof
of a Deity (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1756), 1, 20.

78. Clark, 64.

79. Paine, The Age of Reason, 498.

80. Ibid., 498-504.

81. Ibid., 499.

82. In reading The Age of Reason, it is difficult to discern what Paine came to believe when, although he does
make definite statements about previous times and events in his life. Whether or not he completely formulated his
opinions about a plurality of worlds and Christianity while he was in London between 1757-1759 under Martin and
Ferguson is unclear. This issue will become more important and complex in the light of what Paine wrote in
Common Sense.

83. Paine, The Age of Reason, 496.

84. Ibid.

85. Ibid., 501. Paine described in detail his understanding of the planets in our solar system and particularly
mentioned Venus as the morning and evening star (Ibid.).

86. Paine, The Age of Reason, 464. Paine made it clear he disbelieved in all of these.

87. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Deism.

88. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Enlightenment; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Deism; Falk, Thomas
Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 53.

89. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Deism; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Enlightenment; Encyclopedia
Britannica, s.v. Systems of Religious and Spiritual Belief.

90. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Systems of Religious and Spiritual Belief.

91. Paine, The Age of Reason, 498.

92. Robert Falk, Thomas Paine and the Attitude of the Quakers to the American Revolution, The
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 63, no. 3 (1939): 303.

93. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 54; Clark, 59-60. Some Deists might have respected the moral
teachings of Jesus, but they certainly did not believe him to be the Son of God.

94. Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or Quaker?, 55.

95. Wilson and Ricketson, 4-5; Aldridge, 15-16.

 Crenshaw 38

96. Wilson and Ricketson, 5.

97. Wilson and Ricketson, 5-6; Aldridge, 17-18.

98. Wilson and Ricketson, 6-7; Aldridge, 19-23.

99. Wilson and Ricketson, 7; Aldridge, 23.

100. Wilson and Ricketson, 7-8.

101. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas.

102. Wilson and Ricketson, 10; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas.

103. Wilson and Ricketson, 11; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas. Paine actually wrote African
Slavery in America in 1774 but it was not published until March 8, 1775. This essay encouraged the anti-slavery
movement in America (the first anti-slavery society was founded on April 14, 1775 in Philadelphia) and clearly
evidenced Paines humanitarian concerns for other people (Thomas Paine National Historical Association, Life &
Works of Thomas Paine, Online Content, Humanitarianism, African Slavery in America,
http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/afri.html (accessed December 1, 2009)).

104. Wilson and Ricketson, 10.

105. Aldridge, 26.

106. Paine, The Age of Reason, 497.

107. Ibid., 496. Paine went on to say that the pamphlet was the first work I ever did publish and that if not for
its success in America he would never have been known in the world as an author on any subject (Ibid., 496-497).
Biographers have noted that although Paine had written Case of the Officers of the Excise in 1772, he was probably
not counting this when he made the above statement, since the excise appeal was not a publically published work
(Thomas Paine National Historical Association, Life & Works of Thomas Paine, Online Content, The Age of
Reason, The Age of Reason Part First, http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/AOR1.html (accessed December 1,
2009)).

108. Thomas Paine, Common Sense, in Common Sense, Rights of Man, and other Essential Writings of
Thomas Paine, (New York: Signet Classics, 2003), 5. Paine described the difference between society and
government, arguing that society was a natural outgrowth of the needs of men when individuals realized that they
could make a better life for themselves if they worked together and cooperated. On the other hand, government was
necessitated by mans vices and wickedness as a restraining device. Paine also made some comments on the English
constitution, claiming that it was based in tyrannical monarchy and aristocracy (Ibid., 8).

109. Ibid., 11, 19.

110. Ibid., 27-33. Paine actually said he would have preferred reconciliation over war if that were possible;
however the opportunity had passed and the only viable option was to break away (Ibid., 31-32). Paine also outlines
his own plans for a Continental charter to form a new government in America where the law is king. Paine called
first for a Continental Conference made up of equal representatives of the states to draw up a Charter of the United
Colonies that will secure freedom and property to all men, and above all things, the free exercise of religion
(Ibid., 34-38).

111. The fourth part was called Of the present ABILITY of AMERICA, with some miscellaneous
REFLECTIONS (Ibid., 40). Paine went into detail about Americas ability to build a navy and successfully combat
the English navy, asserting that the English would not be able to bring all their ships into battle at once. He also
 Crenshaw 39

outlines the feasibility of financing the impending war by selling frontier land (Ibid., 41-46; Wilson and Ricketson,
20).

112. Ibid., 50-51.

113. Wilson and Ricketson, 15-16.

114. Paine, Common Sense, 11. In all his references to creation, Paine never once linked it directly to Genesis
1-2. However, it seems unlikely that he could have been referring to any other creation since alternate creation
theories were not as well known as they are today (I suppose Paine could have believed in some form of Platonic
dualism, but I do not know his exact theory of origins except that God created everything).

115. Ibid., 12-16. Paine argued that during the period of the Judges before Saul was made king the Israelites
were actually a form of an early republic, which is the only pure governmental system. It is no wonder that Paine
advocated a republican system be implemented in America (Ibid., 12-13).

116. Ibid., 15.

117. Ibid., 36, 60.

118. Ibid., 5.

119. Ibid., 18. It is difficult to tell in this passage whether Paine was saying a king is elected and then usurps
power for his family, or the electing officials decided that the king and his family will rule forever.

120. Ibid.; Thomas Paine National Historical Association, Life & Works of Thomas Paine, Online Content,
Introduction Thomas Paine: World Citizen and Democrat, Common Sense,
http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/commonsense.html (accessed December 3, 2009); from now on referred to as
Thomas Paine National Historical Association, Common Sense.

121. What is also of interest is that a the end of the quote, Paine called his own comparison a simile, which is
a comparison of two things of a different kind. Perhaps by this Paine meant that hereditary succession was an
invalid practice while original sin was a valid doctrine. Their only similarity is that they bring death, corruption, and
evil upon the world.

122. Paine, Common Sense, 7.

123. Ibid., 6.

124. Ibid., 50. In the Appendix, Paine reiterated that virtue was not hereditary or perpetual, meaning, it must be
cultivated anew with each successive generation (Ibid., 59).

125. Related to this issue, Paine used the word sin many times in Common Sense. He also talked on a number
of occasions about nature providing feelings, affections, and passions that should be trusted and obeyed. He seemed
to be saying that there are certain aspects and characteristics in people that are intrinsiccally good and trustworthy.
He uses this line of argument against a policy of reconciliation (Ibid., 28-29; Thomas Paine National Historical
Association, Common Sense, http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/commonsense.html (accessed December 3
2009)).

126. Paine, Common Sense, 12.

127. Ibid., 27.

128. Ibid., 37-38. It is important to realize that by using the phrase word of God, Paine was not actually
referring to any holy scriptures, but to creation and general revelation. In The Age of Reason, Paine declared that
 Crenshaw 40

THE WORD OF GOD IS THE CREATION WE BEHOLD and it is in this word... that God speaketh universally to man
(Paine, Age of Reason, 482).

129. A theistic Deist was one who believed that God was more actively involved in human affairs.

130. Paine refers to God as God eleven times, and as the Almighty nine times (Thomas Paine National
Historical Association, Common Sense, http://www.thomaspaine.org/Archives/commonsense.html (accessed
December 3, 2009)).

131. At the beginning of the third section Paine wrote, In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple
facts, plain arguments, and common sense (Paine, Common Sense, 21).

132. Paine, Common Sense, 23.

133. His exact words were, It is repugnant to reason, to the universal order of things, to all examples from
former ages, to suppose, that this continent can longer remain subject to an external power (Ibid., 29).

134. Ibid., 29.

135. Ibid., 48.

136. Wilson and Ricketson, 15; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas.

137. Wilson and Ricketson, 15. Three years later in 1779 Paine was actually still in debt.

138. Quakerism and Deism both stressed humanitarian efforts and causes. Paine was influenced by both
religions in this area and he openly praised the Quakers for their philanthropy (Falk, Thomas Paine: Deist or
Quaker?, 53-54; Paine, The Age of Reason, 498).

139. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas. An aide-de-camp was a personal assistant or secretary to
someone of high rank.

140. Paine also invented a smokeless candle and sketched out plans for an engine powered by gunpowder. The
idea behind the bridge was that pier bridges (like those in Europe) were not suitable for American rivers that froze
over in the winter, but a single-arch bridge would give better passage to ships (Wilson and Ricketson, 46;
Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas).

141. Wilson and Ricketson, 47.

142. Paines political thoughts in Common Sense are reemphasized and greatly elaborated upon in the Rights of
Man.

143. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Paine, Thomas. Paine wrote the second part of the Rights of Man in 1792
in response to Burkes reply to the Rights of Man part one. In this work Paine pushed for popular election, poor
relief, pensions for the aged, public jobs for the unemployed, education and literacy, and an end to corruption. He
was charged with treason for these radical ideas (Ibid.; Wilson and Ricketson, 82).

144. The Rights of Man was very popular in England and France and its copies sold out very quickly.

145. Wilson and Ricketson, 82; Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. Maximilien de Robespierre.

146. Wilson and Ricketson, 83. Paine made an eloquent and powerful speech before the Convention pleading
for the kings life to be spared. He wanted the king to be imprisoned and then banished from France after the war
(Ibid.).
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147. Paine, The Age of Reason, 512-514; Wilson and Ricketson, 84, 94.

148. Wilson and Ricketson, 94. Part one had been published while he was in prison and some people had
already produced written responses and rebuttals.

149. Paine, The Age of Reason, 514.

150. Ibid., 463.

151. Paine reiterated this in the opening of part two.

152. Paine, The Age of Reason, 464.

153. Ibid., 464-466.

154. Ibid., 465-469. Paine insisted that in order to believe in the resurrection of Jesus, Christ would have to
appear to him personally as he did to Thomas (Ibid., 468).

155. He compared Satans fall to the war between the Roman god Jupiter and a race of Giants (Ibid., 469).

156. Ibid., 469-471.

157. Paine had obviously read the Bible; perhaps even more than once since he was able to be quote specific
with biblical examples and arguments. The fact that this entire first part of over fifty pages was written completely
from memory reveals Paines sharp and capable mind.

158. Ibid., 475-477; 505-506.

159. Ibid., 478.

160. Ibid., 481-482.

161. Ibid., 483.

162. Paine said, It is only by the exercise of reason that man can discover God. Take away that reason, and he
would be incapable of understanding anything. (Ibid., 484).

163. Ibid., 506.

164. In the Preface to the second part Paine stated the following: They will now find that I have furnished
myself with a Bible and a Testament; and I can say also that I have found them to be much worse books than I had
conceived. If I have erred in anything in the former part of The Age of Reason, it has been by speaking better of
some parts of those books than they have deserved (Ibid., 517). (Paine continually referred to the Old Testament as
the Bible and the New Testament as the Testament).

165. Paine stated in the first part, it is certain that what is called the christian system of faith, including in it the
whimsical account of the creation -- the strange story of Eve, the snake, and the apple -- the amphibious idea of a
man-god -- the corporeal idea of the death of a god -- the mythological idea of a family of gods, and the christian
system of arithmetic, that three are one, and one is three, are all irreconcilable, not only to the divine gift of reason,
that God has given to man, but to the knowledge that man gains of the power and wisdom of God by the aid of the
sciences, and by studying the structure of the universe that God has made (Ibid., 493).

166. Ibid., 498.

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167. There were thirteen official The America Crisis essays and three extra letters, two called A Supernumerary
Crisis, and the third, The Crisis Extraordinary.

168. Thomas Paine, Thomas Paine: Collected Writings, ed. Eric Foner, (New York: The Library of America,
1955), 94-95, 98, 353-354.

169. In the Age of Reason, Paines main arguments were that sovereignty should be in the people, not the
monarch, the majority should make decisions, everyone should have equal political rights, and there should be
popular consultation on decisions (Howard Penniman, Thomas Paine Democrat, The American Political Science
Review 37 no. 2 (1943): 245). It must be noted that I have not read the Rights of Man so I do not know exactly what
religious topics or themes come up in this work. There very well may be important clues that would help establish
where Paine saw himself religiously.

170. Paine wrote letters to Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Gouverneur Morris,
Congress, and many others. In total, from 1776 to 1793 he wrote over 125 personal letters. Other topics he wrote
about at this time included the emancipation of the slaves, the establishment of a U.S. mint and the use of paper
money, and the founding of a national bank. It is interesting to note the absence of religious writings before The Age
of Reason. However, after this publication, Paine wrote quite a few essays on biblical and religious topics (Foner,
The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, xlviii-liv).

171. Paine, The Age of Reason, 464.

172. Wilson and Ricketson, 84.

173. Paine actually stated in Common Sense that he did not want war with Britain if it could be avoided, but
unfortunately, that opportunity had passed and so it was necessary to take up arms to defend themselves. Defensive
wars did not bother him in the least (Paine, Common Sense, 27).

174. Paine, The Age of Reason, 514.

175. Foner, The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, 461.

176. Paine, The Age of Reason, 465.

177. Ibid., 514.

178. James H. Smylie, Clerical Perspectives on Deism: Paines The Age of Reason in Virginia, Eighteenth-
Century Studies, 6 no. 2 (1972-1973): 203. Paine most definitely was not an infidel in the sense of being an
unbeliever of God because he made it very clear that he did believe in God. Labels such as these have greatly
damaged Paines reputation over the years to the point where Theodore Roosevelt called him a filthy little atheist.
This could not be farther from the truth since Paines goal through much of his life was to combat the spread of
atheism (Smylie, 203).

179. Smylie, 203-205.

180. Foner, The Life and Major Writings of Thomas Paine, lv.

181. Ibid., lv-lix.

182. I have not had a chance to read the twelve major religious publications Paine wrote after 1795, but after
skimming over a couple of them and reading a number of biographies, it is apparent that he never changed his mind
but continued to be a pure Deist until he died.

183. Wilson and Ricketson, 105.

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184. Thomas Paine, The Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Daniel Moncure Conway, vol. 4 (New York: G.P.
Putnams Sons, 1896), 509.