Constructing a Model of Mathematical Literacy Author(s): David K. Pugalee Reviewed work(s): Source: The Clearing House, Vol.

73, No. 1 (Sep. - Oct., 1999), pp. 19-22 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30189486 . Accessed: 12/04/2012 23:04
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a Model Constructingof Mathematical Literacy

DAVID PUGALEE K.

hat

shouldour studentsbe able to do to demonstrate mathematical proficiency? That question has received a greatdeal of attentionover the past decade. Most recently the attention has sprung from the publication of results from the Third International Mathematicsand Science Study (TIMSS), which appear to show "a pervasive and intolerable mediocrity in mathematics teaching and learning"(Silver 1998, 1). Educators,the media, and politicians have joined in the debate, generatinga great deal of rhetoric and in some cases even policy. California caught the public's attentionas several lawmakersthere fought to "restore"basic skills to the mathematics curriculumand guard against the perceived inhibition of such skills by the use of calculators.Unfortunately, most of the resultingdiscussions have done little to really addressour question.Too frequently the goal of the debate has been to win philosophical battles. To get back on track, we need to reintroduce some structureto the debate regardingwhat it means to be "mathematically literate." For people to functioneffectively in today's world, mathematical literacy-what the British call numeracy-is as essential as verbal literacy (National Research Council 1989). Mathematical literacyor numeracyis criticalif a student is to have full access to the school curriculumand ultimately is to participatein the adult world (Departmentfor Education and Employment 1998). In 1989, the National Council of Teachersof Mathematicsreleased the Curriculum and Evaluation Standardsfor School Mathematics (NCTM 1989). The intent of this documentwas to serve as a guide for significant reform in the teaching and learning of mathematics. partof its task, the NCTM Commission As on Standards School Mathematicswas chargedwith for a visionof whatit meansto be matheCreat[ing] coherent
matically literate both in a world that relies on calculators

and computersto carry out mathematical proceduresand in a world where mathematicsis rapidlygrowing and is extenin sively beingapplied diverse fields. [emphasis added] (1)

In keeping with this initial spirit,the discussion draftfor the new NCTM standardsidentifies mathematicalliteracy as a societal need arising from increasing mathematical and technological influences that require quantitativeunderstandings(NCTM 1998). The chargeto createa coherentvision of mathematical literacy has far-reachingimplicationsin that the success of effortsto enactchangehinges on the extentto whichthis goal is realized.Both in the United States and abroad,the task of creatinga coherentvision of what it means to be mathematically literatehas not been sufficientlyrealized.Mathematical literacyhas not been well definednoris therea mechanismin for place thatwould providestructure educators,policymakers, andthe publicto engage in such a debate-thus, the need for such a frameworkor model. The model should describe those processesthat are centralto an individual'scapacityto "do mathematics" using the tools of today's society, and it shouldpossess a foundation allows an individual adapt that to to futureadvancesin technologyandin mathematical knowlthe edge. In essence, whatis neededis a model thatarticulates fluid and dynamicnatureof this form of literacy.

Constructinga Modelof Mathematical Literacy

A basic model of mathematicalliteracy must, first, embody the five processes throughwhich studentsobtain and use their mathematicalknowledge: valuing mathematics, becoming confident in one's ability to do math, becoming problem solvers, communicatingmathematically,and reasoning mathematically (NCTM 1989). Second, such a model should demonstratethe intricate interrelationships between variousprocesses that are essential in the development of mathematicalliteracy.Third, such a model should specify "enablers"that facilitate development of the five processes. The model of mathematicalliteracypresentedin figure 1 is one possible model thatconsidersthe importance of these three standards. 19

David K. Pugalee is an assistantprofessor in the Department of Middle and SecondaryEducationat the University of North Carolinaat Charlotte.

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The model uses two concentriccircles to depict the components of mathematicalliteracy.The largercircle is made up of four processes that are critical in doing mathematics: representing,manipulating,reasoning, and problem solving. (The five NCTM process standards are embedded within the model's four processes.) The innercircle depicts three enablers that facilitate the "doing of mathematics": communication, technology, and values. These two concentric circles depict the interrelatednessof the enablers and processes in the evolution of mathematicalliteracy. Processes of Mathematical Literacy

involves those skills thatenablethe individRepresenting ual to construct,and alternatebetween, variousmathematical models, such as equations,matrices, graphs, and other symbolic or graphical forms. This process builds on the natureof mathematicsas involving multiplerepresentations of concepts: numerical, algebraic, graphical, and verbal (MathematicalSciences Education Board 1996). Students should be adept at moving between variousrepresentations of mathematicalsituationsand understand information the in whateverform it is initially presented.Additionally,the ability to representis vital for the individual to translate mathematicalideas into other representations that he or so she can communicatemathematical models and solve mathematical problems.This skill has been identifiedas crucial in the applicationof mathematicsto everydayproblemsand on-the-job situations (EducationalTesting Service 1995). As such, the ability to representmay be viewed as a building block of mathematicalinquiryand as a requisiteto beliterate. coming mathematically involves performing calculations and Manipulating using algorithmsand proceduressuccessfully.Althoughthe ultimategoal is the developmentof a deeper or conceptual of understanding mathematics,the ability to manipulateremains foundationalin doing mathematics.According to a working group of the U. S. Departmentof EducationAlgebraInitiativeColloquium,manipulation variables-solvof ing simple equationsby hand and more difficult equations by machine-is part of an appropriate algebra experience

1 FIGURE Model of Mathematical Literacy

Repres
solving

for all K-12 students (Lacampagne 1995). Furthermore, "themasteryof a small numberof paper-and-pencil manipulative skills should be expected of all students. Symbol manipulationsoftware and calculators should be used for other manipulativeskills" (9). This recommendation imis portantin that it extends the concept of manipulationbeyond manualapplicationsto those affordedby technology. involves "makingconjectures, Reasoningmathematically and building an argumentto support gathering evidence, such notions"(NCTM 1989). In the early grades, students should be involved in the kinds of informalthinkingabout mathematicsthat promote sense making. Such experiences include drawing logical conclusions; using models, facts, properties,and relationshipsto explain thinking;justifying answersand solutionprocesses;and using patternsand relaIn tionshipsto analyzesituations. the middlegrades,students shouldrecognize and apply deductiveand inductivereasonand ing; understand apply reasoningprocesses with special attention spatial,proportional, graphical to and relationships; make and evaluateconjecturesand arguments; and validate thinking.The high school studentwill make and test conjecfollow logical arguments; tures;formulatecounterexamples; andconstruct judge the validityof arguments. and Reasoning and conceptualizingabout mathematicsis vital if students are to progresstowardmathematical literacy. Problemsolving is viewed by many to be the fundamental reason for studying mathematics.Problem solving involves the use of prior knowledge and skills in moving toward a resolution to a problem that lacks an apparent solution. Current views on problem solving see it as a dynamic process that allows the individualto move freely among variousstages, which include, but are not limited to, the problemposing, understanding problem,makinga plan, carryingout the plan, assessing progressconsideringthe informationin the problem, and evaluating whether the answer is logical (Wilson, Fernandez, and Hadaway 1993; Kulm 1991). The ability to use mathematicsto solve problems is a primarygoal of becoming mathematically literate. The mathematically literate individual possesses those skills that allow him or her to successfully understanda problem, design solution paths that will yield results, and of effectively assess the appropriateness those results. Mathematicalliteracy is a complex interactionof these processes. Though there are varying levels of proficiency, the development of each of the processes is necessary. Their interactionis summarizedwell in the British conception of numeracy: means about numbers number and Numeracy knowing operations.Morethanthis,it requires abilityandinclination an to solvenumerical familiariproblems.... It also demands information gathered is ty withthewaysin whichnumerical in and by countingand measuring, is presented graphs, chartsandtables.(Department Education Employfor and ment1998,5) Linked to these basic processes are three factors that serve as enablersin the developmentof the processes:com-

Technology

Values
Pro Communication Reas

Mani

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Model of Mathematical Literacy

21

munication,technology, and values (the inner circle in figure 1). These enablers and processes interactto facilitate the developmentof mathematicalliteracy. Enablers for Mathematical Literacy is Communication a tool thatassists studentsin the develThereis an increasunderstanding. opmentof mathematical for the important role that discourseplays ing appreciation in the developmentof conceptualthinking.Vygotsky (1962) saw conceptualthinkingas the dialectic between the development of thought and the developmentof language. The interactionof the two, with language based in social interaction, creates conceptualthinking.Thus, discourse can be seen as a facilitator of the constructionof mathematical knowledge. It is powerful when individuals become engaged in the type of discoursethat forces them to reason about the mathematicsthey are using. And not only verbal discourse is importantin the developmentof mathematical literacy;writing has also been shown to create an environment that supportsthe type of metacognitivethinkingthat, in turn, supports mathematicalreasoning (Pugalee 1995, are 1997). Such levels of communication relatedto learning to clarify,refine, and consolidatethinking(NCTM 1989) in ways thatpromoteassociationsbetween informaland intuitive ideas in mathematicswithin the realmsof abstractlanguage, symbolism,and multiplerepresentations. Technologycontinues to play an increasingly important role in our society and in our approachto mathematics.The literateindividualmust be able to use techmathematically nological tools in investigatingmathematicalideas and in finding solutions to mathematical problems. Although some educatorsand parentsare concernedaboutthe possible negative impact of the use of technology (particularly calculators)on skills developmentin mathematics,research fails to support the notion that technology negatively affects students' abilities in mathematics, even computational abilities. In fact, research indicates that the use of calculators encourages the development of higher-order thinking during mathematical problem solving (Nohda 1996). Moreover, technology advances have changed the nature of the problems deemed importantto mathematicians and the methods used to investigate them. Such changes in emphasis and method were critical in NCTM's (1989) adoption of a position advocating that calculators should be made availableto all studentsat all times, that a computer be available in every classroom for demonstration, that every studenthave access to a computerfor individual and group work, and that students learn to use the computer as a tool for processing information and performing calculations in investigating and solving mathematical problems. Clearly, technological competence will continue to become an increasinglyimportantfactor in the and growth of mathematicalunderstanding knowledge and thus the attainmentof mathematicalliteracy. The idea of values is expandedto include one's emotions, beliefs, and attitudestowarddoing mathematicsand toward

the natureof mathematicsitself. The learnermust come to the appreciate role of mathematicsin today's society as well as the historical, social, cultural,and scientific contexts of its development (NCTM 1989). The factors within this affective domain interact with the cognitive processes involved in the learningof mathematics.Such affectivefactors include empoweringindividualsto take controlof their own learning and to be confident about making informed decisions regardingmathematicsand the learningof mathematics (Cuevas 1995). Research literatureestablishes the importanceof affective variablesin the learningof mathematics (KotaandThomas 1997).Whatis particularly important is the articulationof the role that values play in assisting the learnerto make sense of mathematicsand of his or her own role in learningand doing mathematics. Conclusion Our "workforce needs citizens who can adapt to new technologies, identify problems, reason about problems, and communicate their findings using symbols, graphs, tables, pictures,and words"(NCTM 1997). The four processes and three enablers identified here serve as a framework for understanding complexity of mathematical the literacy. Although the model doesn't necessarily lead to a concise definitionof mathematicalliteracy,it does bringus closer to realizing that there are componentsthat serve as its basis. One hopes that such a model will generate additional discussion of what these componentsmean for each student at various levels of education. Such dialogue will help us to consider what is importantin the teaching and learningof mathematics. REFERENCES
Cuevas, G. J. 1995. Empowering all students to learn mathematics. In Prospectsfor school mathematics,edited by I. M. Carl. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachersof Mathematics. Departmentfor Education and Employment. 1998. Numeracy matters:
The preliminary report of the numeracy task force. London: Crown

Copyright. EducationalTesting Service (ETS). 1995. Reachingstandards:A progress reporton mathematics.Princeton,NJ: ETS. Kota, S., and M. Thomas. 1997. Genderdifferencesin algebraicproblem solving: The role of affective factors. In Proceedings of the 21st Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics,

edited by E. Pehkonen.Lahti, Finland. Kulm, G. 1991. Assessing higher order thinking in mathematics.Washington, DC: AmericanAssociation for the Advancementof Science. Lacampagne, C. B., and D. Chazan. 1995. Recommendations.In The algebra initiative colloquium, volume 1, edited by C. B. Lacampagne, W. Blair, and J. Kaput, 9-13. Washington,DC: U.S. Departmentof Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement and National Institute on Student Achievement, Curriculum,and Assessment. MathematicalSciences EducationBoard. 1996. Thepreparationof teachers of mathematics:Considerationsand challenges. Washington,DC: National ResearchCouncil. NationalCouncil of Teachersof Mathematics(NCTM). 1989. Curriculum and evaluationstandards school mathematics.Reston, VA: NCTM. for S1997. A frameworkfor constructinga vision of algebra: A discussion document. Reston, VA: NCTM. 1998. Principles and standards for school mathematics: Discus-

sion draft. Reston, VA: NCTM.

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National Research Council. 1989. Everybody counts. Washington,DC: NationalAcademy Press. Nohda, N. 1996. How to link affective and cognitive aspects in the mathematics class. Proceedings of the China-Japan-U.S. seminar on mathematical education, edited by D. Zhang, T. Sawada, and J. Becker. Carbondale, IL: SouthernIllinois University. Pugalee, D. K. 1995. Using journal writing to characterizemathematical problemsolving. Doctoral dissertation,Universityof North Carolinaat Chapel Hill. 1997. Connecting writing to the mathematicscurriculum.Math-

ematics Teacher90 (4): 308-10. mathematicsin middleschool: Lessonsfrom Silver, E. A. 1998. Improving TIMSSand related research. Washington,DC: Office of Educational Researchand Improvement(ED417956). Vygotsky, L. V. 1962. Thoughtand language, edited by E. Hanfmannand G. Vakar.Cambridge,MA: MIT Press. Wilson, J. W., M. L. Fernandez,and N. Hadaway. 1993. Mathematical problem solving. In Research ideas for the classroom: High school mathematics, edited by P. S. Wilson, 57-58. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachersof Mathematics.

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