UNIT 1 2 MARKS 1. What is an embedded system?

An embedded system employs a combination of hardware & software (a computational engine) to perform a specific function; is part of a larger system that may not be a computer; works in a reactive and time-constrained environment. 2. What are the components of the Embedded Systems? An embedded system is basically a computer controlled device designed to perform some specific tasks. In most cases these tasks revolve around real-time control of machines or processes. Embedded systems are more cost effective to implement than systems composed of general purpose computers, such as PCs. The components of ES are, Memory System Clock

Peripherals 3. What is the Classification of an embedded system? The Embedded system is classified into following category Small Scale Embedded System Medium Scale Embedded System Sophisticated Embedded System

4. What is Sophisticated Embedded System? The sophisticated embedded system has the following features, Enormous hardware and software Complexity.

This may need scalable processor or configurable processor and programming logic arrays. Constrained by the processing speed available in their hardware units.

5. What are the characteristics of an embedded system? The typical characteristics of the embedded Systems are as follows: 1) Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a generalpurpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reason such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. 2) Embedded systems are not always separate devices. Most often they are physically built-in to the devices they control. 3) The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs with limited computer hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little memory. 6. What are the advantages of embedded system? The advantages of the embedded system are Customization yields lower area, power, cost. 7. What are the disadvantages of embedded system?

Higher HW/software development overhead design, compilers, debuggers, ... May result in delayed time to market!

8. What are the various embedded system requirements? Types of requirements imposed by embedded applications:

 R1 Functional requirements R2 Temporal requirements R3 Dependability requirements 9. What are the functional requirements of embedded system? The functional requirements of the embedded systems are as follows: Data Collection *Sensor requirements *Signal conditioning *Alarm monitoring Direct Digital Control *Actuators Man-Machine Interaction *Informs the operator of the current state of the controlled object *Assists the operator in controlling the system. 10. What are the temporal requirements of the embedded systems? The temporal requirements of the embedded systems: Tasks may have deadlines Minimal latency jitter Minimal error detection latency

 Timing requirements due to tight software control loops Human interface requirements. 11. What are dependability requirements of an embedded system? The dependability requirements of an embedded system are as follows Safety critical failure modes certification Maintainability MTTR in terms of repairs per hour Availability A = MTTF / (MTTF + MTTR) Security

12. What is a Microprocessor? A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles. 13. What is a Microcontroller? A microcontroller is a small and low-cost computer built for the purpose of dealing with specific tasks, such as displaying information in a microwave LED or receiving information from a televisions remote control. Microcontrollers are mainly used in products that require a degree of control to be exerted by the user.

14. What are differences between Microprocessor and Microcontroller? MICROPROCESSOR The functional blocks are ALU, registers, timing & control unit. Bit handling instruction is less, one or two type only. Rapid movements of code and data between external memory & MP. It is used for designing general purpose digital computers system. MICROCONTROLLERS It includes functional blocks of microprocessors & in addition has timer, parallel i/o, RAM, EPROM, and ADC & DAC. Many types of bit handling instruction. Rapid movements of code and data within me. They are used for designing application specific dedicated systems.

15. What are the various embedded system designs? Modeling Refining (or partitioning) HW-SW partitioning

16. What are the complicating factors in embedded design? Complicating factors in the design of embedded systems Many of the subtasks in design are intertwined. Allocation depends on the partitioning, and scheduling presumes a certain allocation. Predicting the time for implementing the modules in hardware or software is not very easy, particularly for tasks that have not been performed before. 17. What are the real time requirements of an embedded system? Hard-real time systems: where there is a high penalty for missing a deadline

e.g., control systems for aircraft/space probes/nuclear reactors; refresh rates for video, or DRAM.

Soft real-time systems: where there is a steadily increasing penalty if a deadline is missed.

e.g., laser printer: rated by pages-per-minute, but can take differing times to print a page (depending on the \"complexity\" of the page) without harming the machine or the customer. 18. Explain digital signal processing in embedded system? Continued digitization of signals increasing the role of DSP in ES Signals are represented digitally as sequence of samples ADCs are moving closer to signals 19. List the various processors that are present?

General Purpose Processor (GPP) *Microprocessor *Microcontroller *Embedded Processor *Digital Signal Processor

Application Specific System Processor (ASSP) Multi Processor System using GPPS

20. What is the Embedded Processor? Special microprocessor and microcontrollers often called Embedded Processor. An embedded processor is used when fast processing fast context switching and atomic ALU operations are needed. Examples: ARM7, INTEL 1960, AMD 29050.

21. Give the reactivitys in embedded system? Closed systems Execution indeterminacy confined to one source Causal relations are easily established. Open systems Indeterminacy from multiple sources, not controllable or observable by the programmer not possible to infer causal relations 22. What are embedded cores? More and more vendors are selling or giving away their processors and peripherals in a form that is ready to be integrated into a programmable logic-based design. They either recognize the potential for growth in the system-on-a-chip area or want a piece of the royalties or want to promote the use of their particular FPGA or CPLD by providing libraries of ready-to-use building blocks. Either way, you will gain with lower system costs and faster time-to-market. 23. What are hybrid chips? The vendors of hybrid chips are betting that a processor core embedded within a programmable logic device will require far too many gates for typical applications. So they\'ve created hybrid chips that are part fixed logic and part programmable logic. The fixed logic contains a fully functional processor and perhaps even some on-chip memory. This part of the chip also interfaces to dedicated address and data bus pins on the outside of the chip. Application-specific peripherals can be inserted into the programmable logic portion of the chip, either from a library of IP cores or the customer\'s own designs.

24. Give the diversity of embedded computing? Diversity in Embedded Computing ; Pocket remote control RF transmitter ; 100 KIPS, crush-proof, long battery life ; Software optimized for size ; Industrial equipment controller ; 1 MIPS, safety-critical, 1 MB memory ; Software control loops ; Military signal processing ; 1 GFLOPS, 1 GB/sec IO, 32 MB 25. What is a kernel? The kernel is a program that constitutes the central core of a computer operating system. It has complete control over everything that occurs in the system. A kernel can be contrasted with a shell (such as bash, csh or ksh in Unix-like operating systems), which is the outermost part of an operating system and a program that interacts with user commands. The kernel itself does not interact directly with the user, but rather interacts with the shell and other programs as well as with the hardware devices on the system, including the processor (also called the central processing unit or CPU), memory and disk drives. 26. What are the types of Kernel? There are four popular categories or kinds of Kernels namely monolithic kernels, microkernels, hybrid kernels and exokernels. Monolithic kernels are part of Unix-like operating systems like Linux ,FreeBSD etc. These types of kernels consist of the core functions of the operating system and the device drivers with the ability to load modules at runtime. 27. Define Cooperative Multitasking? A type of multitasking in which the process currently controlling the CPU must offer control to other processes. It is called cooperative because all programs must cooperate for it to work. If one program does not cooperate, it can hog the CPU. In contrast, preemptive multitasking forces applications to share the CPU whether they want to or not. Versions 8.0-9.2.2 of Macintosh OS and Windows 3.x operating systems are based on cooperative multitasking,

whereas UNIX, Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2, and later versions of Mac OS are based on preemptive multitasking. 28. What is Preemptive Multitasking? The term preemptive multitasking is used to distinguish a multitasking operating system, which permits preemption of tasks, from a cooperative multitasking system wherein processes or tasks must be explicitly programmed to yield when they do not need system resources. 29. What is Exotic custom operating system? A small fraction of embedded systems require safe, timely, reliable or efficient behavior unobtainable with the one of the above architectures. In this case an organization builds a system to suit. In some cases, the system may be partitioned into a "mechanism controller" using special techniques, and a "display controller" with a conventional operating system. A communication system passes data between the two. 30. List the applications of Embedded Systems? Embedded Systems: Applications: Consumer electronics, e.g., cameras, camcorders, Consumer products, e.g., washers, microwave ovens, Automobiles (anti-lock braking, engine control,) Industrial process controllers & avionics/defense applications Computer/Communication products, e.g., printers, FAX machines, Emerging multimedia applications & consumer electronics

UNIT 1 11 MARKS 1. Explain What Is Embedded System In Detail? What is a system? A system is a way of working, organizing or doing one or many tasks according to a fixed plan, program or set of rules. A system is also an arrangement in which all its units assemble and work together according to the plan or program. System Examples: 1. WATCH It is time display system. Parts: Hardware, Needles, Battery, Dial, Chassis and Strap. Rules: (1) All needles move clockwise only (2) A thin needle rotates every second. (3) A long needle rotates every minute. (4) A short needle rotates every hour. (5) All needles return to the original position after 12 hours. 2. WASHING MACHINE It is an automatic clothes washing System. Parts: Status display panel, switches and dials, Motor, Power Supply, Control Unit, Inner water level sensor and solenoid valve Rules: (1) Wash by spinning

(2) Rinse (3) Drying (4) Wash over by Blinking (5) Each step displays the process stages. (6) In case interruption, execute only the remaining. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS DEFINITION: An embedded system is one that has computer hardware with software embedded in it as one of its important components.

HARDWA RE

SOFTWARE PROGRAM

[Its software embeds in ROM (Read only Memory). It does not need secondary memories as in a computer] COMPUTER HARDWARES THAT CAN BE USED: A Microprocessor A Large Memory (Ram, ROM and caches) Input Units (Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, etc) Output Units (Monitor, Printer, etc) Networking Units (Ethernet Card, Drivers, etc)

I/O Units (Modem, Fax cum modem, etc)

Embedded system is a

Microcontroller based Software driven Reliable Real time control system Autonomous or Human interactive Operating on diverse physical variable In diverse environments

Embedded system is Hardware with Software embedded in it, for a dedicated application. 2. Explain The Components, Classification And Characteristics Of Embedded System Briefly?
I.

COMPONENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

An embedded system is basically a computer controlled device designed to perform some specific tasks. In most cases these tasks revolve around real-time control of machines or processes. Embedded systems are more cost effective to implement than systems composed of general purpose computers, such as PCs.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM HARDWARE:

Processor

The main part of an embedded system is its processor. This can be a generic microprocessor or a microcontroller. The processor is programmed to perform the specific tasks for which the embedded system has been designed.

Memory

Electronic memory is an important part of embedded systems. This memory is of essentially three types: RAM, or random access memory, ROM, or read-only memory, and cache. The RAM is where program components are temporarily stored during execution. The ROM contains the basic input-output routines that are needed by the

system at startup. The cache is used by the processor as a temporary storage during processing and data transfer. System Clock

The system clock is a very important part of an embedded system since all processes in an embedded system run on clock cycles and require precise timing information. This clock generally consists of an oscillator and some associated circuitry.

Peripherals The peripherals interface an embedded system with other components. The peripheral devices are provided on the embedded system boards for easy integration. Typical peripherals include serial port, parallel port, network port, keyboard and mouse ports, memory drive port and monitor port. Some specialized embedded systems also have other ports such as CAN-bus port. II. CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Small Scale Embedded Systems Medium Scale Embedded Systems Sophisticated Embedded Systems

SMALL SCALE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Single 8 bit or 16 bit Micro Controllers. Little hardware and software complexity They may even be battery operated. Usually c is used for developing these systems. The need to limit power dissipation when system is running continuously

MEDIUM SCALE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Single or few 16 or 32 bits microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP) or reduced Instructions set computers (RISC).

Both hardware and software complexity.

SOPHISTICATED EMBEDDED SYSTEMS III. Enormous hardware and software Complexity. This may need scalable processor or configurable processor and programming logic arrays. Constrained by the processing speed available in their hardware units. CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 1) Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a generalpurpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reason such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. 2) Embedded systems are not always separate devices. Most often they are physically built-in to the devices they control. 3) The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is stored in readonly memory or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs with limited computer hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little memory. 3.What Is A Microcontroller Explain With An Example? A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications. Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office

machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. 8051 MICROCONTROLLER SIGNAL PINS

VARIOUS MICROCONTROLLERS INTEL PIC 8031, 8032, 8051, 8052, 8751, 8752 8bit PIC 16, PIC 18

16bit DSPIC 33/PIC 24 PIC 16C7X MOTOROLO MC 68HC11

4. What Is A Microprocessor Explain With An Example? A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC, or microchip). It is a multipurpose, programmable, and clock-driven, register based electronic device that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as output. The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for electronic calculators, using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first general-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

Intel 4004, the first general-purpose, commercial microprocessor INTEL 4004 MICRO PROCESSOR SIGNAL PINS _______ _______ _| \__/ |_ <--> D0 |_|1 16|_| RAM0 --> _| |_ <--> D1 |_|2 15|_| RAM1 --> _| |_

<--> D2 |_|3 14|_| RAM2 --> _| |_ <--> D3 |_|4 13|_| RAM3 --> _| 4004 |_ (+5v) Vss |_|5 12|_| Vdd (-10v) _| |_ --> CLK1 |_|6 11|_| ROM --> _| |_ --> CLK2 |_|7 10|_| TST <-_| |_ <-- SYNC |_|8 9|_| RST <-|__________________| The first microprocessor in history, Intel 4004 was a 4-bit CPU designed for usage in calculators, or, as we say now, designed for "embedded applications". Clocked at 740 KHz, the 4004 executed up to 92,000 single word instructions per second, could access 4 KB of program memory and 640 bytes of RAM. Although the Intel 4004 was perfect fit for calculators and similar applications it was not very suitable for microcomputer use due to its somewhat limited architecture. The 4004 lacked interrupt support, had only 3-level deep stack, and used complicated method of accessing the RAM. Some of these shortcomings were fixed in the 4004 successor - Intel 4040. Intel C4004 740 KHz 16-pin ceramic DIP 4004 (C4004) processors in white ceramic package were produced until the second half of 1976. This particular processor is dated 8th week of 1975. Today the C4004 with visible traces (like the one on the picture) is the most rare and expensive version of Intel 4004.

Intel D4004 740 KHz 16-pin ceramic DIP

4004 microprocessors in plastic and ceramic (not white ceramic) packages were introduced around 1976. This ceramic 4004 is dated 45th week of 1976.

Intel P4004 740 KHz 16-pin plastic DIP

National Semiconductor 1NS4004D (INS4004D) 16-pin ceramic DIP Purple ceramic/gold top/gold pins National Semiconductor was the only second source company for the Intel 4004. The naming convention for the 4004 processors was "INS4004" plus one letter representing package type. The chip on the picture is mistakenly marked as "1NS4004D".

National Semiconductor INS4004J 16-pin plastic DIP

Embedded microprocessor systems are computer chips that are incorporated into products such as cars, fridges, traffic lights, industrial equipment, and so on. Embedded microprocessor systems are used every day by millions of people, but these systems are not seen because, as the

name implies, they are buried inside the product or the equipment. And because they are not seen, they do not receive as much attention from the media as does the personal computer (PC). However, the number of embedded microprocessor system computers and their economic importance is considerable. It was reported that as far back as 1997, around 30 million microprocessor chips were used by PC manufacturers, whilst close to three billion were used in numerous embedded systems applications. VARIOUS MICROPROCESSORS INTEL 4004, 4040 8080, 8085 8086, 8088 80186, 80188 80286, 80386 X86-64 5. What Is An Embedded Processor? An Embedded Processors is simply a Processor that has been Embedded into a device. It is software programmable but interacts with different pieces of hardware. Performs both control and computation. More performance than a Controller but not as much performance as a general purpose processor. They are used in: Cars, Phones, Media Devices, Wireless, Printers. WHAT IS IT REALLY? Typically an Embedded Processor is a single-issue in-order RISC processor with a little cache. It can then sell as a piece of silicon, custom layout, net list, or architectural description. They are designed to be small, low power, and most importantly correct. Often due to the realtime constraints of an application area they are designed to have a small deterministic worst case time per instruction Zilog Z80, Z180, 1280 Z8, eZ8 and others

Example ARM WHY USE AN EMBEDDED PROCESSOR? The main reason is simple: Cost Embedded processors are small so they dont take up much die area and thus they are cheap. Embedded processors are verified so I wont spend a bunch of engineering man hours tracking down hardware bugs. Embedded processors run software the key part of that is the SOFT deal with changing specs DESIGN CRITERIA How do we design a good embedded processor? The three most important design criteria are performance, power, and cost. Performance is a function of the parallelism, instruction encoding efficiency, and cycle time (or the good old NumInstr, CPI, Freq) Power is approximately a function of the voltage, area, and switching frequency. Also a function execution time for leakage. Cost is a function of both area (how many fit on a die) and the complexity of use (in terms of engineering cost) ISA OPTIONS What sort of architecture do we want to design? What sort of ISA should I provide (pros/cons)? Register-Register / Memory-Memory RISC/ CISC

 Predication Compound Instructions (MAC,PostInc) Instruction Encoding Registers (number and access) VLIW / SIMD / Vector DESIGN OPTIONS What parts should be included (pros/cons) Core Instruction Cache Data Cache Multiplier Scratch Pad Memory MMU Write Buffer TLB Branch Prediction FUTURE OF EMBEDDED PROCESSORS Pipeline lengths are starting to get very long. How does high performance architecture handle this Branch prediction? Intels XScale has branch prediction tables. Embedded processor designs take heavily from high performance processor designs. But now under different constraints What else will migrate to the embedded space? VLIW processors -Multiple issue machines, Scheduling done by the compiler, Customized Processors - Such as from Tensilica, Allows more cost effective design as we now pick only what is important - Instruction Compaction, Thumb is good, but we need to do better as more and more functionality moves to software 6. Explain The Embedded System Architectures In Detail?

There are several different types of software architecture in common use. SIMPLE CONTROL LOOP A common model for this kind of design is a state machine, which identifies a set of states that the system can be in and how it changes between them, with the goal of providing tightly defined system behavior. This system's strength is its simplicity, and on small pieces of software the loop is usually so fast that nobody cares that its timing is not predictable. It is common on small devices with a stand-alone microcontroller dedicated to a simple task. INTERRUPT CONTROLLED SYSTEM An INTERUPT CONTROL SYSTEM can include logic systems with at least one interrupt to a microprocessor. The interrupt not only can came from the processor, but also from the external components like the Memory, Graphic controller, A keyboard and can be from other I/O devices. Events are in asynchronous in nature. But Processors are in synchronous in nature. When interrupt occurred, the processor finds it as an interrupt and performs the required instructions. This is referred to as an Interrupt service Routine (ISR). Interrupt latency is the time which the processor requires to perform the instruction by an ISR. This Interrupt latency should be reduced. For that ultra wideband media access control (UWB MAC) devices are introduced. These having an interrupt control system detect a set of particular instructions from the processor core to instruction random access memory (I-RAM). The interrupt control system provides the core with the computer executable instructions that includes a branch instruction such that the processor can branch directly to an interrupt service routine (ISR) that provides the computer instructions for processing the event. COOPERATIVE MULTITASKING A type of multitasking in which the process currently controlling the CPU must offer control to other processes. It is called cooperative because all programs must cooperate for it to work. If one program does not cooperate, it can hog the CPU. In contrast, preemptive multitasking forces applications to share the CPU whether they want to or not. Versions 8.0-9.2.2 of Macintosh OS and Windows 3.x operating systems are based on cooperative multitasking,

whereas UNIX, Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2, and later versions of Mac OS are based on preemptive multitasking. A nonpreemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to run in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called pause, wait, yield, nop (stands for no operation), etc. The advantages and disadvantages are very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter. PREEMPTIVE MULTITASKING OR MULTI-THREADING The term preemptive multitasking is used to distinguish a multitasking operating system, which permits preemption of tasks, from a cooperative multitasking system wherein processes or tasks must be explicitly programmed to yield when they do not need system resources. In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel. As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a nonblocking synchronization scheme. Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to use a real-time operating system (RTOS), allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding memory size, performance, and/or battery life. The choice that a RTOS is required

brings in its own issues however as the selection must be done prior to starting to the application development process. This timing forces developers to choose the embedded operating system for their device based upon current requirements and so restricts future options to a large extent. The restriction of future options becomes more of an issue as product life decreases. Additionally the level of complexity is continuously growing as devices are required to manage many variables such as serial, USB, TCP/IP, Bluetooth, Wireless LAN, trunk radio, multiple channels, data and voice, enhanced graphics, multiple states, multiple threads, numerous wait states and so on. These trends are leading to the uptake of embedded middleware in addition to a real time operating system. I. KERNELS The kernel is a program that constitutes the central core of a computer operating system. It has complete control over everything that occurs in the system. A kernel can be contrasted with a shell (such as bash, csh or ksh in Unix-like operating systems), which is the outermost part of an operating system and a program that interacts with user commands. The kernel itself does not interact directly with the user, but rather interacts with the shell and other programs as well as with the hardware devices on the system, including the processor (also called the central processing unit or CPU), memory and disk drives. MICROKERNELS AND EXOKERNELS A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc. In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask communication is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and extensible by application programmers.

MONOLITHIC KERNELS In this case, a relatively large kernel with sophisticated capabilities is adapted to suit an embedded environment. This gives programmers an environment similar to a desktop operating system like Linux or Microsoft Windows, and is therefore very productive for development; on the downside, it requires considerably more hardware resources, is often more expensive, and because of the complexity of these kernels can be less predictable and reliable. Common examples of embedded monolithic kernels are Embedded Linux and Windows CE. Despite the increased cost in hardware, this type of embedded system is increasing in popularity, especially on the more powerful embedded devices such as Wireless Routers and GPS Navigation Systems. Here are some of the reasons:

Ports to common embedded chip sets are available. They permit re-use of publicly available code for Device Drivers, Web Servers, Firewalls, and other code. Development systems can start out with broad feature-sets, and then the distribution can be configured to exclude unneeded functionality, and save the expense of the memory that it would consume.

Many engineers believe that running application code in user mode is more reliable, easier to debug and that therefore the development process is easier and the code more portable.

Many embedded systems lack the tight real time requirements of a control system. Although a system such as Embedded Linux may be fast enough in order to respond to many other applications.

Features requiring faster response than can be guaranteed can often be placed in hardware. Many RTOS systems have a per-unit cost. When used on a product that is or will become a commodity, that cost is significant.

EXOTIC CUSTOM OPERATING SYSTEMS A small fraction of embedded systems require safe, timely, reliable or efficient behavior unobtainable with the one of the above architectures. In this case an organization builds a system to suit. In some cases, the system may be partitioned into a "mechanism controller" using special techniques, and a "display controller" with a conventional operating system. A communication system passes data between the two. 7. Explain Any One Of The Applications Of The Embedded Systems In Detail?
I.

Military and aerospace embedded software applications From in-orbit embedded systems to jumbo jets to vital battlefield networks, designers of

mission-critical aerospace and defense systems requiring real-time performance, scalability, and high-availability facilities consistently turn to the LynxOS RTOS and the LynxOS-178 RTOS for software certification to DO-178B. Rich in system resources and networking services, LynxOS provides an off-the-shelf software platform with hard real-time response backed by powerful distributed computing (CORBA), high reliability, software certification, and long-term support options. The LynxOS-178 RTOS for software certification, based on the RTCA DO-178B standard, assists developers in gaining certification for their mission- and safety-critical systems. Real-time systems programmers get a boost with LynuxWorks' DO-178B RTOS training courses. LynxOS-178 is the first DO-178B and EUROCAE/ED-12B certifiable, POSIXcompatible RTOS solution.

II.

Medical electronics technology With the introduction of the LynxSecure separation kernel and embedded hypervisor, medical devices can now have the best of both worlds, with hard real-time applications running alongside commercial desktop operating systems on the same industry-standard Intel processors. The separation kernel offers both safety and security partitioning for applications. The embedded hypervisor functionality allows "guest" operating systems and their applications to run in their own partitions.

III.

Communications applications "Five-nines" availability, CompactPCI hot swap support, and hard real-time response

LynxOS delivers on these key requirements and more for today's carrier-class systems. Scalable kernel configurations, distributed computing capabilities, integrated communications stacks, and fault-management facilities make LynxOS the ideal choice for companies looking for a single operating system for all embedded telecommunications applicationsfrom complex central controllers to simple line/trunk cards. LynuxWorks JumpStart for Communications package enables OEMs to rapidly develop mission-critical communications equipment, with pre-integrated, state-of-the-art, data networking and porting software componentsincluding source code for easy customization. The Lynx Certifiable Stack (LCS) is a secure TCP/IP protocol stack designed especially for applications where standards certification is required.

IV.

Electronics applications and consumer devices As the number of powerful embedded processors in consumer devices continues to rise,

the LynxOS real-time operating system provides a highly reliable option for systems designers. For makers of low-cost consumer electronic devices who wish to integrate the LynxOS real-time operating system into their products, we offer special MSRP-based pricing to reduce royalty fees to a negligible portion of the device's MSRP.

V.

Industrial automation and process control software Designers of industrial and process control systems know from experience that

LynuxWorks operating systems provide the security and reliability that their industrial applications require. From ISO 9001 certification to fault-tolerance, POSIX conformance, secure partitioning and high availability, we've got it all. Take advantage of our two decades of experience.