N A S AC O N T R A C T O R REPORT

N N
v
I

e
U

LGAN COPY: RETURN TO AFWL (WLIL-2) KIRTLANO AFB, N MEX

HELICOPTER' NOISE

BLADE SLAP

Part 1: Review and Theoretical Study

by John W. Leverton
Prepared by
, .

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON England for LangZey Research Center

. .

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS SPACE AND ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D . C.

OCTOBER 1968

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

NASA CR-I221

/HELICOPTER NOISE

BLADE SLAP .
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ce

---Par-t-- Review and Th.eoretica1 Study .. 1:

($wy-:_
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By John W. Leverton..
- .

Distribution of this report is provided in the interest of informationexchange.Responsibility for t h e contents resides in the author or organization that prepared it.

Prepared under Contract/NGR-52-025-002 l J 3 W W + R S m SOUTHAMPTON England

by,
*

for Langley Research Center

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 CFSTl price $3.00

TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p t e r No. PmFACE

Page No.
V

ABsllRAcT
INTRODUCTION SYMBOLS REVIEW OF PREVIOUS W R OK BLADE SLAP MECHANISMS B~ADE/VORTEX INTERACTION ON HELICOPTERS TIP VORTICES THEORETICAL MODEL THEORY 7.1 General 7A2 o u s tTc e o r y . c ih 7.3 Blade loading 7.4 Bang power and energy i t e r m s of h e l i c o p t e r n parameters 7.5 Blade slap f a c t o r DISCUSSION ON THE BLADE FACTORS SLAP EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND FUTURE REPORTS ON BLADE SLAP APPENDIX A ACOUSTIC THEORY REFERENCES TABLE 1

1 1 2 4

5 8
1 1

15

17 17 17
19

8
9

23 23
25

24

27 29 33

iii

L I S T OF FIGURES
F i q u r e No

Paqe

Plate 1 . Photograph of Westland Westminster showing trailed vortices. Plate 2 . Tip vortices on tandem rotor rig. 0 tive pitch - 10 tip speed - 400 f . p . s . )
1 2

35

(Collec36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

3 4 5 6
7 8 9

10 11

12
13 14 15

16
A1

I d e a l i z e dB l a d eV o r t e xI n t e r s e c t i o n . T y p i c a la n g l e - o f - a t t a c k - c o n t o u rf o rs i n g l er o t o r helicopter i n t h ef o r ea n da f tp l a n e V o r t e xp a t h s I d e a l i z e db l a d ev o r t e xf i l a m e n ti n t e r s e c t i o n V e l o c i t yd i s t r i b u t i o nt h r o u g h a v o r t e xc o r e Measuredvortexprofiles B l a d ev o r t e xi n t e r s e c t i o n s Gust c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s B l a d el o a d i n g B l a d el o a d i n gf o rf i r s th a r m o n i c B l a d el o a d i n g B l a d el o a d i n g - comparison o f e x p o n e n t i a la n ds i n e componentsof2ndtermofequation 7.5 ( a L / a t ) v s IS' (aL/a t . ) 2 vs 'SI B l a d eS l a pF a c t o r( P o w e r ) v s S u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t vs S u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t B l a d eS l a pF a c t o r( E n e r g y ) W W1 vs kh

2/

iv

PREFACE T h i sr e p o r tr e v i e w st h eb l a d es l a pi n v e s t i g a t i o nc a r r i e do u ti nc o n n e c t i o n w i t ht h e N.A.S.A. Helicopter oise ontract. lthough N C A it i s appreciated t h a t many o f t h e p r o b l e m s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s r e p o r t a r e u n a n s w e r e d , t h i s account of t h ei n v e s t i g a t i o na - t t e m p t st oo u t l i n et h ep r e s e n ts t a t e of t h e a r t a s r e g a r d st h eu n d e r s t a n d i n ga n di n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f b l a d es l a p . The e x p e r i m e n t a lr e s u l t so b t a i n e d d u r i n gt h ei n v e s t i g a t i o na r en o t i n c l u d e di nt h i sr e p o r ts i n c et h e y w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f a s e p a r a t er e p o r t t ob ei s s u e di nt h en e a rf u t u r e . S i m i l a r r e p o r t s on t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f h e l i c o p t e r n o i s e a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e da n dt h e s e w i l l b ei s s u e dd u r i n gt h en e x t s i x months.

HELICOPTER NOISE

BLADE SLAP

PART 1:

REVIEW AND THEORETICAL STUDY

b yJ o h n W. L e v e r t o n I n s t i t u t eo fS o u n da n dV i b r a t i o nR e s e a r c h U n i v e r s i t yo fS o u - t h a m p t o n ,E n g l a n d

'This r e p o r t r e v i e w s p r e v i o u s work on t h et o p i co fb l a d es l a pa n dt h e various echanismsor m f i t s generation. I t i s concludedhat ladeltip t b v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n i s the ostikely oise roducing echanism. m l n p m A t h e o r e t i c a la p p r o a c ht ot h ep r o b l e ml s a d i n gt ot h ed e v e l o p m e n to f a blade s l a pf a c t o r( B S F ) ,w h i c h w i l l g i v ea ni n d i c a t i o no ft h es e v e r i t yo fb l a d e s l a pl i k e l y o n n y e l i c o p t e r , a h i s also ncluded. i A comparison etween b E ? is a l s o some s u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t so ft h eb l a d es l a pn o i s ea n dt h e given.
1 I NTRODUC'I'ION

B l a d es l a p i s t h ec o l l o q u i a l i s mw h i c hh a sb e e na p p l i e dt ot h es h a r p c r a c k i n g o u n d s s o c i a t e d i t h e l i c o p t e r o t o r sA l t h o u g h h e e r m s a w h . t t ' b l a d es l a p 'd e n o t e st h i so n et y p e o f n a i s e , i t v a r i e sc o n s i d e r a b l yi n i n t e n s i t ya n dq u a l i t yw i t ht h et y p e o f h e l i c o p t e ra n df l i g h tc o n d i t i o n . When b l a d es l a po c c u r s ,n o t on1.y i s i t p r e d o m i n a n to v e ra n yo t h e r i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i t i s m o s to b j e c t r o t o r - c r a f tn o i s e ,b u tb e c a - J s eo f ionableThe egree . d o f anno-fance from i t h a s grown w i t ht h ei n c r e a s ei n s i z ea n da l l u pw e i g h t (A.U.W.) o f s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r s a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e no f t LArge tandem r o t o rh e l i c o p t e r s . The i m p 3 r t a n c e n d e e d a n f o ra nu n d e r s t a n d i n go ft h i s phenomenon been has f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o ni n t os e r v i c e o f a number of h s l i c o p t e r sw h i c hp r o d u c eb l a d e slap n ractically ll light egimes. lso n he resent eneration i p a f r A i t p g o fh e l i c o p t e r st h en o i s yp i s t o ns n g i n e sh a v eb e e nr e p l a c e db yq u i e t e r t u r b i n ee n g i n e s ,w i t ht h er e s u l tt h a tn o to n l y kb l a d es l a pt h ef i r s t n o i s eh e a r d ,b u t it p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e s t h e a p p r o a c h i n g a i r c r a f t a s a h e l i c o p t e r .T h i sn o i s ep r o b l e mh a sm a n i f e s t e di t s e l fi n t e r n a l l ya s well a se x t e r n a l l y ,a n d i s o fi m p o r t a n c eb o t hm i l i t a r i l ya n dc o m m e r c i a l l y . Inmilitaryoperations it r u l e s o u t t h c p o s s i b i l i t y o f a surpriseattack a n d a u s e s e n t a f a t i g u e o h e r e w n d o m b a t r o o p sC o m m e r c i a l l y , c m l tt c a c . i n t e r - c i t yo p e r a t o r sh a v eb e e nf o r c e d t o modifytheirflightpathsto (1). In a v o i ds u b j e c t i n g 'r e s i d e n t i a la r e a st ot h e s eh i g hn o i s el e v e l s a d d i t i o n i t a d d st op a s s e n g e ra p p r e h e n s i o na n da n n o y a n c e .

SYMBOLS

liftcurveslope h a l fc h o r do fb l a d e numberofblades b l a d es l a pf a c t o rb a s e d bladeslapfactorbased b l a d ec h o r d

(c/2)

B
BSF ( E )

on e n e r g yo f
onpower

imp!-llse

BSF ( P ) C
C
0

of i m p u l s e

s p e e do fs o u n d 'bangs nergy e frequency f l u c t u a t i n gf o r c e

EB f

G!V

g r o s s weight. o f h e l i c o p t e r
d i p o l es e p a r a t i o n acousticradiatedintensity wave number lift per blade l o a d i n gp e ru n i ts p a n b l a d el o a d i n ga ta n yp o i n t loadingatanypoint

s dueto (i.e.

mth h a r m o n i co fg u s t
1, 2, 3 e t c . )

m
(P

h a r m o n i co r d e ro fg u s t

- Po)

a c o u s t i cp r e s s u r e d i s t a n c eo fo b s e r v a t i o np o i n tf r o ma c o u s t i cs o u r c e

r
r

r a d i u s of v o r t e xc O r e radiusatwhichmotionin a v o r t e x i s c o n s i d e r e dt o changefrom a r i g i d body to p D t e n t i a 1 f l o w

I V

radialdistance

from v o r t e x c e n t r e

b o

'spanlengthoverwhichgustacts r a d i u s of b l a d e s a n yp o i n tm e a s u r e d
froin b e g i n n i n g o f g u s t

R
s

t
V

time
v e l o c i t y of r o t o r b l a d e t a n g e n t i a lc o m p o n e n t vortex bladetipvelocity maximum t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y i n r o t o rd i s cl o a d i n g p e a kv e l o c i t ya m p l i t u d eo fg u s t 'bang' power a vortex

Vt

of t h ei n d u c e dv e l o c i t yi n

W
X

rn

v e l o c i t ya m p l i t u d e

o f inth h a r m o n i co fg u s t

n o n - d i m e n s i o n a ll e n g t ho fg u s t

( = Y/b)

n
i

o f o b s e r v a t i o np o i n tf r o ma i d n o r m a lc o o r d i n a t e p o i n t o f b l a d ea r e au n d e rc o n s i d e r a t i o n .

X X

c o o r d i n a t e s o f a n yp o i n t d i s t a n c em e a s u r e d a c t u a ll e n g t ho fg u s t density s t r e n g t ho fc i r c u l a t i o n kinematicviscosity a n g u l a rf r e q u e n c y pitchangle

i n d i r e c t i o nn o r m a lt ob l a d ec h o r d

Y
P

r
V

n
0

ABBREVI ATIONS 21Ib " -

tan

-1

km

2 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

Although a l a r g e number of p a p e r sh a v eb e e np u b l i s h e d on h e l i c o p t e ra n d ( 2 ) w h i c ht r e a t e dt h e r o t o rn o i s e ,u n t i lr e c e n t l yt h e r e was o n l yo n ep a p e r Many a u t h o r s (3,4,5,6) a g r e eh o w e v e rt h a t , , "when s u b j e c t i n a n yd e t a i l . i t OCCU;PS" b l a d e s l a p i s t h el o u d e s tt y p e of r o t o r n o i s e .

A l a r g es e c t i o no f a r e p o r to fS i k o r s k y ' sw o r k ,i s s u e d i n O z t o b e r 1966 by US4AVLABS (10) was c o n c e n t r a t e d on b l a d es l a p , a n dm o r er e c e n t l y a p a p e r (11) s o l e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h H* S - t e r n f e l d o f B o e i n g / V e r t o l p r e s e n t d t h ep r a c t i c a la s p e c t s of t h e l a d e l a p . b s To d a t e h o w e v e r t h e n l y , , o a t t e m p t a t a q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y of t h ep r o b l e ma p p e a r st oh a v eb e e nt h e papers ublished p by F.W. T a y l o r n d h e u t h o r a t a (12,13). B e l l ( 2 ) showed, u s i n g t h e i r two b l a d e d HU-1A h e l i c o p t e r , t h a t on a n a r r o wb a n da n a l y s i s i n p r e s s u r es p e c t r u ml e v e lo l r e r a frequency b l a d es l a pc a u s e da ni n c r e a s e range f o 20-1030 Hz, w i t ht h e maximuh i n t e n s i t ya r o u n d 200 Hz. They a l s o showed t h a t when b l a d e s l a p o c c u r r e d t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e mod!lla,ttion The d e p t h o f t h en o i s ei nt h ea u d i or a n g ea tt h eb l a d ep a s s i n gf r e q u e n c y . p a p e rd e a l tw i t hb o t hs i n g l ea n dt a n d e mr o t o rh e l i c o p t e r sa n dt h ea u . t h o r s expressed he iew t v t h a t t h e r e were two mechanisms or i t s generation. At low s p e e d s ,t h e yt h o u g h tt h a tt h en o i s e was c a u s e db yt h er a p i dc h a n g e in a n g l eo fa t t a c ko ft h eb l a d ea s i t e n c o u n t e r e dt h e wake of a p r e v i o u sb l a d e ; it was c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i t was more l i k e l y prodl-lced b'y w h i l ea th i g hs p e e d l o c as h o c k a v e s l w on t h e d v a n c i n g l a d e B e l l , h o w e v e r f r e e l y d m i t t e d a b . , a . t h a tt h e r e were s t i l l many u n a n s w e r e dq u e s t i o n sa n d a l a c ko f a basic of t h e o i s e T h e i r n . comments a g r e e n i understanding fhe rigins ot o g e n e r a lw i t ht h o s eo b t a i n e dd u r i n gt h ei n v e s t i g a t i o nc o n d u c t e db yt h e author.
A p a p e r by Davidson Hargest and ( 5 ) s t a t e dt h a tb l a d es l a pd i dn o ta d d t ot h ed i s t u r b a n c e o r annoyance alue v of a h e l i c o p t e r .T h i s is i n direct i n t h em a j o r i t yo fo t h e rp a p e r sa n dt h e c o n f l i c tw i t ht h ev i e w se x p r e s s e d I t can nly e ssumedhathese o ba t comments were a u t h o r ' so b s e r v a t i o n s . b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m B r i t i s h b u i l t h e l i c o p t e r s s u c h a s t h e of h e l i c o p t e r s . W h i r l w i n da n dw i t h o l J tr e f e r e n c et ot h el a t e s tg e n e r a t i o n a " r a n d o mn o i s ea m p l i t u d e B l a d e s l a p i s d e f i n e db yD a v i d s o na n dH a r g e s ta s

a n df r e u q e n c ym o d u l a t i o n " ,b u t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t t h e t h i s s t a t e m e n t o r t o t i e i t u pw i t hi n f o r m a t i o nd e r i v e dd u r i n gt h i s investigation.

meaning of

Bell ( 7 ) h a v e r e i t e r a t e d t h e i r i d e a s on t k g e n e r a t i o n o f b l a d e s l a p o u t l i n e di nr e f e r e n c e 2, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r UH-ID IROQUOIS h e l i c o p t e r , which pparently roduces a p two t y p e so fb l a d es l a p . A t loworward peeds f s t h e ys u g g e s t i t i s d u e t o b l a d e / v o r t e x i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i l e a t h i g h f o r w a r d s p e e d st h e yf e e l i t r e s u l t s f r o ml o c a ls u p e r s o n i ca i rf l o ww h i c hc a no c c u r n e a rt h et i po ft h ea d v a n c i n gb l a d e .V e r t o l ( 7 ) o r i g i n a l l yp o s t u l a t e dt h a t b l a d es l a p was d u et os e p a r a t e df l o wa n dt h a ta n o t h e rt y p eo fn o i s ew h i c h t h e y e r m e db l a d e a n gr' e s u l t e d r o m h o c k t ' b f s wave f o r m a t i o nT h e y . c o n t e n d e dt h a tt h i s' b l a d eb a n g ' was t h e m a j o r n o i s e s o u r c e a n d t h e predominant mechanism on t h e i r t a n d e mh e l i c o p t e r s .I nt h el i ' g h to ft h i s i t w o u l da p p e a rt h a tV e r t o lh a v et e r m e d' b l a d eb a n g 't h en o i s em e c h a n i s m m o r m a l l yr e f e r r e dt oa sb l a d es l a p .S i n c et h e n ,V e r t o lh a s made a f u l l i n v e s t i g a t i o ni n t ob l a d es l a p ( o r b a n g ) on t h e i r h e l i c o p t e r s (11) and have shown t h a t i n f a c t i t a r i s e s f r o mt h ei n t e r a c t i o no f a r o t o rb l a d ea n dt h e t i pv o r t e xs h e db y some o t h e rb l a c l ? . S c h l e g l ( 9 ) h a sa s s o c i a t e db l a d es l a pN i t h t h e r e t r e a t i n gb l a d ea tt h e p o s i t i o n ,t h i sb e i n gt h er e g i o nw h a r et h ea n g l eo fa t t a c k is greatest i s r e i t e r a t e da n d and he ccurrence f tall ost ikely. his echanism t o os m l T m d i s c u s s e di nd e t a i l i nS i k o r s k y ' sr e c e n tr e p o r t (10). The r e p o r ta l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e p h e n o m e n o no fc o m p r e s s i b l ed r a gd i v e r g e n c ea n dt h er e s u l t i n g f o r m a t i o no fs h o c kw a v e s ,a n ds u g g e s t e dt h a tt h e s ec a nc o n - t r i b u t e - t ot h e blade lap oise; xcept or utting orwardhe tall ypothesisthis s n E f p f t s h , p a p e r i s i n g e n e r a la g r e e m e n tw i t ht h a to f B e l l ( 2 ) a n dV e r t o l (11).
270'

3 BLADE SLAP MECHANISMS The t h r e e . m a i nm e c h a n i s m sp o s t u l a t e df o rb l a d es l a pi nt h el i t e r a t u r e a r e summarized below:1. 2.

F l u c t u a t i n g o r c e s a u s e d y l a d e / v o r t e xn t e r a c t i o n . f c bb i Fluctuating orces esulting ron talling nd n-stalling f he lade. f r f s a u ot b Shock wave f o r m a t i o n u eoo c as u p e r s o n i c l o w : d tl l f it i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s i s e i t h e r ( a ) a d i r e c t r e s u l t of o p e r a t i n g a b l a d e a t a h i g h t i p s p e e d or ( b )c a u s e db y a b l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n .

3.

A t t h e p r e s e n t time d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h ea b o v em e c h a n i s m s is still l i m i t e da n d ,t h e r e f o r e , i t i s p r a c t i c a l l yi m p o s s i b l et os t a t ef r o m a s c i e n t i f i cb a s i sw h i c h i s the ostikely echanismCertain eductions an, m l m . d c however, be made b y o n s i d e r i n g h e o s s i b l e c c u r r e n c e f h e a r i o u s c t p o ot v m e c h a n i s m so na c t u a lh e l i c o p t e r sa n dc o r r e l a t i n gt h e mw i t h t e s t r e s u l t sa n d

f l i g h to b s e r v a t i o n s .T h eb e s ta p p r o a c ha p p e a r st ob et os t u d yt h ei d e . a l i s e dc a s e si nt h ef i r s ti n s t a n c e .

(1) B l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n . -M e c h a n i s m s 1 a n d3 ( b )a r ei l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1, which i s r e p r o d u c e d frorn t h e M.Sc. t h e s i s of F.W. T a y l o r ( l 4 ) . T h i sf i g u r es h o w sp o s s i b l eb l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n s when t h e c o r e i s p a r a l l e lt ot h es p a no ft h eb l a d e .I fa ni n t e r a c t i o n a s g i v e n by p a t h ' A ' o c c u r sm e c h a n i s m , '1' i s c l e a r l y r o d u c e d . n h i s a s e h e l a d e s p I t c t b i s u b j e c t e d f i r s t t o a 'down v e l o c i t y 'c h a n g ea n dt h e nt oa n ' u pv e l o c i t y ' change,whichproduces a r a p i dc h a n g ei n a n g l e o fa t t a c ka n ds u b s e q u e n t i m p u l s i v e o a d i n gI p a t h l .f ' B ' i s followed a s i m i l a r o a d i n g l u c t u a t i o n l f 3 much s m a l l e r a g n i t u d e . n d d i t i o n o m I a t occlJrs, ut, f ourse, t b oc a t h i s ,h o w e v e r , it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e b l a d e i s s u c ht h a t i t exceeds when c o m S i n e d w i t h t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e t i p v o r t e x , ' C ' would the onic elocity nd roduces s v a p a l o c a s h o c k a v eP a t h l w . produce a s i m i l a r f l u c t u a t i n g f o r c e \ , a r i a t i o n t o t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d by a b l a d e t r a v e l l i n ga l o n gp a t h ' B ' , b u ti nt h i sc a s et h e r e i s v e r yl i t t l ec h a n c eo f ' 1 ' c o u l dr e s u l t frorn i n t e r a c t i o n s soniclow eing roduced. f b p Thus mechanism and IC', and mechanism '38' from a o ft h ef o r mi n d i c a t e d by p a t h s ' A ' , ' B ' , b l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r s e c t i o no ft h et y p ei n d i c a t e db yp a t h 'B' only.
I nt h et y p eo fi n t e r s e c t i o nd e s c r i b e da b o v e ,l a r g ec h a n g e s i n t h ea n g l e s i t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h eb l a d ew o u l ds t a l l .T h i s of ttack ccur nd a o a it i s u n l i k e l y t h a t s t a l l f l u c t u a t i o nt a k e sp l a c e ,h o w e v e r ,v e r yq u i c k l ya n d wolJld o c c u r i n t h i si n s t a n c e( s e ed i s c u s s i o nb e l o w on s t a l l ) .
( 2 ) B l a d es t a l l . -T h e ' s t a l l 'h y p o t h e s i s i s much m3re d i f f i c u l t t o visualise. I t i s well known f r o mf a na n dp r o p e l l o rs t u d i e st h a t h e r ei s i n t h eb r o a d b a n dt y p eo fn o i s e when a b l a d es e c t i o n i s s t a l l e d . a ni n c r e a s e Even i f t h e b l a d e c o u l d b e s t a l l e d a n d I J n - s t a l l e d t o p r o d u c e a blJrstof b r o a d b a n dn o i s e ,t h i sw o u l dn o th a v et h ei m p l J l s i v en a t u r eo fb l a d es l a p . The i m p u l s e i s of a s h 3 r td u r a t i o na n dm u s tt h e r e f o r eb e a d i r e c tr e s u l t s o r force luctuationSinceypicalmpulses f . t i on a of apid oad lift) r l ( s i n g l er o t o rh e l i c o p t e ra r eo ft h eo r d e ro f 1-5 ms, t h es t a l ls e q u e n c e or change i n l i f t m u s t t h e r e f o r eo c c u r i n a na z i m u t h a lb l a d e movement A study f ecent apers oncerned ith tall 15,16, or p c w s ( of a f e w e g r e e s . d 17,18) i l l u s t r a t e st h ec o m p l e x i t yo ft h ep r o b l e ma n ds u g g e s t st h a t it i s time t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y d e t a i l s r e q u i r e d on i m p o s s i b l ea tt h ep r e s e n t s t a l l t o make e v e na ne l e m e n t a r ye s t i m a t eo ft h ei m p u l s i v et y p eo fn o i s e i s , however, a g e n e r a l (if ny) ssociated ith ccurrence f tall. here a a w o os T i s a r e l a t i. e l ys l o wp r o c e s s . Ham ( 1 5 ) , f e e l i n gt h a tt h eo c c u r r e n c eo fs t a l l f o re x a m p l e , showed t h a t when a b l a d e i s t a k e n r a p i d l y a b o v e t h e ' s t a l l a n g l e 't h eh i g hv a l u e so fl i f ta r es u b s t a i n e df o r a time e q u i v a l e n t t o s o m e t h i n g t h e r d eo1 / 8 t h l a d ee 1 , o l u t i o n . of o rf b r The d e l a y i n o c c u r r e n c e i s t h o u g h t t o be a f u n c t i o no ft h er a t e of c h a n g eo fa n g l eo f o fs t a l l a t t a c ka n dt h es u s t a i n e du p p e rs u r f a c es l u c t i o na s s o c i a t e dw i t h t h e chordwise I t i s , of c o u r s e , a passage f orticity hed uring he tall rocess. ov s d t s p well known f a c t t h a t t h e o n s e t o f d y n a m i c s t a l l o c c u r s a t much h i g h e ra n g l e s o fa t t a c k th.an a s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h es t a t i cs t a l - 1 . Thus t h e r e i s v e r yl i t t l e i t p a s s e st h r o u g h , o r c l o s e t o , a t i pv o r - t e x . c h a n c e Df a b l a d e s t a l l i n g a s

Work a t Southampton (19) showed t h a t i n d u c e d a n g l e s o f 2 25' c o u l d b e t o l e r a t e d w i t h o u ta n ya p p a r e n . ts t a l l ,p r o v i d e dt h e time s c a l e was s m a l l .

On a n a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r it i s , h o w e v e r ,t r u et h a tb l a d es l a p i s often a s s o c i a t e dw i t hf l i g h tc o n d i t i o n si nw h i c hs t a l lc a ne a s i l yo c c u r , i.e. high speed nd arge a l A.U.W. c a s e s . I t a p p e a r st h a tt h i s is t h em a i nr e a s o nf o r e x p l a i n i n gb l a d es l a pa s a r e s u l to fs t a l l . A c l o s e rs t u d y shows t h a t s t a l l c a n o c c c l rw i t h o u tb l a d es l a pb e i n gd e t e c t e d ;a n do f t e nb l a d es l a p o c c u r s when s t a l l i s u n l i k e l y . I t was shown u s i n g a WESSEX (19) t h a t a 45/50' b a n kt u r nt op o r ta n ds t a r b o a r dp r o d u c e di d e n t i c a lb l a d es l a p ,b o t h i na m p l i t d u ea n dc h a r a c t e r i s t i c . I t i s d i f f i c u l tt oe x p l a i nt h i si nt e r m s o ft h e' s t a l lt h e o r y 's i n c e a s t e a d y bank t u r n WOiJld n o t b e e x p e c t e d t o e f f e c s t h es t a l lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c st oa n yg r e a te x t e n t . I t a l s oa p p e a r st h a tt h e ' s t a l l 'c o n d i t i o n so ft h em a j o r i t yo fs i n g l er o t o rh e l i c o p t e rc o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r ea p p r o x i m a t e l yt h es a m e ,y e tt h e i rb l a d es l a pc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sa r ec o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n tv a r y i n gf r o m n3 s l a pt oe x t r e m e l yl o u ds l a p . A l s o d u r i n gt h e WESSEX t e s t s ( 1 9 ) i t 1 ~ 3 s o u n dt h a t i n l e v e lf l i g h t , b l a d es l a pc o u l db e f i n d u c e db yd e c r e a s i n ga s well a si n c r e a s i n gc o l l e c t i L r ep i t c h : it is d i f f i c u i t t o s e e how t h i sc a nb ee x p l a i n e d i n t e r m so ft h es t a l l phenomenon.

A t y p i c a la n g l e - o f - a t t a c kc o n t o u rf o r a s i n g l e - r o t o rh e l i c o p t e r i s shown i n f i g u r e 2. I f t a l l r o d u c e s h eb a n g ' , h e n s h e l a d e o t a t e d s p t ' t at b r it w o u l db ee x p e c t e dt h a t a c o n . t i n u o u ss e r i e so fi m p u l s e sw o u l db ep r o d u z e da s m o r e t h e l a d e e c a m e t a l l e dE x p e r i m e n t ar e s u l t s o w e v e ri,n d i c a t e d of b b s . l h t h a tt h em a i n' b a n g ' on a s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r i s a s i n g l ei m p u l s eo f s h o r td u r a t i o n . A typical argduration b i n terms blade of azimuth movement i s a l s o shown on t h i sf i g x e . I t w i l l b en o t e dt h a tt h e r e i s very l i t t l e c o r r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nt h i sa n dt h es t a l ld u r a t i o n . A f u r t h e rp o i n ta g a i n s tt h es t a l li d e a i s t h eo b s e r v a t i o no f the effect o f v e r y low wind on a h o v e r i n gh e l i c o p t e r ( 2 0 ) and a w h i r lt o w s r (11); a l t h o u g h s t a l l i s v e r yu n l i k e l y i n t h e s ec a s e s ,b l a d es l a p was prodlJced i n both. istortion D of t h e o r t e x i l a m e np a t h n d l a d e / v o r t e xn - t e r a c t i o n , v f t a b i i s o fc o u r s e , mlJzh more l i k e l y i n t h e s ec i r c u m s t a n c e s .

The a b o v ed i s c u s s i o nh a sb e e nb a s e d on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a n d c l a s s i c a l concepts f tallRecent tudieshoweversuggesthat os . s , , t h i s form of stall d o e sn o to c c u r on r o t o r b l a d e s a n d t h a t c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i s t h ei m p o r t a n t parameter (21). To summarize, i t wolJld a p p e a r t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e ' s t a l l b l a d e s l a p ' hypothesis annot e ompletely isproved, he bove ointsindicate he c bc d t a p t u n l i k e l i h o o do fb l a d es l a pb e i n gt h er e s u l to fs u c h a mechanism.

&) Shock wave f o r m a t i o n . -T h ef o r m a t i o no fs h o c kw a v s s on a n y a e r o f o i l i s v e rc o m p l e x . y I t i s s u g g e s t e dt h a t on a s i n g l e r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r a shock i s formed when t h e l o c a lf l o wb e c o m e ss u p e r s o n i c ,w h i l e on a tandem

h e l i c o p t e r i t i s p o s t u l a t e dt h a ts h o c kf o r m a t i o n i s a r e s u l to fb l a d e / v o r t e x o f t h ed e t a i l s i n t e r a c t i o na sa l r e a d yo l l t l i n e d ( M e c h a n i s m b )I n f o r m a t i o n 3 . i s v e r ys p a r s ea n dt h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o work on ofshockwavefzmmation r o t a t i n gs y s t e m ss u c ha st h eh e l i c o p t e rr o t o r . B e f o r ec o n s i d e r i n gt h ep o s s i b l ep r o d u c t i o no f a s h o c k wave on a r o t o r ,

i t i s w o r t hn o t i n gt h a t a b l a d e t r a v e l l i n g 3 t s u b s o n i cs p e e dw i t h a small . s h o c k wab'e on i t w i l l i t s e l fn o tp r o d u c ea n yn o i s e .T h e r e i s no comparison

between t h i sc a s ea n d . h es o n i c boom b r o d u c e d on s u p e r s o n i ca i r c r a f t . The a r e s u l t of t h e f l u c t u a t i o n , o r n o i s es o u r c e wc)uld, i f i t o c c u r r e d ,b e c h a n g e , i n l i f t c a u s e d by t h ef o r m a t i o no f a d i s c r e t es h o c k wave. A l t h o u g hs h o c kw a v ef o r m a t i o n t h e r e s t i l l a p p e a r st ob e

23,24,

i n r e f e r e n c e s , 22, i sd i s c u s s e di nd e t a i l a g e n e r a ll a c ko fu n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h et o p i c .

The p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e t h a t t h e a z t u 3 1 Mach number a t which is s h o c kw a v e so c c u rc a nb ef o u n da s c u r a t e l yo n l yb ye x p e r i m e n t ;b u tt h i s c o m p l i c a t e db yt h ef a c tt h a t weak shock ivaLres whichformowing tolocalised s o n i cf l o wa r ee x t r m e l yd i f f i c u l tt od e t e c t .I nf a c t on many a e r o f o i l st h e l o c a lr e g i o n sc a n become s u p e r s o n i cw i t h o u tt h ef o r m a t i o no fe x t e n s i v es h o c k waves. S i n c et h el o c a lf l o w i s d e p e n d e n t on t h ec o n d i t i o n so ft h ef l o wa c r o s s t o be t h ea e r o f o i ls e c t i o n ,t h ef o r m a t i o no ft h es h o c k w a \ , e w o u l db ee x p e c t e d it occurs m o r er a n d o mt h a ni n d i c a t e db yt h em e a s u r e m e n t s ,w h i c hs u g g e s tt h a t ( w i t h i nt h em e a s u r i n ga c c u r a c y )a tb l a d ep a s s i n gf r e q u e n c y . T h u sa l t h o u g hl o c a ls h o c k wave f o r m a t i o n n a y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s e v e r i t y i t i sn o tt h o u g h tt o be a predominant mschanism. On tandem of lado lap, b s h e l i c o ? t e r st h er e l a t i v ea n g l eb e t w e e nt h e' v o r t e x 'a n db l a d ed i r e c t i o n is s u c ht h a t i n f o r w a r df l i g h tt h em e c h a n i s mi l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u r e 1 i su n l i k e l y t oo c c u r .
( 4 ) Summary.From t h ep r e c e d i n gd i s c u s s i o n s i t w o u l da p p e a r ,t h e r e f o r e , i s s t i l l t h em o s tl i k e l y . t h a tt h eb l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o nm e c h a n i s m T h i sf a c ta p p e a r s t o b es u p p o r t e db yt h er e c e n tf u l ls c a l eB o e i n g - V e r t o l Thus u n l e s s p e c i f i c a l l y t a t e d i n h e e m a i n d e r s ,t r i n v e s t i g a t i o n (11). will beassumsd t o b e a d i r e c t r e s u l t o ft h e o ft h er e p o r tb l a d es l a p f l u c t u a t i o ni n f h el i f tc a u s e d by t h e i n t e r a t i o n o f a b l a d ea n d a vortex f i l a m e n t .T h i sc a nb ee i t h e ra na c t u a li n t e r s e c t i o n when a b l a d e u t s c a o r t h ee f f e c to f a b l a d ep a s s i n gv e r yc l o s et o a vortex V o r t e xf i l a m e n t filament.

4 SLADE/VJRTEX INTERACTION ON HELICOPTERS

Although i t i s e a s y t o i m a g i n e

a b l a d ea n d

a t i pv o r t e xi n t e r s e c t i n g ,

it

i s extremelydifficulttovisualisethedetailsofsuchanencounterand practicallyimpossibletodescribe it mathematically.

C o n s i d e ri nt h ef i r s ti n s t a n c et h es i n g l er o t o rc a s e . I t was i n i t i a l l y t h o u g h tt h a tt h et i pv o r t e xt o o k a c o n s d i e r a b l e time a f t e r i t was s h e dt of o r m it moved away r a p i d l yf r o mt h er o t o rp l a n e i n t o a d i s c r e t ef i l a m e n t ,a n dt h a t a f t e r i t h a d e e n h e dE x p e r i m e n t a e v i d e n c e a s b s . l h shown t h a t h ec o n v e r s e i s o f t e nt r u e . The photograph (pl3t.e 1) o f h e t West1an.d W e s t m i n i s t e r a k e n t in igh umidity ondition hows he ip ortex ilaments s ondensation h h c s t t v f ac trails. T h ev o r t e xt r a i l e db e h i n dt h eb l a d ei nt h ep o r t q u a r t e r i s shown . c e r yc l e a r l y .A l s os h o w n ,b u tm c hm o r ef a i n t l y i s t h e\ , o r t e xt r a i l e db y t h ep r e v i o u sb l a d e( a ta p p r o x i m a t e l yt h e 300' p 3 s i t i o n )w h i c hc a nb et r a c e d t ot h ef o r w a r dp o s i t i o n ; i t w i l l b en o t e dt h a tt h t sa p p e a r st og oa b o v e t h e o l l o w i n g l a d eA l t h o u g h h e l a d e s r e o c u t t i n g n y o r t e x f b . t b a n t a v f i l a m e n ti nt h i sp a r t i c u l a rc a s e ,t h e ya r eg b v i o u s l yp a s s i n gv e r yc l o s et o the ortex ilament. V f Smoke t e s t s on a m o d e l w o l a d e d o t o r i g i t u a t e d t b r r s i n t h ew i n dt u n n e la tS o u t h a m p t o n( 2 5 ) showed t h a t a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e d i s c t h e r e i s a s t r o n gu p w a s hw i t ht h er e s u l tt h a tt h et i pv o r t e xa f t e rf o r m a t i o n r i s e sa b o v et h er g t o rd i s c . A t y p i c a lt r a j e c t o r y of t h e r o s s - s e c t i o n f c o a v o r t e xa tt h e 180 p o s i t i o n ( i . e . a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e r o t o r ) i s reproduced' i n f i g u r e 3. This i s in eneral greement g a w i t h calculations nd lade a b pressure easurements m made by Ham ( 2 6 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o a i s upwash a t t h e f r o n to ft h er o t o rc o n s i d e r a b l ed i s t o r t i o n i n t h ef l o wp a t t e r n o~c~lrs 0 a r o u n d h e i s cp a r t i c u l a r l y n h e 5 n d t d , it 4a 315 r e g i o n sT h i s . i s shown c l e a r l y i n T a r a i n e ' ss t u d y( 2 7 )a ft h el o c a lf l o wa r o u n d a r o t o rd i s ca n d was o b s e r v e d u r i n g h e o u t h a m p t o n e s t s 2 5 ) C o m p u t a t i o n s y d t S t ( . b Crimi (28)andWhite ( 2 9 ) f o r a t w ob l a d e dr o t o r ,a n db yS c u l l y (30) have a l l d e m o n s t r a t e dt h i st r e n d . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e h a s a l s o c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e b a s i c t i p v o r t e x o r m s e r y a p i d l yT h i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d f v r . i i n the ropelleresearch p by Adams ( 3 ) a n dt h es t u d yo ft h ef l o wb e h i n da na i r c r a f tw i n gb y McCormick and angler T (31). Simons et a 1 2 4 ) o n c l u d e d h a t h e o l l i n g - u p s ( c t r i c o m p l e t e di nd b o u tt h et i m et a k e nt ot r a v e l a d i s t a n c ee q u i v a l e n tt oo n e b l a d er a d i u s ,w h i c h i s i n g e n e r a la g r e e m e n tw i t ht h a tf o u n df o rt h ev o r t e x rolling-up rocess p on wings. Thus the t i p\ , o r t e x would be p r a c t i c a l l yi n i t s f i n a l f o r mb yt h e time a n yb l a d ev o r t e xi n e e r a c t i o nc o u l do c c u r . F l i g h t t e s t s a r el i m i t e d ,a l t h o u g hd i f f e r e n t i a lb l a d ep r e s s u r em e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e B e l l H e l i c o p t e r Company ( 2 ) have shown c l e a r l y t h a t r a p i d c h a n g e s o f p r e s s u r eo ft h et y p ee x p e c t e di f a b l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o no c c u r sa r ep r e s e n t when b l a d es l a p i s b e i n g r o d u c e d . f p I i t i s a c c e p t e dt h a tv o r t i c e sc a np a s s above o r n e a r t h e r o t o r d i s c , t h e n it i s c l e a r t h a t b l a d e v o r t e x i n t e r a c t i o n c a no c c u ra n d it i s v e r y l i k e l y t h a t a b l a d ec a na c t u a l l yc u t a \vortex f i l a m e n t .F o rt h ep r a c t i c a lc a s e .t h es i t u a t i o n w i l l be more complicated t e s t s i n d i c a t es i n c et u r b u l e n c e ,t h eh e l i c o p t e rf u s e l a g ea n d t h a nt h em o d e l t h eg e n e r a ln o n - s y m m e t r i c a ln a t u r e of b l a d el e a d i n g w i l l c a u s ee v e nf u r t h e r d i s t o r t i o no ft h ef l o wp a t t e r n s .

On a tandem r o t o r h e l i c o p t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e ' b l a d e o v e r l a p is large,it a b l a d ec u t t i n g ' av o r t e xf i l a m e n ts i n c eo n er o t o r will be assing hrough he p t t downwash o f h e t h e r . h i s b v i o u s l y c c o u n t s o r t o T o a f i s much m o r e e v e r e s on tandem r o t o rh e l i c o p t e r s . The t h ef a c tt h a tb l a d es l a p B o e i n gV e r t o l Campany (11) h a v e r e c e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t a d e t a i l e de x p e r i m e n t a l programme i n which smoke was g e n e r a t e d a t t h e b l a d e t i p s o f a t a n d e mh e l i c o p t e r . T h i s showed c l e a r l y b l a d e v o r t e x i n t e r s e c t i o n a n d t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n a t w h i c h it o c c u r e d o u l d e o m p u t e d s i n g c bc u a r e l a t i v e l ys i m p l ea n a l y t i c a lm o d e l . It i s w o r t hn o t i n gt h a ta l t h o u g h on a t a n d e m t h e r e a r r o t o r i s a b o v et h ef r o n t r o t o ri nh o v e r ,t h ep o s i t i o nc a nb er e v e r s e di nf o r w a r df l i g h td u et ot h e t i l t i n go ft h er o t o rd i s c s .T h u s ,a s shown b y e r t o l V (11) t h er e a rr o t o r b l a d e sc a nc u tt h et i pv o r t e xf i l a n e n ts h e db yt h ef r o n tr o t o rs y s t e m .

i s e a s yt oi m a g i n e

The f l o w v i s u a l i s a t i o n t e c h n i q u e r e p o r t e d i n r e f e r e n c e 25, was a p p l i e d by Simons t o a p r e l i m i n a r y t u d y f h . 2 t a n d e m o t o r f l o w a t t e r n s . s ot ' r ' p To d a t e t h i s w o r kh a sn o tb e e np u b l i s h e d ,b u t a s e l e c t i o no ft h ep h o t o g r a p h st a k e n 2. a r er e p r o d u c e di np l a t e T h ep h o t o g r a p h ss h o wc l e a r l y how t h e i s o l a t e d t i p v o r t e x p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h el o w e rr o t o ra n ds i n c et h ev o r t i c e sa r e i n t h ef o r mo f a continuous f i l a m e n t , it i s o b v i o u s t h a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n c a n o c c u r u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . T h eb o t t o mp h o t o g r a p hi l l u s t r a t e st h e' u n w i n d i n g 'o ft h ev o r t e xf i l a m e n tw h i c h a p p e a r st ot a k ep l a c ea f t e rt h oi n t e r a c t i o n . The d e t a i l so fa n yi n t e r a c t i o na r ee x t r e m e l yC o m p l i c a t e da n de s t i m a t i o n i n l o a d i s n o tp o s s i b l ea tt h ep r e s e n t time. An i n o fa c t u a lf l u c t u a t i o n s i g h ti n t ot h ep r o b l e mc a n ,h o w e v e r ,b eo b t a i n e d by c o n s i d e r i n gt h et y p o so f 4 show some typical i d e a l i s e di n t e r a c t i o n sl i k e l y on h e l i c o p t e r s . i g u r e F cases here he ortex ilament w t v f i s represented y b a r o t a t i n gc y l i n d e r . Even a ne l e m e n t a r ys t u d yo ft h i ss i m p l i f i e ds i t u a t i o n w i l l r e v e a lt h ec o m p l e x n a t u r eo fd e t e r m i n i n gt h ea p p r o p r i a t ev e l o c i t yp r o f i l e s' s e e n ' by t h eb l a d e . I np r a c t i c et h ep o s i t i o n w i l l be f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d s i n c e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n will a f f e c t o n e a n o t h e r a n d c a u s e s e v e r e d i s t o r t i o n o ft h eb l a d ea n dt h ev o r t e x o ft h ef i l a m e n t when t h eb l a d e and v o r - t e xa r ec l o s et o g e t h e r . On a s i n g l e r o t o rh e l i c o p t e rt h eb l a d e w i l l m o s tl i k e l ye i t h e rp a s sc l o s et ot h e Lrortex o r c u t h r o u g ht h ef i l a m e n t( b ) . On a t a n d e m e l i c o p t e r h it i s f i l a m e n t( a ) , more l i k e l y t h a t o n e r o t o r will c u tt h ev o r t e xf i l a m e n tf r o mt h eo t h e rr o t o r a si l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u r e( c ) .A l t h o u g ht h ed e t a i l sa r en o t known it i s i n t h ed i r e c t i o no fm o t i o n w i l l b es i m i l a r i n clearthatthevelocityprofile e a c hc a s e ,a n dt a k e st h ef o r mg i v e nb yt h ei n t e r a c t i o no f a b l a d ea n da n i s o l a t e dv o r t e xw i t h i t s a x i sp a r a l l e lt ot h es p a n . The f a c tt h a tl a r g e a L r o r t e xf i l a m e n ta r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n l i f t o c c u r when a b l a d e p a s s e s c l o s e l u (33). o b v i o u s ,a si l l u s t r a t e db yS i m o n s T h e ' p e a k 'v e l o c i t ya m p l i t u d ee n c o u n t e r e d by t h e b l a d e w i l l be p r a c t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n to ft h et y p eo fi n t e r a c t i o na n dt h u sn o i s ef r o ma n yi n t e r a c t i o n ,t o a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n , w i l l o n l yb ed e p e n d e n t on t h eL r o r t e xs i z ea n db l a d ep a r a meter. The t h e o r e t i c a d e v e l o p m e n ( s e c t i o n l t 7) is ased b on t h i s s s u m p t i o n a

10

a n dt h u s w i l l p r e d i c t t h e less f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t , s i n c e a n y of t h et y p eo f 4 w i l l t e n dt or e d u c es l i g h t l yt h ep e a k interactionillustratedinfigure a m p l i t u d ea n d ,m o r ei m p o r t a n t ,t h er a t eo fc h a n g eo fl o a d i n g .

- 5 TIP VORTICES
Any a e r o f o i l o r l i f t i n g s u r f a c e p r o d u c e s a s y s t e mo ft r a i l i n gv o r . t i c e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e l i f t o r c i r c u l a t i o nv a r i a t i o na c r o s st h es p a n .T h i s t r a i l i n gs h e e to ff r e ev o r t i c e s ,w h i c hr e p r e s e n t s a s u r f a c eo fd i s c o n t i n u i t y , i s u n s t a b l ea n dc a n n o tp e r s i s ti nt h i sf o r m .I n s t e a dt h es h e e tt e n d st o r o l l u pr a p i d l yb e h i n dt h ew i n gt of o r a a p a i ro fd i s c r e t ev o r t e xf i l a m e n t s . Thus t h e t r a i l i n g wake some d i s t a n c eb e h i n dt h ew i n g o r r o t o r b l a d e will c o n s i s to n l yo f a r o o ta n dt i pv o r t e x ,i no p p o s i t es e n s et oe a c ho t h e r . Sincethetipvortex i s v e r yc o n c e n t r a t e da n dt h er o o tv o r t e xv e r yd i f f u s e , i t i s u s u a lt oc o n s i d e ro n l yt h et i pv o r t e x . Theoretically i t i s verydifficulttoestimatethetangentialvelocity of a v o r t e x . For two-dimensionapotentiaflowhe ircumferential l l t c v e l o c i t yv a r i e si n v e r s e l yw i t ht h er a d i u sa c c o r d i n gt ot h er e l a t i o n s h i p

where V
r

t
v

i s t h et a n g e n t i a lc o m p o n e n to fi n d u c e dv e l o c i t y i s the adi.us rom he ortexcentre r f t v

is he irculation. t c

line i n T h i sr e s u l t s i n a d i s t r i b u t i o na si l l u s t r a t e db yt h e" d o t t e d " f i g u r e 5., w i t ht h ev e l o c i t ya t t h e c e n t r eb e i n gi n f i n i t e . In a real f l u i dt h i sc o u l dn o to c c u ra n d V w o u l dt a k et h ef o r m shown by t h e" s o l i d " t I n t h i sc a s et h ev e l o c i t yd e p a r t sf r o mt h ep o t e n t i a lt h e o r ya st h e line. \vortex i s t r a v e r s e d ,a n dr e a c h e s a maximum b e f o r e d e c r e a s i n g t o z e r o a t the v o r t e xc e n t r e .T h i sc e n t r er e g i o ni s known a s h e o r e , i t h i n h i c h h e t c w w t f l u i dm o t i o na p p r o a c h e st h a to f 3. s o l i dr o t a t i o n body. I f i n f a c tt h ec o r e i s s i m p l i f i e d t o a r i g i db o d y ,t h e nt h e. v e l o c i t yd i s t r i b u t i o ni nt h ec o r e w o u l dt a k et h ef o r mi n d i c a t e db yt h e" d a s h e d r tl i n ei nf i g u r e 5, i . e .

where r i s t h er a d i u sa tw h i c ht h em o t i o n o f r i g t d bodF t o p o t e n t i a l f l o w ( s e e f i g u r e ) .

i s c o n s i d e r e dt oc h a n g ef r o mt h a t

A s a l r e a d ym e n t i o n e d , a realfluidhas a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p r o f i l e , a g o o da p p r o x i m a t i o n (33) t ow h i c h i s g i v e nb yL a m b ' ss o l u t i o n for a \5scous :f l u i d (34)

11

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( 1 - e

-r * / 4 v t

whsrc?

vishe inematic iscosity t K V

t i.s t h e t i m e ( d e c a yi n t e r v a l ) .
T h i si l l u s t r a t e sa n o t h e rp r o p e r t yo f a v o r t e x ,n a m e l yt h a tt h ec o r e I t a l s of o l l o w st h a tt h e d i f f u s e sw l t ht i m ed u et o .:iscous e f f e c t s . rnaximlun t a n g e n t i a lv e l o z i t y , V i s d e p e n d e n t on t h s l i f t p r o d u c e d y h e bt M T i s d i r e c t l yr e l a - t e dt ot h e bound c i r c u l a t i o n on t h ea e r o f o i i b l a d es i n c e a n dt h ev o r t e xs t r u c t u r e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e maximum t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y , a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i s n o t a .Ne11 d e f i n e d i m e n s i o n i n c e d s p a r a m e t e r i s t h ec o r ed i a a e t e r .T h i s t h ea c t u a l\ r e l o c i t yd i s t r i b u t i o na p p r o a c h e sa s y m p t o t i c a l l yt h ep o t e n t i a l distribution. F o r c o n v e n i e n c e of t h l s o r k t h e o r e i a m e t e r a s e z n w , c d h b t a k e na st h ed i a m e t e ro f a c i r c l e b o u n d e db yt h e maximum t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y .

t h ec i r c u l a t i o nc a nb ec a l c u l a t e d f o r a h e l i c o p t e rb l a d e , know t h e c o r e s i z e t o o b t a i n VId a n da ne s t i m a t i o n o ft h ev e l o c i t yd i s t r i b u t i o n . As f a ra sc o u l d be determi-ned the by 3wthoT, t h e r eh a sn o tb e e na n ys u c he s t i m a t i o no fv o r t e xc o r es i z e sf o rh e l i c o p t e r A n u m b e r f n v e s t i g a t o r s a v eh o w e v e r , oi h , made e s t i m a t i o n s f o r t h e blades. tip ortices hed y ingsPiercy's v s b w . (35) ' r e s u l t s f o r x a m p l e i n d i c a + ; ? , e , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y1 / 1 2o ft h es p a nw h i l eS p r e i t e ra n d t h a tt h ec o r er a d i u s .155 times t h e .s e m i - s p a nf o r S a c k s( 3 0 )g a v e a c o r er a d i u se q u i v a l e n tt o a ne l l i p t i c a l l yl o a d e dw i n g .I ft h er o t o ri nq u e s t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e dt o b e a w i n gw i t ha na s p e c tr a t i o o f 2 0 ,t h e nt h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s tt h a - tt h e c o r ? d i a m e t e r i s a b o u t 3 c h o r d s ( i . e . 3c) Since

r ,

it i so n l yn e c e s s a r yt o

A l t h o u g ho n l y a f e w i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e a c t u a l l y a t t e m p t e d t o m e a s u r e t h ep r . o f i l eo f a tipvortex,thlirresultsindicate a much s m a l l e r c o r e . An e a r l y s t u d y b y P i e r c y (37) s u g g e s t e d a c o r e d i a m e t e r o f O . X , w i t h t h e of +17-$'. maximum t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y , b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o a n i n d u c e d a n g l e I n a n o r er e c e n tp a p e rw h i c hp r e s e n t e d a s t u d y on t h e V107 h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r , (38) McCormick a p p r o x i m a t e d t h e o u t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e r o t o r b l a d eb y a wing 6 chords ehind b it. This ave g and measured some L r e l o c i t yp r o f i l e sa b o u t of 218 c o r ed i a m t e r s of t h e o r d e r of 0.2% and maximum i n d u c e da n g l e s

S i m o n s ,P a c i f i c 0a n dJ o n e s (25) c a r r i e d o u t some e x p e r i m e n t s i n 3 wind t u n n e l u s i n g a m o d e lh e l i c o p t e rr o t o ra n dm e a s u r e dt h ev o r t e xp r o f i l ew i t h a ' H o t - w i r ea n e m o m e t e r ' .T h i sg a v e a c o r ed i a m e t e ro ft h eo r d e ro f 0.1c w i t h MzCormick a n dT a n g l e r( 3 2 )s t u d i e dt h ev o r t e xs h e e t a 4 i n .c h o r db l a d e . (U.S. Army Cessna L-19) and compared b e h i n d a wing of a n a c t u a l a i r c r a f t o s s i n t h e w i n d u n n e lT h e s e t . t h e results with.a ne-twelfth cale emi-wing

12

w i n dt u n n e lr e s u l t sa l s os u g g e s t e d a c o r ed i a m e t e ro fO . l c ,w h i l et h ef l i g h t r e s u l t si n d i c a t e d a v a l u eo fh a l ft h i sv a l u e . Maximum i n d u c e d n g l e n a i both ases c were o f h e r d e r f t o o 22'. A l t h o u g ht h e' c o r ed i a m e t e r 'h a st h em a j o re f f e c to ft h en o i s ep r o d u c e d by a n y v o r t e x / b l a d e i n t e r a c t i o n t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h ev o r t e xc a n n o tb e n e g l e c t e d when e s t i m a t i n gt h en o i s e .T h ei n f o r m a t i o no no v e r a l ls i z eo f a v o r t e x i s e v e nm o r el i m i t e dt h ed e t a i l s . o nt h eL r o r t e xs i z eg i v e na b o v e . An e x a m i n a t i o no ft h ea v a i l a b l ei n f o r m a t i o nt e n d st os u g g e s tt h a tt h ec o m p l e t e p r o f i l et a k e st h ef o r m shown i n f i g u r e 6 , w i t ha n" o v e r a l lw i d t h " ( s e ef i g u r e ) o f 0.75C. A l t h o u g hh ep e a ka' m p l i t d u e t ' Vm i s a f u n c t i o n b l a d e p e e d n d of s a C, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e maximum i n d u c e d a n g l e sa r eo ft h eo r d e ro f 20' a s r e s e n t e d n h a i g u r e . p i t f E q u a t i o n 5.3, L a m b ' ss o l u t i o n , d e f i n e st h er a d i a ld i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e velocity hrough he ,ortex s t t \ a a function fime. ot From t h i s i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e maximum v e l o c i t y i s a t a r a d i u s g i v e n by:-

r =

-/
y ,
is

(5.4)

Thus t h e maximum v e l o c i t y

t 2 , w h i l et h e

These e q u a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o r e d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s a s maximum v e l o c i t yd e c a y sa s a f u n c t i o no f

t-9.

a f u n c t i o no f

Simons e t a 1 ( 2 5 ) s u g g e s t e d a m o d i f i e dr e l a t i o n s h i pf o rt h ec o r er a d i u s where time ' t ' was r e p l a c e d by ( t + t o ) . T h i si m p l i e st h a ta t t = 0 , when t h ev o r t e xi sa s s u m e dt ol e a v et h eb l a d e ,t h ev o r t e xc o r ei so ff i n i t es i z e . T h i si l l u s t r a t e sc l e a r l yt h ep r o b l e me n c o u n t e r e d ,n a m e l yw h a tt oc o n s i d e r a sz e r o time ( i . e . t = 0 ) . S i n c et h e r ea r ei n d i c a t i o n so f a well formed v o r t e xc o r es o o na f t e rt h e\ , o r t e xl e a v e st h eb l a d e , i t w o u l da p p e a rt h a tt h e time m u s tb ea s s u m e dt os t a r tf r o m a datum i n a d v a n c e o f t h i s time. A l t e r n a t e l y a s o l u t i o no ft h ef o r mo u t l i n e d by Simon e t a 1 (25) must be used. Thus t og e n e r a l i s e , i t w o u l d p p e a r h a a l t h o u g h a m b ' s o l u t i o n a t t L c a nb eu s e dt op r e d i c tt h es h a p eo ft h ev e l o c i t yd i s t r i b u t i o nt h r o u g ha n i s o l a t e dv o r t e xc o r ea n di n d i c a t i o n so fc h a n g e si nv o r t e xs t r u c t u r el i k e l y t o p r e d i c ta b s o l u t ev a l u e ss i n c e' z e r o time' w i t h time, i t c a n n o tb eu s e d cannot e efinedEquations bd . 5.4 and 5.5 a r e ,t h e r e f o r e ,n o tg e n e r a l working olutions. s For the articular ase nder onsiderationhowever, p c u c , t h e time b e t w e e nt h ev o r t e xl e a v i n gt h eb l a d ea n d a l i k e l yb l a d ev o r t e x i n t e r a c t i o n i s f a i r l ys m a l la n dt h u s ,i f i t i s assumed t h a tc h a n g eo f d i m e n s i o n s i s o ft h ef o r mi n d i c a t e db yL a m b ' ss o l u t i o n ,t h ec h a n g ei n v o r t e xc o r es i z ea n dp e a kv e l o c i t y Would n o t b e e x p e c t e d t o b e l a r g e .

13

I t w o u l db er e a s o n a b l e ,t h e r e f o r et oa s s u m et h a t

"M

= r

( t h r c u l a t i o r e n h eh e x ) cie s t n t g tr t vo f o

(5-6)

The c i r c u l a t i o ns t r e n g t ho f a vortex r c i r c u l a t i o n on t h er o t o rb l a d e s .C o n s i d e rt h ec a s e h o v e r i n gc o n d i t i o n sw i t hc o n s t a n tc i r c u l a t i o n . The l i f t on a n e l e m e n t d r a t r a d i u s dL = Vprdr and dL = p r r w d r Thus t o t a l l i f t f o r

, is

e q u a lt ot h e maximgm bound o f h e l i c o p t e ri ni d e a l

r is

V = w r ;thus

1 blade, L =

f z
0

dL.dr

= prwR
2

Now t o t a l l i f t

= Gross W e i g h to fH e l i c o p t e r :

B.L

(G.W.)

where B = No. o f b l a d e s . Thus t h e i d e a l v o r t e x s t r e n g t h

i s g i v e n Sy

Hencefromequation

5.6

I t s h o u l db er e m e m b e r e dt h a t t i l ? above i s b a s e d ontwodimensional a n a l y s i sf o r a p e r f e c tf l u i dc o n t a i n i n gi s o l a t e dv o r t i c e s .

When t h e b l a d e c u t s a v o r t e xf i l a m e n tt h eb l a d ec a nb ec o n s i d e r e d to pass hrough t a c y l i n d e r o fv o r t i c i t ya si l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u z e 4. In e s t i m a t i n gt h en o i s ef r o ma n yi n t e r a c t i o n( s e c t i o n 7 ) i t .is n e c e s s a r yt o know t h e s p a n w i d t h a f f e c t e d by t h e v o r t e x 3 n 3 t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e ' g u s t l e n g t hi n h e i r e c t i o n f l a d e o t i o n T h e s e a s ' t d ob m . , shown i n f i g u r e 4 a r e D. o b v i o u s l yf u n c t i o n so ft h ew i d t ho ft h eL r o r t e xf i l a m e n t T h ee x p e r i m e n t a l work a l r e a d yd i s c u s s e d on t h e v o r t e x s i z e a p p e a r s t o s u g g e s tt h a tt h eL r o r t e xw i d t h , o r more p r e c i s e l y t h e v o r t e x c o r e , is a b c . b . e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l a d e h o r dC o r r e l a t i o n e t w e e nv a r i o u s x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t si sp o o ra n d i t is l i k e l y t h a t m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e v o r t e x s i z e a r e i s a convenient g i v e n i n t e r m so ft h eb l a d ec h o r ds i m p l yb e c a u s et h i s method f uotinghe esults. oq t r The t h e o r y on t h e t h e r a n d , u g g e s t s o h s

14

. ... . . . .

thatthevortexsize time.

i s i n d e p e n d e n to fa l lp a r a m e t e r se x c e p - tv i c o si t ya n d
the

I t i s f a r more l i k e l y ,h o w e v e r ,t h a tt h ec o r es i z e is directlyrelatedto s p a nl o a d i n go ft h eb l a d ea n di np a r t i c u l a rt ot h el o a d i n gn e a rt h et i p i s assumed t ob ec o r r e c tt h e n ,s i n c et h eb l a d el o s d i n g ( 2 1 ) .I ft h i s i t w o u l da p p e a r characteristicsofthemajorityofhelicoptersaresimilar r e a s o n a b l et oa s s u m e( a tl e a s tu n t i lf u r t h e ri n f o r m a t i o n is available) that he panwidth ffected s e by t h ev o r t e x i s a constant. ince he verS t o allvortexfilament i s c o n s i d e r e dt ob eo ft h e same o r d e r a s t h e b l a d e c h o r d ,t h e ' g u s t 'o rv o r t e xf i l a m e n tw i d t h i n t h ed i r e c t i o no fb l a c km o t i o n c a na l s ob ea s s u m e dc o n s t a n tf o ra n y of t h e i s o l a t e d i n t e r a c t i o r s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 4.
The d i f f i c u l t i e s o f p r e d i c t i n g v o r t e x p a t h s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n o u t l i n e d . I fh o w e v e r , t h et i p\ * o r t e xp a t h j u s t a f t e rl e a v i n gt h eb l a d e i s determined by s i m p l ya s s u m i n g i t t o f o l l o w t h e b l a d e t i p p a t h a n d e s t i m a t i o n o f w h e r e i s l i k e l yt oo c c u rc a n b e b t a i n e dT h e r e o . i s some j u s t t h ei n t e r a c t i o n i f i c a t i o n i n t h i ss i n c er e l a t i v et ot h e shew-helical wake c o n f i g u r a t i o n , the akedistor-tion ppears o ccur w a t o i n the ertical lane 27,28,30). lso v p ( A s i n c ea n yi n t e r a c t i o n i s l i k e l y t o b ec a u s e db yt h ep r o c e e d i n gb l a d et h e d i s t o r t i o n i n t h er o t o rd i s cp l a n ec a n b ee x p e c t e dt ob e minimum s i n c e t h e time i n v o l v e d i s s m a l l . The Boeing Vertol Company ( l l ) , u s e d h i s y p e t t o fa p p r o a c h s u c c e s s f u l l y o n t h e i r tandem r o t o rh e l i c o p t e r . From t h i st y p e o fs t u d y it i sc l e a rt h a tf o rt h em a j o r i t y of h e l i c o p t e r st h ei n t e r a c t i o n i sl i k e l yt oo c c u ro v e rt h eo u t e rp o r t i o no ft h eb l a d e . I n e s t i m a t i n gt h e n o i s e( s e c t i o n 7 ) , t h e v e l o c i t y o f h e b l a d e a t t h s i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t is required. Unless a p a r t i c u l a r o t o r o n f i g u r a t i o n c a n d f l i g h -c o n d i t i o n t i sb e i n gi n v e s t i g a t e d i t w o u l da p p e a rr e a s o n a b l e b t a k et h el e s sS a v o u r a b l e c a s ea n da s s u m et h ei n t e r s e c t i o nv e l o c i t y V , t o be t h e same a st h eb l a d e tip velocity V T'

6 THEORETICAL MODEL
Thetwoextremeprofiledistributionsforanisolatedblade/tipvortexintera c t i o na r ei l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u r e s 7.1 a n d . 2 F i g u r e . l ( a ) n d b ) 7 . 7 a ( shows t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s a l o n g t h e s p a n a n d i n t h ed i r e c t i o no fm 2 t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r a b l a d ep a s s i n gt h r o t l g h a vortexwiththecoreaxisparallel t ot h es p a n . F i g u r e7 . 2s h o w ss i m i l a rr e s u l t s when t h ea x i so ft h ev o r t e xc a r e is parallelohe irection f otion. t t d om The t h e o r y s e c t i o n ( 7 ) habeen s The v o r t e x i s t r e a t e da s a developed or he ase f t c shown i n f i g u r e 7.1. gustwith a velocity profile equivalent to %e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t w o u l db ee x p e r i e n c e db y a b l a d e i f i t p a s s e dt h r o u g ht h ec e n t r eo ft h e vortex. The b l a d e i s assumed t ob em o v i n ga s a wing a t a v e l o c i t ye q u a l tothatofthebladesectionatthecentre of t h e g u s t .

S i n c e i t i s t h eb l a d el o a d i n gf l u c t u a t i o n i n t h ed i r e c t i o no fb l a d e motionwhich i s i m p o r t a n t ,t h et h e o r yc a na l s ob em o d i f i e dt ot h ec a s e 7.2. F o r t h i st h eg u s t i s t r e a t e d a s two s e p a r a t e i l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u r e g u s t so n e c t i n g p w a r d s n d n e , a u a o downwards a s shown i nf i g u r e . 7.3. The ' p o w e r 'f r o me a c ho ft h e s e i s n u m e r i c a l l ye q u a la n d i t i s t h e r e f o r e ,o n l y i t f o r o n eo ft h e s ea n dm o d i f yt h es o l u t i o n . t og i v e n e c e s s a r yt oc a l c u l a t e t h et o t a lp o w e r .I f i t i s assumed t h a tt h e two p a r t so ft h eg u s ta c ta s s e p a r a t ea n di s o l a t e dd i p o l es o u r c e s t h e nt h e r e i s no c a n c e l l a t i o n e f f e c t i s j u s td o u b l et h a tf o ro n ep a r to ft h eg u s t . I t has a n dt h et o t a lp o w e r been shown ( 3 9 ) by c o n s i d e r i n g two p o i n t d i p o l e s t h a t t h e r a t i o o f t h e W t o t a l power, W 2 , t o t h e power i n t h e f a r f i e l d f o r t h e s i n g l e d i p o l e 1' t a k e st h ef o l l o i v i n gf o r m : (6.1) As kh Where ' h '
k
+
O3

W2/W1

( i s o l ad i pcoa(s e. ) ) ted le 2 6

= separation f oint ipoles. op d

"

- c

2r rf

and f = f r e q u e n c y .

W /W v e r s u sk h ' ' i s shown i n f i g a r eA l , t h u s ,i fd e t a i l s of i n t e r 2 1 c be f I t would lso a a c t i o n were known the t o t a l p o w e r o u l d e a s i l y o u n d . b en e c e s s a r yt om o d i f yt h ee q u a t i o n sd e v e l o p e df o rt h ec a s e shown i n f i g u r e 7 . 1 . ,t ot a l t ea c c o u n to ft h ed i f f e r e n ts p a n w i s el o a d i n g :t h i se f f e c t is, howeversmall nd an or ll ractical urposes e eglected. , a c f a p p bn As d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4 t h e' p e a ka m p l i t u d e 'a n dt h er a t eo fc h a n g eo ft h e' v e l o c i t y ' p r o f i l e w i l l b ea p p r o x i m a t e l yt h e same f o r b o t h t h e c a s e s i l l u s t r a t e d . 7.10 a n d7 . 1 1( s e c t i o n7 ) T h u sp o w e ra n de n e r g yp r e d i c t e db ye q u a t i o n s t o e i t h e rt y p eo fi n t e r a c t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y will b ee q u a l l ya p p l i c a b l e w i t h i nt h ea c c u r a c y limits a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d .

. 4 l t h o u g ht h et r e a t m e n to ft h es o u r c ea s two s e p a r a t e d i p o l e s i s n o t t o g i v ea ne s t i m a t e canbeused e x a c t ,t h et h e o r yb a s e d o nt w op o i n td i p o l e s i t i s a s s u m e dt h a t : ofhe ccuracy fhe pproachIf t a ot a .

1. 2.
3.

the xtremes fhe ortex ore iameter rehe ipole entres e ot v c d a t d c ( i . e . h = c o r ed i a m e t e r ) ; t h ec o E d i a m e t e ri si nt h eo r d e ro f0 . 2o ft h eb l a d ec h o r d( s e e s e c t i o n 5 on e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s ) ; the ypical requency f he ound t f ot s V'= f l o w s p e e d r e l a t i v e t o b l a d e .

i s given y b

f =

''
C

where

16

Then :

kh =

2rfh C
0

2nMh

(M =
C

, Mach
0

no. of b l a d e )

a n d t a k i n g a t y p i c a l Mach n1Jmber o f 0.75 a t t,he b l a d e t i p g i v e s kh E 1.2 i n which ase c W W i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.3 a s shown i nf i g u r e A l . Thus t h ef i n a l i s l i k e l y t o be o f t h s o r d e r o f 8 dB s o l u t i o nu s i n g+ h em e t h o do u t l i n e da b o v e b e l o wt h ee x a c ts o l u t i o n .

2/

7 THEORY

7.1 G e n e r a l

A l t h o u g ht h el o u d n e s s of s i n g l ei m p u l s i v es o u n ds u c h a s s o n i c booms have b e e ne v a l u e t e d (40,41), t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y n oi n f o r m a t i o na v a i l a b l e on e s t i m a t i n gt h el o u d n e s so fr e p e a t i n gi m p u l s e s ,e x c e p ti nc o n n e c t i o nw i t h * recommendations damage for risk criteria (42,43). F otrh s i n g l i m p u l s e , e e t h el o u d n e s s i s d e t e r m i n e db yc o n s i d e r i n gt h es o u n de n e r g yi nt h ei m p u l s e F o r continuousounds it i s and pplying ppropriate eightingunstions. a a w f m o r eu s u a lt o work i n terms o f t h e s o u r c e p o w e r s i n c e t h i s is directlyrelated to he oudness nd ound ressure evel easurements. t l a s p l m A t t h ep r e s e n t time i t i s n o tc l e a rw h i c hm e t h o do fe v a l u a t i o n i s b e s ts u i t e di ne s t i m a t i n gt h e l o u d n e s s f e p e t i t i v ey p e f o i s e s or t on l i k e b l a d e l a pB e f o r e s . new m a t e r i a l becomes a v a i l a b l e ,h o w e v e r , i t w o u l da p p e a rt h a tt h ee v a l u a t i o n o f t h e power i s t h em o s ta p p l i c a b l e ( 4 4 ) , b u ts i n c e i t i s n o td e f i n i t eb o t h o ft h ei m p u l s e f o r m sa r eg i v e ni nt h ef o l l o w i n gt h e o r e t i c a ld e v e l o p m e n t .
7.2 A c o u s t i c T h e o r y I t was shown intheearlierpapers (12,13) t h a t when a b l a d e i s s u b j e c t e d t o a f l u c t u a t i n gl o a dL , . p e ru n i ts p a n ,t h et o t a ls o m de n e r g yp e ru n i t time radiated i n t ot h ef a rf i e l d i s given y b

s w s t o the isturbanceThis d . where ( r - r ) i s t h e p a n i d t h u b j e c t e d 0 1 1, a s s u m e st h a tb o t ht h eb l a d ec h o r d d e r i v a t i o nw h i c h i s r e p r o d u c e di nA p p e r d i x a n dt h er e g i o na f f e c t e db yt h ef l u c t u a t i n gl o a da r es m a l lc o m p a r e dw i t ht h e acousticwavelength.

17

I t was a l s oa s s u m e di nd e v e l o p i n ge q u a t i o n( 7 . 1 )t h a tt h eb l a d el o a d i n g i s constant ver he pan idth o t s w (r rl). A more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a n w i s e s is illustrated l o a d i n gf o rt h et y p eo fb l a d e / g u s t o i n t e r a c t i o nu n d e rc o n s i d e r a t i o n below:-

A good pproximation o his a t t e q u a t i o n( 7 . 1 ) i s m o d i f i e dt o

i s a h a l fs i n e

wave.

I ft h i s

i s used hen t

I nt h eo r i g i n a lp a p e r s a f r e q u e n c ya n a l y s i so ft h em e a s u r e ds o u n d was m3de i n terms o ft h eb l a d ep a s s i n gf r e q u e n c ya sf u n d a m e n t a l ,a n df o rt h i sr e a s o n t h es u b s e q u e n tt h e o r - ? was d e v e l o p e d i n terms o fh a r m o n i c so ft h i sf r e q u e n c y . T h i sf o r md o e sn o t ,h o w e v e r ,l e n di t s e l fr e a d i l yt ow o r k i n gr e l a t i o n s h i p sf o r use ith ctual elicopters. w a h The f o l l o w i n g h e o r y h e r e f o r e r e a t s h e t t t t b l a d el o a d i n gi m p u l s ea sa ni s o l a t e de v e n t ;t h et o t a lr a d i a t e de n e r g yf r o m i m p u l s e o r ' b a n g ' w i l l b eg i v e n ,r a t h e rt h a nt h ea v e r a g ep o w e ro v e r a complete blade assing ycleRecent p c . work on i m p u l s i v en o i s ea n dt h es u b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n to fb l a d es l a p on a c t u a l h e l i c o p t e r s seems t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s a p p r o a c h i s more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r l o u d n e s s p r e d i c t i o n . E q u a t i o n (7.2) c a nb eu s e dt oc a l c u l a t et h ea c o u s t i cp o w e r or energy radiated romhe lade ollowing f t b f a s i n g l eg u s t o r i m p u l s e T h i s i m p l y . i n v o l v e sa ni n t e g r a t i o no v e rt h ed u r a t i o no ft h ei m p u l s e ,a n dl e a d s t o the W a n db a n g n e r g y ' E B e s p e c t i v e l y : ' e r f o l l o w i n g x p r e s s i o n o rb a n g o w e r ' e f ' p B

s i n c e EB

= ( b a n gd u r a t i o n )

18

7.3 Blade loading

To calculate W and E accurately it would of course, be necessary to B B know the variation of blade loading as it passes through or over the tip vortex 'filament. Thus an exact gust velocity profile the direction of in blade motion would required. be The time history of the blade loading is very important, sinceW and E are dependent on the rate of change of loading B and not just the amplitude. ! h e spanwise distribution normal to the direction so of motion is not important, although for an absolute estimate of noise it would be needed.
A study of the tip vortex paths associated with even a simple rotor system shows that it is practically impossible to estimate the gust profile experienced by the blade: this is discussed in section4 . It is therefore impossible at the present time to develop the theory in terms of absolute values for an actual helicopter.

It is possible, however, by considering an ideal bladelvortex interaction and making various simplifications, to obtain a relationship which shows both the important parameters for an actual helicopter, and indicates the severity of blade slap likely on any helicopter. When bladelvortex interaction occurs, the blade effectively passes through a gust of known dimensions. The resulting lift can be calculated using Kussner's It is convenient to represent the gust as a series of harmonics function ( 4 5 ) . based on the gust width as the fundamental length. Using this approach, the loading is given by two separate expressions, 7.5) one when the blade is experiencing the gust(equation and the other as 7.6) when the loading- decays the blade passes out of its effect (equation k m sin(kms-@)+e -0.13s L = 1VCa W m o m ,J ' k +01) (.3'

J. YF 05
Lm
= $PVCaoWm (kmx sin

sin (kms-a) +e-' m -0.13s

(7.5)

sin( m kmx-a) + km '2+ km 1

@)

km ik2 +@ .13) m

+
In the above relationships
m = Harmonic
Km =

order

of

gust

2IIb.m Y

19

= non-dimensional distance measured from beginning of gust

d given by S=b

where d is actual distance, b = half chord = C / 2

Y x

= total length of gust = non-dimensional length of gust= Y/b,

These expressions could be evaluated numerically for each case. The effort involved is not, however, justified unless the details the gust of A s already discussed this is not the case, profiles are accurately known. and it is more useful to obtaina simplified solution which gi\,es an estimate of WB in terms of overall featuresof the gust.
. Since the harmonics of thetypical gust shown in figure 8 1 fall off .) rapidly (figure 8 2 it is not necessary to consider more than, say, the first three harmonics. The total loading (based on the first three gust harmonics) determined using equations 7 5 and . is shown by the continuous . 6 . line in figure 9 4 If the calculation is limited to the first harmonic alone, then the blade loading s h o w by the broken line on figure 10 is obtained. The two curves are L'ery similar in shape, suggesting that it is the first harmonic that largely determines the shape of the loading curve. I t should he noted that equation 7 . 3 and 7 4 depend on the rate ofchange of . loading ( a L j a t ) and the shape is important as well as the amplitude.

Thus a good estimate of W and EB can be expected if the calculation is based on the first harmonic. BThe loading f o r the first harmonic is given . It will be noted that this is made by equations 7.5 and 7 6 with m = 1. up of two terms, with an amplitude ratio of approximately 1:8. These two terms are shown on figure 10. The smaller term is of a similar shape to the larger, with the result that although it affects the amplitudeit has very little effect on the shape. Since this term is small compared with the other it seems reasonable to neglect it in which case the loading is given by a much simplified equation.
It is still theoretically necessary to harmonically analyse the gust. If however, the calculationis made using the peak gust amplitude W instead of Wi, then the resulting loading is increased in amplitude and now approximates closely the overall amplitude, as well as the shape, originallyobtained using the first three harmonics. This is, of course, due to the fact that the gust profile approximates sine wave and thatthe ratio of gust width a to blade chord approaches unity. The agreement is shown in figure 11, which compares the loading based on the first three harmonics (continuousline) with that obtained for only the first harmonic (m = 1) when W is taken as the peak amplitude W o f the gust and the first term omittea as described is above (broken line).

20

S i n c e i t i s t h er a t eo fc h a n g eo fl o a d i n gw h i c h i s i m p o r t a n t ,t h em a i n c o n t r i b u t i o nt ot h e b a n g powerandenergy i s e x p e c t e d t o come w h i l et h e b l a d el e a d i n ge d g e i s w i t h i nt h eg u s t( e q u a t i o n7 . 5 )r a t h e rt h a nf r o mt h e e x p o n e n t i a ld e c a yo fl o a d i n ga f t e rt h el e a d i n ge d g ee m e r g e sf r o mt h eg u s t ( e q u a t i o n . 6 )P a ro e q u a t i o n 7 . tf 7.5 h a b e e n i s c a r d e d l r e a d yt;h e s d a r e m a c n i n gt e r m so f a s i n e term a n da ne x p o n e n t i a l term a r e compared i n f i g u r e 12. I ft h ee x p o n e n t i a ld e c a y term c a nb en e g l e c t e d ,t h el o a d i n g t h ef o l l o w i n gs i m p l i f i e dr e l a t i o n s h i p :

i s g i v e nb y

T h i s i s v a l i d , . ,w i t h i nt h e limits a l r e a d yo u t l i n e d , p r o v i d e dt h eg u s t l e n g t h s i s of t h e same o r d e ra st h eb l a d ec h o r d . I t may aDDear t h a tt h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s made t o o b t a i n e q u a t i o n 7.6 a r e e x t r e m e l y s e v e r e . To o b t a i n a ni n d i c a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n . t h 2 e x a c t s o l u t i o n ( b a s e d on t h e f i r s tt h r e eh a r m o n i c so ft h eg u s t )a n de q u a i o n7 . 7 t h et i m ev a r i a t i o no f (aL/at) as een omputed sing oth ethods. h b c u b m The r e s u l t s a r e compared i n f i g u r e 13, a n df r o mt h i s i t c a nb es e e nt h a tt h e p e a kl e t n e l s a r eu n d e r e s t i m a t e d by a f a c t o r o f 2.
W and E d e p e n d n h e ot time i n t e g r a lo ft h es q u a r eo ft h ec u r v e sg i v e n B i n f i g u r e 4.7y t h i sh a sb e e nc o m p u t e da n ds h o w st h a tt h ev a l u ec a l c u l a t e d u s i n gt h ee x a c ts o l u t i o n s i s 1.7 times a s g r e a t a s t h a t g i v e n b y t h e simplified olution. s The comparison i s i l l u s t r a t e di nf i g u r e 14.

Differentiation o f e q u a t i o n7 . 7 w i t hr e s p e c tt o

t =Cs/2V

gives

T h i se x p r e s s i o n i s t o b ei n t e g r a t e do v e rt h ed u r a t i o n o f t b ei m p * J l s e , 2 w h i c h i nt h ep r e s e n ta p p r o x i m a t i o n i s from k s = 0 t o 2. A p p r o x i m a t i n g k /(k12+1) 1 by 1 ( o n h e r o u n d s h a t t g t Y=Z, s o k = Ill> l e a d st ot h e result

1

Substitutioninequation7.3and

7..4 g i v e t h e b a n g p o w e r . a n d

energy a s

21

B '

'

4W2 (ro
0

pv

rl)2
(7.10)

EB'

3 "
0

p n 3 3 (r
0

rl)2

(7.11)

22

7.4BangPowerandEnergy

i n Terms of H e l i c o p t e r P a r a m e t e r s

(r r i s the panlength ubjected s ' s t o t h eg u s t , o r i nt h ec a s e of 1 a realaelicopterthebladelengthaffectedbythetipvortexfilament. This i s d i s c u s s e di ns e c t i o n 5 and i t w o u l da p p e a rr e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m et h a t (ro - rl) is a constant.
T h es t u d yo fp o s s i b l et i pv o r t e xp a t h sh a sa l r e a d y v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n i s m o s tl i k e l yt oo c c u rn e a rt h eb l a d et i p . b er e p l a c e d i n t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n s b y t h e b l a d e t i p v e l o c i t y shown t h a tb l a d e / Thus can
'l r

VT.

I t h a sa l s ob e e n shown i ns e c t i o n 5 t h a ta l t h o u g ha ne x a c ts o l u t i o n f o r t h e maxi.mum t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t y o f a t i p v o r t e x i s n o tp o s s i b l e V i s M c o n n e c t e dt ot h ep a r a m e t e r so f a h e l i c o p t e rb yt h ef o l l o w i n gp r o p o r t i o n a l i t y : -

M'

(GW) VTBR

( e q u a t i o n 5 .8)

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n
:V

W E V

andhence, (7.12)

( GWl2
'B2R2

' B a

Y .VT. (GW)2
E~ a
B2R2

(7.13) S i n c e i t was assumed i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h s b l a d e l o a d i n g t h a t t h e g u s t l e n g t h i s o f t h e same o r d e ra st h eb l a d ec h o r da n ds i n c ea n yb l a d e / L , o r t e x b e a f u n c t i o n o f a b l a d ec h o r d( s e c t i o n 4), Y i n i n t e r a c t i o ni sl i k e l yt o e q u a t i o n7 . 1 3c a nb er e p l a c z d by C ,whence

VT ( GW)' C

EBa

B2R2

(7.14)

7.5 B l a d e S l a p F a c t o r

E q u a t i o n s 7.12 a n 37 . 1 4w h i c hg i v et h e' b a n g pow2r' a n d' b a n ge n e r g y ' r e s p e c t i v e l yc a nb eu s e dt oc o m p a r et h er e l a t i v e levels o fb l a d es l a pl i k e l y For conveniencehese quations ave een t e h b termed t h e from ny elicopter. a h

23

BLADE SLAP FACTORS andarereferredtoas 'BSF(P)andBSF(E) b a s e do np o w e ra n de n e r g yr e s p e c t i v e l y 2 2 BSF(E) = (GW) CVT BSF(P) = (vT.@)) RB Y BR

fortheestimation

(7.15)

o r i n terms o f t h e d i s c l o a d i n g ,

(7.14)

T h ea b o v ee q u a t i o nc a nb eu s e dt oi l l u s t r a t et h em o s ti m p o r t a n tp a r a m e t e r ,3n a na c t u a lh e l i c o p t e r .C o n s i d e ri nt h ef i r s ti n s t a n c eo n ep a r t i c u l a r C , R and B w i l l b ef i x e d ,i nw h i c hc a s e h e l i c o p t e r ,t h e n

BSF(P)

(VT.GW)

BSF(E)

V~(GW) 2

(7.17)

I f now t h e ' p i t c h ' i s a s s u m e dc o n s t a n t , i sd i r e c t l yp m p o r t i o n a lt ot h ev e l o c i t y

i t f o l l o w st h a tt h ev o r t e x3 i z e o f t h eb l a d e ,h e n c e GWct VT

o r strength
and

BSF(P)=

:v

BSF(E)=

vT5

(7.18)

o f c o u r s e ,t h a ta l lo t h e rc o n d i t i o n sa n dp a r a m e t e r sa r e T h i sa s s u m e s c o n s t a n t 2nd i s t h e t y p i c a l law f o r t h e d i p o l e t y p e o f r a d i a t i o n .
C o n s i d e rn e x tt h ec a s e when t h e t i p v e l o c i t y

i s f i x a d ,t h e n : -

(GW) E K . O where 0 i s t h e p i t c h a n g l e .
h

Thus BSF ( P ) and BSF ( E )

0:

0 '

(7.19)

T h eB l a d eS l a pF a c t o r sh a v eb e e nc o m p u t e d f o r a n u m b e ro fh e l i c o p t e r sa n d t h er e s u l t sa r e shown i n t a b l e 1 t o g e t h e rw i t hs o n es u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t s . 8 DISCUSSION ON THE BLADE

SLAP FACTORS

T h eb l a d es l a pt h e o r yh a sb e e nd e v e l o p e do n c h o r da n dt h es p a n w i d t he f f e c to ft h ev o r t e xa r e

t h ea s s u m p t i o nt h a tt h eb l a d e s m a ( l eA p p e n d i1 ) . ls e x The

24

B.S.F. i s t h e r e f o r e more l i k e l y t o b e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r s w i t h r e l a t i v e l ys m a l lc h o r db l a d e s .F o rl a r g ec h o r db l a d e s it would e ecessary bn t ot r e a tt h es o u r c ea sa na r r a yo fd i p o l e sa n do b t a i nt h eo v e r a l le f f e c tb y it does ot n a summation rocess. lthough his ould e elatively imple, p A t w br s a p p e a rj u s t i f i e ds i n c et h ed e t a i l so fb l a d e / \ . o r t e xi n t e r s e c t i o nl i k e l y on a n y h e l i c o p t e r a r e s o vague.
A c o m p a r i s o nb e t w e e nt h es u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t sa n dt h ev a l u e so fB . S . F . ( P ) and B.S.F.(E) given i n t a b l e 1 is shown i n f i g u r e s 15 a n d1 6r e s p e c t i v e l y . The B.S.F. h a sb e e np l o t t e d 3n a l o g s c a l e ,w h i c h i s , o fc o u r s e , e q u i v a l e n t t o u s i n g a dB s c a l e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e h e l i c o p t e r s r e f e r r e d . t o i n t h e s u r v e y (14) t h ev a l u e s f o r t h eS i k o r s k yS 6 5a n dM i l h a i l (USSR) Ml 10 a r e shown. i I t w i l l b eo b s e r v e dt h a tt h e r e i s f a i r l y g o o dc o r r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nt h e B.S.F.'s a n dt h es u b j e c t i v eo b s e r v a t i o n ,p a r t i c u l a r l yf o rt h e power s o l u t i o n( B . S . F . ( P ) F i g u r e 15).

The v a l u e s f o r t h e MT1 13 a r e e x t r e m e l y l a r g e , w h i l e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e h e l i c o p t e rs u g g e s t i t i s v e r yq u i e ta n dw i t h o u tb l a d es l a p ( 2 0 ) . A t t h e time o ft h i sa s s e s s m e n t o f t h e Mil 10 t h e g r o s s w e i g h t was o n l y 85000 l b s i n q h i c h c a s et h eB . S . F . ( P )a n dB . S . F . ( E )a r er e d u c e dt o4 5 4 0 x 10 and 20.8 x 10 r e s p e c t i v e l yT h e s e r eh o w e v e r , . a , s t i l l welabovehose fhe ther l t ot o h e l i c o p t e r sc o n s i d e r e d .

i t i s n o tp o s s i b l et oe x p l a i n W i t ht h ei n f o r m a t i o na tp r e s e n ta v a i l a b l e why t h e Mil 10 h a ss u c h a l a r g eb l a d ef a c t o rw h i l en o th a v i n ga n yb l a d es l a p .
I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e5 6 5 i s a l s o s p a r s e , b u t t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t b l a d e s l a p i s n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m on t h i s h e l i c o p t e r , e v e n a l t h o u g h t h e v a l u e o ft h e B.S.F. i s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e .
A a l r e a d ym e n t i o n e dt h et h e o r y s is notreallysuitedtohelicopterswith large hord lades. he hord idth f he c b T c w ot Ml 10 i s v e r yl a r g e i (39 i n c h e s ) , w h i c hc o u l da c c o u n tf o rt h ef a c tt h a tt h e B . S . F .d o e sn o ta p p e a rt oa g r e ew i t h t h e s u b j e c t i v ea s s e s s m e n t i n t h i sc a s e . The c h o r d of t h e SS5 b l a d e i s a l s o r e l a t i c r e l yl a r g e (26 i n c h e s ) , b u t t h i s i s o n l y s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e c h o r d width fhe ot UH-1D b l a d e ( 2 1i n c h e s ) . The UH-1D r e s u l t , 3 s shown i n t h ef i g u r e , a p p e a r st oa g r e e well w i t h t h e s u b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e b l a d e s l a p n o i s e

An e x a m i n a t i o no ft h el i m i t e d number of r e s u l t ss u g g e s t st h a ta l t h o u g ht h e b l a d es l a pf a c t o r i s a p p r o p r i a t ef o rs i n g l er o t o rh e l i c o p t e r sw i t h a low number of b l a d e ( 2 o r 3) a n dt a n d e mr o t o rh e l i c o p t e r s i t i s n o ta p p l i c a b l et om u l t i b l a d e d ( 5 o r m o r e )s i n g l er o t o rh e l i c o p t e r s . I t shoIJld rememberedthat be the f a c t o ra s s u m e sn o to n l yt h a tb l a d e / v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o no c c u r s ,b u tt h a t it occurs i nt h e less favourableorm. f I t could e hat he bt wake d i s t o r t i o n on s i n g l e r o t o rh e l i c o p t e r sw i t h a l a r g e number of b l a d e s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n on t h o s ew i t h ,s a y , two b l a d e s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t s t h a t b l a d e / v o r t e x i n t e r s e c t i o n i s l e s s l i k e l yt oo c c u r .U n t i lf u r t h e rd a t ab e c o m e sa v a i l a b l e it i s n o t , h o w e v e r ,p o s s i b l et od r a wa n yd e f i n i t ec o n c l u s i o n s .

9 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A s e c o n dr e p o r t

AND FUTURE REPORTS

ON BLADE SLAP

on b l a d es l a p

i s being repared. his p T

w i l l r e p o r tt h e

f u l ls c a l ef l i g h t t e s t sa n d model t e s t s c a r r i e do u tt od a t e .I na d d i t i o n it some o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o r s o f v a r i o u si m p u l s e s h a p e sw h i c ha r eb e i n gc o m p u t e da tp r e s e n tu n d e rt h ed i r e c t i o n of M. C.G.Rice r of t h eA u d i o l o g yG r o u p ,a s well a s t h e r e s u l t s of some i n i t i a l s t u d i e s made a t t h e I.S.V.R. of t h es u b j e c t i v ea s p e c t so fb l a d es l a p .

i s hoped t o i n c l u d e

A r e v i e w o f t h ep o s s i b l em e t h o d so fr e d u c i n gb l a d es l a p w i l l a l s ob ei n c l u d e d .

on h h l i c o p t e r s

26

APPENDIX A ACOIJSTIC THEORY

1

A t h e o r yh a sb e e nd e v e l o p e d( 1 9 )f o rt h en o i s ep r o d u c e d when a b l a d e p a s s e st h r o u g ha ni m p u l s e o r g u s to f known f o r ma n dp r o f i l e .T h er o t o rb l a d e i s assumed t o b e r i g i d a n d n o t t o d e f l e c t when p a s s i n gt h r o u g ht h eg u s t . t h en o i s ec a l c u l a t i o n s i t is t r e a t e d a s a % i n p l a t e .

For

shown thatthepressureat a p o i n tw h c s ep o s i t i o n L i g h t h i l l (45) has x i ( i = 1 , 2 , 3 )t a k e st h ef o r m r e l a t i v e t o a p o i n td i p o l eh a sc o - o r d i n a t e s

where F i i s t h e f l u c t u a t i n g f o r c e a n d f r o mt h es o u r c e .

r t h ed i s t a n c eo ft h eo b s e r v a t i o np o i n t

The s e c o n dt e r mi nt h ep r i o re q u a t i o nb e c o m e ss m a l l when t h ed i s t a n c ef r o m t h ep o i n tt ot h es o u r c e r i s much l a r g e r t h a n a t y p i c a lw a v e l e n g t ho ft h e sound r a d i a t e d . h u s ,otrh" f afri e l d " , T f e

The l o a d i n gp e ru n i ts p a n L , o n, ? a c hs m a l la r e ao fb l a d ec a nb ea s s u m e dt oa c t S a s a p o i n td i p o l es c o ! ~ ~ t i cs o u r c e ,p r o v i d e dt h ec h o r d i s s m a l lc o m p a r e dw i t h a wavelength. Thus f o r a s m a le l e m e n t l of span

so thatthetotalradiatednoise

is

I na d d i t i o n ,i ft h es p a nl e n g t ho v e rw h i c ht h eg u s ta c t s ,

(ro

rl),

is

27

"

span

(A) c a nb er e p l a c e d by (1/4117) where r i st h ed i s t a n c e of the observation point from the mid-point o f n t h es p a nl e n g t ha n d x i s t h ec o - o r d i n a t en c r m a lt ot h es p a n at this n mid-point.
a n dt h ef a c t o r( 1 / 4 T r )( x n / r )i ne q u a t i o n

(x

The mean

radiatedintensity,

I in the"farfield"

is

I =

-P*) (P

W i s t h es u r f a c ei n t e g r a l a n dt h et o t a lr a d i a t e de n e r g y of t h e i n t e n s i t y S a l a r g es p h e r e . o v e rt h es u r f a c eo f It t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w s t h a t

(r

r,)

28

REFERENCES

1. 2.
B e l l H e l i c o p t e r Co.

V e r t i c a l World

- July

1966

A s t u d yo ft h eo r i g i na n dm e a n s of r e d u c i n g h e l i c o p t en o i s eU n i t e d t a t e s r . S T.C.R.E.C. T e c h n i c aR e p o r t l No. 62-73. November 1962.

O p e r a t i o n a lA s p e c t s o f H e l i c o p t e rN o i s e . V e r t oD i v i s i o nt,h B o e i n g l e Company. 1964 I n v e s t i g a t i o na n dP r e d i c t i o no fH e l i c o p t e r 1 - Wessex Whirl Tower R o t o rN o i s e( P a r t R o s u l t s ) . e s t l a nA i r c r a f t t d . , W d L R e p o r t No. A.A.D.4/1, November, 1964. H e l i c o p t e rN o i s e . J . Roy. Aero. Soc., V o l .6 9 , May 1965. Some o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e n o i s e f r o m h e l i c o p t e r s I n t e r n a lN o t eI . S . V . R . ,A p r i l1 9 6 4( U n p u b l i s h e d ) .
B 3 1 1 H e l i c o p t e r Company 1964

3.

S t e r n f e l d , H. S p e n c e r , R.H.

Stuckey, 4. T.J. Goddard, J . O .

5.

Davidson, I.M. H a r g e s t , T.H. Lowson, M.V. Lynn, R . R . S t e r n f e l d , H. R.

6.
7.

- p r i v a t ec o m m u n i c a t i o n s

8.

Boeing-Vertol

p r i v a t e o m m u n i c a t i o n s1 9 4 5 c .

S9 .h l e g l , c

HslicopterNoiseGeneration. S i k o r s k yA i r c r a f tD i v i s i o no fU n i t e dA i r c r a f t C o r p o r a t i o n1 9 6 5 . . H e l i c o p t e rR o t o rN o i s eG e n e r a t i o na n dP r o p a g a t i o n USAAVLABS Tech. Report 66-4 O c t o b e r1 9 6 4 . ,

on h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r I n f l u e n c eo ft h et i pv o r t e x noise. AGARD C o n f e r e n c eP r o c e e d i n g s No. 22 September, 1967.

10.

S n h l e g l , R.. King, R. M u l l , H. S t e r n f e l d , H.

11.

12.

T a y l o r , F.W. L e v e r t o n J .W. L e v e r t o n J.W. T a y l o r , F .W. F.W.

H e l i c o p t e rB l a d eS l a p U.S. Army S c i e n t i f i c Symposium June 966. 1 H e l i c o p t e rB l a d eS l a p J. Sound. (1966) Vib. 4(3), 345-357. M.Sc. T h e s i s - S o u t h a m p t o nU n i v e r s i t y ( U n p u b l i s h e d1 9 6 5 )

13.

1 4 .a y l o r , T

29

REFERENCES c o n t d .

15.

Ham, N.D.

S t a l lf l u t t e ro fh e l i c o p t e rR o t o rb l a d e s : A S p e c i a lc a s eo ft h e Dynamic s t a l l phenomenon A m e r i c a nH e l i c o p t e rS o c i e t y2 3 r dA n n u a lN a t i o n Forum, Washington, May 1967. T h eU n s t e a d yN o r m a lf o r c er e s p o n s eo fa na i r f o i l i n a p e r i o d i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d i n l e t f l o wi n c l u d i n g stallingeffects. AAIA p a p e r No. 67-18. B l a d e S t a l l - H a l fF a c t ,H a l fF i c t i o n A m e r i c a nH e l i c o p t e rS o c i e t y ,I n c . 2 3 r dA n n u a lN a t i o n a l Forum P r o c e e d i n g s , May 1967

16.arta, C

F.O.

17.

H3rris, F.D. Pruyn, R i R .

18.

Ham, N.D. Young, M.I.

L i m i t C y c l eT o r s i o n a lM o t i o no fH e l i c o p t e rB l a d e s due t o s t a l l . J . SolJnd V i b . 1 9 6 6 ) ( 3 ) , 3 1 - 4 4 4 ( 4 4
M.Sc. l h e s i s - U n i v e r s i t yo fS o u t h a m p t o n ( U n p u b l i s h e d1 9 4 5 ) W e s t l a n dA i r c r a f tL t d . ,

19. Leverton,J.W.

20.

Ives, A.I.R. J o n e s ,. P . J

p r i v a t ec o m m u n i c a t i o n s

1965

21.
22.

U n i v e r s i t y of Southampton 1967

private ommunications c

Modern Developments i n F l u i dD y n a m i c s 11. C l a r e n d oP r e s s n flowol. V P e a r c e y , H.H.

Highspeed

23.

The a e r o d y n a m i cd e s i g n o f s e c t i o ns h a p e sf o rs w e p t w i n g sP r o c e e d i n gotfhS e c o n I n t e r n a t i o n . s e d C o n g r e s s i n t h e e r o n a u t i c aS c i e n c e sZ u r i c h 9 5 0 A l : 1 E x p e r i m e n t a ls t u d i e s on t h e s t a b i l i t y o ft h e transonic .flow past airfoils I X t hC o n g r e s sI r t e r n a t i o n a ld eM e c a n i q u eA p p l i q u e . Bmxclles1957. , The movement, s t r u c t u r e a n db r e a k d o w no ft r a i l i n g v o r t i c e sf r o m a r o t o rb l a d e . 1 - 1946 CAL/USAAVLABS Symposium P r o c e e d i n g sV o l .

24.

Tamki

, F.

25.

Simons, I .A. P a c i f i c o , R.E. Jones J.P. Ham, N.D.

26.

An e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t of a n o n - r i g i d wake on r o t o rb l a d ea i r l o a d s i n transonic flight. on Load P r o c e e d i n g s CAL/TRECOM Symposium Dynamic P r o b l e m sa s s o c i a t e dw i t hh e l i c o p t e r sa n d V/STOL a i r c r a f tV o l . 1 J u n e1 9 6 3 .

30

REFERENCES c o n t d .

27.

T a r a i n e , S.

E x p e r i m e n t a la n dt h e o r e t i c a ls t u d yo fl o c a li n d u c e d v e l o c i t i e so v e r a r o t o r d i s c . P r o c e e d i n g s CAL/TRECOM SymposiumonDynamicLoad Problemsassociatedwithhelicoptersand V/STOL a i r c r a f t V o l . 1 J u n e 1963. P r e d i c t i o n of r o t o r wakeflows. CAL/USA.4VLABS Symposium P r o c e e d i n g sV o l . 1. P r o p e l l e ra n dr o t o ra e r o d y n a m i c sJ u n e 1966. V t oP e r i o d i c e r o d y n a m i co a d i n g s : l A l What i s b e i n gd o n ea n dw h a tn e e d st o J. S o u n d V i b ( 1 9 6 6 ) ( 3 ) , . . 4 282-304. The p r o b l e m s , be done.

28.

C r i m i , P.

29.

W h i t e , A.P.

30.

S c u l l y , M.

P a p e r p r e s e n t e d A t Symposiumon t h e N o i s e a n d L o a d i n ga c t i o n so nh e l i c o p t e r , V/STOL A i r c r a f t a n d g r o u n de f f e c tm a c h i n e s . U n i v e r s i t yo fS o u t h a m p t o nS e p t e m b e r , 1965. P r o p e l l e rR e s e a r c ha tC a n a d i rL t d . , CAL/USAAVLABS Symposium P r o c e e d i n g s .V o l . 1. P r o p e l l e ra n dr o t o ra e r o d y n a m i c sJ u n e 1966.

A s t u d yo ft h e\ , o r t e xs h e e ti m m e d i a t e l yb e h i n da n a i r c r a fw i n gD e p a r t m e noA e r o n a u t i c a l t . tf E n g i n e e r i n g , T h eP e n n s y l v a n i aS t a t eU n i v e r s i t y , December, 1965.

31.

Adams, G . N .

32.

McCDrmick B.W. Tangler, J.L.

33.

Simons, I .A.

B l a d e - v o r t e xi n t e r a c t i o n f o r w a r d f 1i g h t . I.S.A.V. 1 2 6 , J u l y1 9 6 5 . , Hydrodynamics. C a m b r i d g eU n i v e r s i t yP r e s s A n r o d y n a m i c s2 n dE d i t i o n , E.U P. 1947

on h e l i c o p t e r r o t o r s

in

34.
35.

Lamb, H. P i e r c y , N.A.V. S p r e it e r Sacks P i e r c y , N.A.V.

1932.

36.

The r o l l i n g u po ft h et r a i l i n gv o r t e xs h e e ta n d i t 5 e f f e c t on t h e downwash b e h i n d a wing. J . A e r o .S O C .J a n u a r y 1951.

Cr t h e v o r t e x p a i r q u i c k l y f o r m e d b y J . Roy. Aero. SOC. October, 1923.

37.

some a i r f o i l .

DetailsalsogiveninBasic

Wing TheorybyPope.

31

REFERENCES contd.
38

McCormick, B.W.

107 A study of the vortex system of the Vertol I1 r o t o r . The Boeing Company (Unpublished) 1963

39. Morfey, C.L.

40. Zepler, E.E. Harel, J.R.P.

Private communication

1967.

Th.e Loudness of sonic boomsand other impulsive sounds J. Sound Vib. (1965) 2(3) 249 Lolldness and pitch sensations of an impulsive sound of very short duration. J. Sound Vib. (1967) 5(2) 285-289 Hazardous exposure to impulsive noise. I.S.A.V. 162

41.

Rice,C.G. Zepler, E.E. Coles R.R.A. Garinther, G.R. Hddge,D.C. Rice, C.G. Rice,C.G.

42.

43.

The Hazards to hearing of impulse noise. I.S.A.V. 184 June 1957 Private communications. 1968 The Bakerian LecCure-1961. On sound generated aerodynamically. Pro. Roy. SOC. A-267, p 147-182

4 . Rice, C.G. 4

45. Lighthill, M. J.

32

I
,
W

Table 1

Helicopter

No. o l R o t o r
Blade:

Blade Chord

Bell: UH-1B UH- 1D

Sikorsky: S58 56 1 S65 Westland: Wasp/S.cout
w

2 2 4 28 31 36.1
~

5
6 4

16.4 18.3 26

15
28 28 26.5

1 0 . 6 ~ : 5500

I
"

A.U.W.

Rotor
; ,

R.P.M.

Tip Speed

Blade SI

Factor

B.s.F.(P)
(x

B.s.F.(E)
(x

"

lo7)
2050 23 10

lo7)
5.05 5 a25 Veryloud Very loud

8503 i 9500 745

324 324 195 203 185 400

13000 19000 35000

i
I

1
J

I
I

570 650 700 670

440 650 1298 330

1.o
1.48 4.05 0.44

-* *
t

Little slap
athigh altitude. S l i g h t bangin! Slightbangin! No s l a p No s l a p Loud Veryloud

Wessex2 8, 5 Wessex 3 Whirlwind Belvedere B o e i n gV e r t o l : V107 Chinook

4 4 3 2 x 4 2 x 3 2 x 3 2 2 4

1
16.4 16.4 16.4 15.5 12600 13500 8000 24.5 19000 19650 33000 3100 2750 2400 12.71600 8637 5969 221 228 218 250 264 230 370 368 470 483 277 248

1I
1

650 670 600 640 6 90 720 6 90 680 650 650

6 25 655 370 385

1.25 1.27 0.80 0.78 1.78 5.02 0.64

25 30 17.7 17.7 13.2

18 25.3
14 10.2 6.8 6.8 21.6 15.7

820 1740
365 285 87 78

Hiller:
Hughes:

SL 4

FH
OH

1100
6A

0.36
0.08 0.069 1.12 0.32

269 A Karnan:

* * *
*

No s l a p

K 20 K 600

4 4

22 23.5

1 1

640 610

395 150

T a b l e :I c o n t d .
I

Helicopter
" I _

No. of
Blades

I n-Rotor 'peed Tip

B.s.F.(P)

B.s.F.(E) Factor

Assessment Subjective

ins.

lbs.

Lockheed:
w
l b

XH-51A
M 1 i 0 l

4
I7O5

Milhail:

57.4

I1

'

-.

l2 39

11

4700 1205760 720 95790 26.4

Notes:

1.

D e t a i l s f o t o r a r a m e t e r ss p e e d n d or p , a A.U.W. f o ra l lt h eh e l i c o p t e r se x c e p tt h e were obtained from 'VERTICALWORLD June 1947. D e t a i l so ft h e Ml 10 wereobtainedfrom i FLIGHT 23.3.67 Informatiofrom n F.W. T a y l o r ' q u e s t i o n n a i r e / s u r v e y i v e n s g t h a t t h e r e was n 3 s p e c i f i c m e n t i o n t o t h e s e h e l i c o p t e r s , was n o t i n s e r v i c ea tt h et i m eo ft h es u r v e y . Blade Chord Width a tt i p .

Ml 10 i

2.

i n r e f e r e n c e (14). * i n d i c a t e s i n d i c a t e st h a tt h eh e l i c o p t e r

3.

Plate 1 . Photograph of

Westland Westminster

showing t r a i l e d o r t i c e s . v
IPHOTO: WESTLAND HELICOPTERS LTD

36

VELOCITY PROFILE

" " " "

PATH 'B'

"-

PATH 'A'
" " " "

" " " "

PATH ' ' C

FIG. 1. IDEALIZED BLADE VORTEX INTERSECTION. (REFERENCE

,

14)

FLIGHT SPEED 70 M.P. H .

fi R . 408

#bet

t
I
\

STALLED AREA
TYPICAL BANG DURATION

FlG.2

TYPICAL ANGLE-OF-ATTACK-CONTOUR FOR SINGLE ROTOR HELICOPTER.

38

WIND DIRFCTION

'9

b
\

v
\

h
\

8o

COLLECTIVE PITCH SHAFT INCLINATION.

a
( 180')
( 0)

FIG.3. VORTEX PATHS IN THE FORE-AND-AFT PLANE. (REFERENCE 25 )

39

I "

-"-"""""~""""

" " " " "

&6"7

SPAN VIEW

C -

1-

BLADE CHORD

."""_
FILAMENT

" " "

FlG.4. IDEALIZED BLADE VORTEX FILAMENT

INTERSECTION

40

'.

, DrjTRlBJTION. /

POTENTW

vt

CORE

DIAMVER

\DISTRIBUTION Rw. FLUQ.

FOR

FIG.5. VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION THROUGH A VORTEX CORE.

41

\I I

I I

I I

I
I

I
I

I
1

I
I

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

i -

CHORDS

RERRENCE 30

FIG. 6. MEASURED VORTEX PROFILES.

42

VORTEX CIRCULATION APPROX. VELOCITY PROFILE7

I/

FlG.7-I

VORTEX CORE A X I S PARALLEL TO SPAN OF BLADE.

"
1

X
I

I
FIG.7-2
VORTEX CORE AXIS PARALLEL TO

1
DIRECTION OF BLADE MOTION.

I.

flG.7-3. THEORETICAL MODEL

FOR CASE SHOWN IN F I G 7 2

FIG.7. BLADE VORTEX INTERSECTIONS.

60.

4 0
2 0 .

5
20.
40

P i
w >

60
lo

I
I

4 6 8 HARMONIC ORDER.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8 CHORM

8.1-PROFILE.

8.2-HARMONIC CONTENT.

FIG. 8. GUST CHARACTERISTICS.

24

21
I8

12

-9
-12

24

T
TOTALLOADIN

G (EQUATIONS 7.5 & 76)

LOADING GIVEN BY 2"" TERM OF EOUATIONS 7.5 & 76

LOADING GIVEN

BY Isf T E R M OF EQUATIONS 35 b 36

,'

1-*00 ' 5'

c3

z 3 3"

CHORDS

FIG.10. BLADE LOADING FOR FIRST HARMONIC

FIG. 11. BLADE LOADING.

EXPONE NTlAL

TERM

c
4

2
I

ORDS

-2
-4
W
0

a -6

z -

-8

-1 0

FIG. 1 . M A D E LOAD1NG - COMPARiSON 2 OF EXPONENTIAL & SINE COMPONENTS 0 F 2 . TERM OF EQUATION 7-5 "

48

1 0

9
8
L i

>

"7
6

5
4

2
I
dL -

dt

0
I

I
2

3
4

5
6
>
W

1 7

8
9

vs.

' s'

49

I C

[T S
4

50

'n

&
6 0
50
MIL.10

0 -

40 30

20

0 UH-IB

/
n

A CHINOOK

e
W

30 6 10
8
6
5
4
WHIRLWIND 1 0 1 HILLER 5L4

* WESSEX 3

x WESSEX 5

'

/
-

2
NONE

SLIGH T LOUD BLADE SLAP RATING.

VERY LOUD

FIG. 15. BLADE SLAP FACTOR(POWER) SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT.

51

vs.

a_

x u

MIL IO

20

IO
0

N0NE

SLIGHT

LOUD

VERY LOUD

SUBJECTIVE ASZESSMENT

FIG. 16. BLADE SLAP FACTOR (ENERGY) vs SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT.

52

"

"

cu

53

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS D SPACE ADMINISTRATION AN WASHINGTON,C. 20546 D.

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

FIRST CLASS MAIL

POSTAGE A N D FEES PAID NATIONAL AERONAUTICS ANT SPACE ADMINISTRATION

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