Running Head: YOUTH: CONCERNS AND CHALLENGES

Discussion on youth concern, challenges and problems facing them with some solutions on those problems

Nor Aishah bt Yacob (1115502) Bachelor of Education in Guidance and Counseling

International Islamic University Malaysia

Paper submitted as partial fulfilment of requirement for EDP 1103 Educational Psychology, Section 1, instructed by Prof. Dr. Nik Ahmad Hisham Ismail at the Institute of Education of the International Islamic University Malaysia in Semester 1, 2011/2012

Youth concerns Introduction

What is youth? Many of us do not know what is youth? Is it same meaning with adolescent and what age youth is? Therefore, here I want to state the definition of youth first before I focus on the concern and challenges of youth. According to MacMillan dictionary, youth means the time in someones life when they are young and immature especially the time before a child becomes adult. In simple language, youth is the period between childhood and maturity, especially adolescence and early adulthood. In other hand, one prominent writer in the name of Sir Breuny defined youth as the quality or stage of being young; youthfulness, juvenility, the part of life that succeeds adulthood the period of activity (Pastor, 1997). In addition to this definition, another psychologist says a youth is a person who is going to carry on what you have just started, he is going to sit where you are sitting and when you are gone, attends to those things which you would have attended to. Some observers believe that the youth years have become the worst time or problematic period of life. In this topic, I will focus on youth concerns and challenges. As we know, todays youth or teenagers face many serious problems like problems with sexuality and the like. It has been recognize that in last few decades, a research made by G. Stanley Hall is known as father of adolescent psychology. Hall constructed a psychological theory of teenage development. Hall believed that each persons development passes through the same four stages the human species has (Dacey & Kenny, 1997). Halls interpretation of adolescent development was greatly influenced by his observation that it is a period of storm and stress which is in last stage. He sees adolescence as a unique time of storm and stress or emotional upheavals (Seltzer, 1989). In the

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theory, Hall believed that adolescence is the only period in which we have any hope to improving our species to be superanthropoids Another research conducted by Sigmund Freud or known as psychoanalysis theory, it emphasize on psychic development of human and personality development. Freud believe that, if youth or adolescent fail to pass a stage of development, the person will becomes fixated or stuck at that stage and as a result, the person is unable to develop into a fully mature person. Meaning that, the person will face with challenges in form their own personality like difficult in defining or describing themselves. This issues is related to the topic that I discussing now. The other research studied by Erik Erikson on psychosocial development in fifth stage, identity versus diffusion more emphasize on adolescent or teenagers. This theory is support the psychoanalysis theory founded by Freud. As mentioned by Dacey & Kenny, the main task of adolescent is to achieve a state of identity (p.53, 1997). Meaning that, the positive outcome of this stage, the adolescent find consistent sense of self succeeds in defining themselves. However, the negative outcome of this stage, some of adolescent will facing with identity crisis, they become confused with themselves, it is difficult to them to make decision about their identity. Usually, their parent or sibling or friend or media will media tell them how they should be. This is the other major issues that are facing the youth today. Another research that explained about youth or adolescent issues is contextualism; this theory is the product of the thinking of Richard Lerner. This theory emphasize on the interaction occurring between adolescent and their environment. Lerner believes that there are a various factors that influence the life of the adolescent. One of the factors is social network which is influenced by the peer. This issue will be discussing later under topic social disable or problem of adjustment issues faced by youth.

Youth concerns

One of the most distinctive characteristics of adolescent is the change of body shape from the slenderness of a childs body to one recognizably male or female. These physical changes called puberty. According to Ciccarelli and White (2009) puberty is physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak (p.338). Therefore, due to this adolescent or youth need time to adjust to these changes as noted by Chiam Heng Keng (p.185, 1995). The puberty period is a concern of adolescents as they do not know to handle the changes. For females, breast tissues begin to enlarge, hip begin to widen, the uterus grows, and eventually the menstrual cycle begins. While for males, the penis and testicles increase in size, muscle become more defined, and the voice begins to deepen. At this time, parents, teachers and significant others must look forward and monitor the adolescents emotion, moods and manifested behavior without looking beyond the obvious. As one prominent author believes, understanding the changes that occurring in adolescents and their emotional vulnerability is beneficial to both parents and their adolescent children. For adolescents knowledge of what is happening to them will remove their fears and anxieties whereas, for parents, the knowledge will equip them to assist their children to have a less bumpy passage to adulthood (Chiam Heng Keng, 1995, 189). The issue above about puberty is the basic concern or anxiety all adolescent as all adolescents experience the event. However, what are the most important concerns and challenge of youth? Youth face a range of developmental issues. There have been many studied conducted on the youth concerns. One of researches conducted by Gross and Weeding (1974) identified the concerns of youth included alcohol, dating, drug abuse, dress, ecology, population, youth input in decision making, poverty and violence. The author examined the role of parent, society or organization in helping youth meet these concerns. As a result from the research, parents and

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society play an important role in managing and meeting with the concern of youth and youths needs. Next, the other challenge of youth is adjusting to cognitive changes. The adolescence stage is involving the changes in cognitive development. Dacey and Kenny (1997) have noticed that adolescence is a complex process of growth and change. Because biological and social are so much focus of attention, changes in the young adolescents ability to think often go unnoticed (p.101). Generally, the thinking or cognitive level during adolescence reaches its highest level that is the level of abstract thought. Let we refer Piagets theory which is stress on intellectual growth. Ingersoll (1989) noted that, Piaget believed that, it is not enough to say that the adolescents score highest or reaches highest level on tests of intelligence than younger children simply because they have had more learning and experiences. Besides that, Piaget referred to new found intellectual ability of adolescence as formal operational thinking and believed it represented the culmination stages of cognitive development that begin in infancy (Berk, 2005). Briefly, the adolescents develop the capacity for abstract and scientific thinking in this formal operational stage. However, not all individuals can reach to this stage. My question is why are so many adolescents even college students not fully formal operational? The main reason is that people are most likely to think abstractly on tasks with which they have had extensive experience. For example, one person who is excels in English literature, but he fail or weak in sciences. Due to the differences in training and interest, the person who does well at one task may not be good at the others. Relatedly, this formal operational or abstract thought can give impact on academic success. So, again I would like to stress here, this issue be a concern to adolescents mostly. It is normal to everyone to get successful and have sense of competing in education are common among adolescents. This matter of competitiveness in education is a

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concerns and challenge as well for them. Out there, it is a merciless, competitive world where everyone wants to be breed toppers and rankers. Everyone wants top scores, want to be doctor, engineering. Adolescents need to think about their ideas, view events from differing perspective, understand competing ideas, and considers others intentions as well as their own. Therefore, opportunity must provide for adolescents to make judgments through discussion and questions that guide them to sound reasoning (Storm, 1999), (as cited in Schickendanz et al, 2001. As I said before, the competitiveness in education is one of concerns among adolescents. They always compare the academicals excelling and academic strategies used by their classmate or others. The fact is the academic ability of individuals is different from others. Everyone has unique skills, capabilities and dreams. If we want to compete some in some academic areas which are not in line in our interest, we must nourish the belief about our capabilities. As forward by Bandura (1997), Pajares and Graham (1999), (as cited in Schickedanz et al, 2001) students beliefs about their capabilities are important components of academic motivation and achievement. Hence, adolescents thought about their own thinking may have important consequences for motivation to achieve intellectual performance. The other problems adolescents face today is conflict in formation the self and identity. The self has been of major interest to psychologists, especially those interested in adolescents, for many decades. As forward by William James (1950) presented a model of the self that remain useful in understanding the links between the development of self-concept and personal identity (as noted in Dacey & Kenny, 1997). Self-concept is beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts about the self that are descriptions about ones physical, social, and psychological qualities. While personality identity is the set of beliefs about the self concerning how one changes over time yet remains the same individual, how one is different from others, and how one is able to

Youth concerns

act independently (Dacey & Kenny, 1997, p.165). Meaning that, the adolescent self-concept and identity formation include a need to achieve a sense of uniqueness and individuality or distinctiveness while also remaining connected. The adolescence or youth period involves physical, cognitive and social change. Everybody looks, feels, thinks differently, and judges right or wrong differently, and engages in different types of social relationships. Identity give freedom to adolescents what they will do with their bodies, their mind and their relationships. However, not everyone can build their own identity. The challenge to adolescent here is to create or form a unique self that will retain the support of significant others and society. If we look at the reality world today, some of adolescents face with identity crisis. The question who I am? Where am I going? What is right and wrong? are always in their mind. Sometimes, these persons be passive and self-centered and feel that they have done nothing. The other challenges that faced by youth today are lack of self confidence and low self esteem, a sense of hopelessness and confusion and ambiguity concerning moral issues. As I mentioned earlier in the Eriksons theory. Let us recall back the Erik Erikson psychosocial development theory. Here, I only focus on the adolescents, so I will not explain the early stage. We move to fifth stage that the centre of attention is on adolescence from 12 to 18 years old. The psychosocial crisis at this stage is identity versus confusion. He introduced the concept of achievement of a sense identity. The major conflict centre at this stage is on clarification of self-identity, life goals, and lifes meaning. As he believes that, real understanding of adolescent conflict must include an awareness of the peerdominated nature social values (Selter, 1989, p.9) In addition, Erikson highlights the peer as an important figure and the peer group as a setting for experimentation, role play, and psychosocial development. Meaning that, not only parents are responsible in supporting the adolescents in forming their identity, but the peer group also plays an important role in helping the adolescents

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creating their identity. As noted by Seltzer (1989), peership is an important and uniquely adolescent relationship. Adolescent peers generously give to another, and they also freely take. That means they borrow characteristic psychologically from one another to try out. Therefore, the adolescent peership can be best thought of as preliminary to friendship as noted by (Seltzer, 1989). So that, if the adolescents have support from peer and family as well, perhaps they can manages the issues of behavior, self-identity or self-control, values, and self-esteem. On the other hand, school and community should play their role in help students in formation identity. It is because; identity development also depends on schools and communities that offer rich and varied opportunities for exploration (Berk, 2005). Hence, the positive feelings of self worth contribute to continued healthy psychological development and help reduce negative effects of stress while growing up. Dacey and Kenny (1997) expose that, although the theory helps us understand early influences on self-concept development, it do not help us in understand how self-concept changes during adolescence. For that understanding, we need to consider the many changes take place during adolescence. In my point of view, this identity crisis can be solved by engage in warm, open communication between parents and adolescents. Parents must provide both emotional support and freedom to explore adolescents values and goals. Parents should give freedom to them to decide what they want to be without forcing them or make decision to them. In some cases, parents force their child and have already make decision what they should be when they grow up. They force their child to bear burden of their ambitions. It is worse than child labor. According to psychoanalytic theory, there is a process of individuation during adolescence. The process is important to the development of the self as an independent person. In time, the adolescents develop clearer picture of themselves as separate and different from their

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parents. So that again, parents should give freedom to them. Adolescents need to feel powerful in order to feel secure without parental support. Besides that, the other common problem or issue face youth today is problem of adjustment into society or socially disable. Normally, we all are needed to be together. But particular individual have problem adjustment in social or in simple language, the person have social anxiety disorder. The signs or symptoms do the adolescent with social anxiety have are, they are shy around strangers and may not speak well to people outside of the family. As Chandler (2011) identifies the others sign of social anxiety on adolescent are fear to read aloud in front of class, not join musical or athletic performances, fear to join in on a conversation, fear to speak to Adults, fear to start a conversation, shy or fear to write on the blackboard, and fear to ordering food in a restaurant. Besides that, the other research on this problem was studied by Caster, Inderbitzen, and Hope (1999) point out Adolescents reporting higher levels of social anxiety perceived their parents as being more socially isolating, overly concerned about others opinions, ashamed of their shyness and poor performance, and less socially active than did youth reporting lower levels of social anxiety(p.237). Furthermore, Chiam Heng Keng (1995) exposes that the youths who have social anxiety will feel insecure and their insecurity often makes them obnoxious, which alienates them further from peers and increases incidences of peer rejection. Mostly, they will feel a sense or feelings of rejection, inadequacy, and insecurity. So, before we look at the solution of this problem, we must examine the causes first. As forward by Buss (1986) believes that parents who continually criticize their youths appearance and behavior and overly emphasize being scrutinized by others, may contribute to the youth developing a fear of negative evaluation in social situations (pp.39-46). Meaning that, youths may develop a primary component of social anxiety, the fear of negative evaluation, from critical and shameful

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interactions with their parents. Besides that, a research studied by Caster et al (1999) examined that not only may parenting behaviors influence the development of social anxiety in youth, but social anxiety in youths may result in distorted or biased interpretations of parental behavior. Hence, the cause of this problem is the weakness of parenting skill. Parents should do not set up a blockade of children activities, in fact let the child attempting to practice and gain competence in his newly-acquired psychomotor skills. In other words, these children have not been provided with opportunity to explore the extent and limitations of their ability. As one prominent author explains any hindrance to childs attempt to gain mastery and competence will produce frustration, feelings of inadequacy, inferiority and fear as well as a sense of failure (Chiam Heng Keng, 1995, p.15). As a result, the childs spontaneity is stifled and a low self-concept is instilled within him. As I said before, in Freud theory, if the child has fixation in their childhood stage, he or she will has problem when they become grow up as he or she immature. In a way to avoid this problem happen among youth, the parents should expose a communication or social skill to their children since they are young. Parents reactions, both verbal and non-verbal, have profound impact on formation of children or adolescents self esteem. The parents do not criticize or give negative evaluation toward their children. Buss (1986) belief that youths may develop a primary component of social anxiety, the fear of negative evaluation, from critical and shameful interactions with their parents. Therefore again and again, parents are most important influential role and socializing agent. Parents therefore required more effective parenting techniques to combat the powerful forces outside the home so that children are the outcome of their input instead of others. Last but not least, parents need to update their knowledge and skills in parenting and the most important things this knowledge will help the parents in understanding

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children development, what children need, the critical periods for development and what practices satisfy children s basic needs. More than that, let we try ask someone to list the adjectives of the four stages in human development that are infants, children, adolescent, and adults. I am sure they will come out the list adolescents contained the most number of negative adjective. Majority believe that, the youthful years is the problematic and worst time of life. It is because, the youths are in development process and they need supportive parents, good schools, and a caring community. These agents will provide the best insurance of healthy growth and a competent entry into young adulthood. However, many teenagers or youths who lack some or all of these advantages. Due to this, they are unable to accomplish a successful journey through adolescence as they face many problems. Other problems are conflict with family and youth input in decision making. It is not common for parents to remark in frustration: I do not understand my son or daughter anymore. And this is common for adolescents to lament in despair: my parents do not understand me. As mentioned by Anna Freud (1969) (as cited in Dacey & Kenny, 1997) who is studied troubled adolescents, noted that conflict with parents is common, and concluded that this is a normal and necessary part of adolescence. She believed that the biological changes of puberty set off this conflict, which was needed so that the adolescents could become independent from their families. Majority of adolescents who are still got along well with their parents were thought to be immature. So that, as long as they can be independence and not rely on their families, they will do so. Many parents with adolescent children feel confused by the trouble they are having with their teenagers, especially when they cannot recall similar experiences in their adolescent years. Basically, the adolescent problems are changing with the changing time and environment. So the parents cannot expect that their adolescent children problems are same with their problem

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in adolescent time. Besides that, the rapid changes, especially in technology, and influence of the media often and truly cited as reasons for the conflict. A research came out by Laursen (1995) (as cited in Dacey and Kenny, 1997) adolescents reported the most conflict with mothers, followed by friends, romantic partners, siblings and fathers (p.211). Generally, adolescentparent conflicts are involving responsibility for example cleanliness of room. The parents want the adolescent children obey and follow the house rule and also do whatever as they told. Sometimes, the adolescent-parent conflict can be due to parents failure to grow with their children. Besides that, this conflict happen may be caused by the adolescents themselves. As noted by Chiam Heng Keng (1995), adolescents impulsiveness, recklessness, thoughtlessness and egocentricity make adults doubt their ability to handle responsibility, particularly freedom. However, the conflict or disagreement with parents may actually help adolescents to establish independence. The conflict may help adolescents to develop interpersonal negotiation skills and independent thinking, as long as the argument takes place within a supportive and accepting family environment (Allen et al, 1994), (as cited in Dacey & Kenny, 1997). All in all, the conflict will settle and can be handle as well as the adolescents and parents have a further interaction, discussion and effective communication. Chiam Heng Keng (1995) express that open and honest communication is the best way to resolve the conflict and readiness to forgive each other is another important ingredient in the resolution of parent-child conflict. Here again, parents roles are they must to understand their children, demonstrated consistency, support, positive mood, emotional control toward their adolescent children. In completing this assignment while reading, I attracted by this quote Young teen-agers today are being forced to make decisions that earlier generations did not have to make until they were older and more mature and todays teen-agers are not getting much support and guidance,

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this pressure for early decision-making is coming from peer groups, parents, society and even the legal system (David Elkind, 1989). Another of the big challenges those teens face are teen mental health or mental disturbance issues or in simple language it called stress. And they are even more important, because one way or another, they seem to affect so many other issues, including youth violence, risky behaviors, and poor school performance. According to DAurora and Fimian (1988), stress can be understood as emotional tension arising from life events or as feelings of threat to ones safety or self-esteem (cited in Dacey and Kenny, 1997). Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. Here, I come out with several major sources of adolescents stress. Basically, adolescent stress due to family or parent factors such as divorce, money problems, fighting, alcohol abuse and the like. Other factor that cause to stress are sexuality like fell in love, got pregnant, and autonomy factor, found new group of friends and join a club as examples. Last but not least the distress factor such as thought about suicide, ran away from home, gained a lot of weight and got poor grades in school. Some stressful life events are as much a consequence as a cause of behavioral and adjustment problems (Masten et al, 1994). For example, the stressful life events of getting poor grades in school, getting in trouble with the law for stole for instance, or becoming pregnant may be a consequence of depression. In short, most youths or teens have learned a number of ways for coping with stress. While much of the stress can by minimized through support, persistence, and active decision making and planning, there still will be times when young people find themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is associated with various competencies such as organizational adaptability, human relations, problem solving, and self-confidence. Particular strategies for stress management include relaxation techniques, managing self talk, focusing, and using support systems (Amundson, Borgen & Tench). Discussing with a friend is a common way of reducing stress. Besides, the

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most general coping strategies used by them to reduce stress are relaxing by listened to music, being optimistic, seeking social support, turning to family members and being self-reliant. On the other hand, in Freuds theory was exposed that the unconscious distortion of perception of reality or called psychological defense mechanisms can help individual cope with stress or anxiety. For example denial is one of the branches of ego-defense mechanisms. By denial, the individual distort their feeling, thinking and closing his eyes to the existence of threatening aspect of reality. (Ciccarelli & White, 2009). It is apparent that some coping strategies are healthier for adolescents than others. Good coping strategies may help adolescents deal with the stress and tension of their lives. Ingersoll (1989) said, if we cope well, we see ourselves in positive light. If on the other hand, we fail to cope well, ourself-esteem suffers, that means we feel incompetent and worthless. As forward by DAurora and Fimian (1988), (as cited in Dacey & Kenny, 1997), some psychologists argue that parents and schools must help young people develop better coping skills (p.364). Besides that, Dacey and Kenny (1997) believe that adolescents can also be helped to develop and use sources of social support, such as close friends and supportive adults. Many of us do not that not all stress is bad. Majority of us form negative perspective on stress. Actually, stress can be an important motivator. We operate best under moderate stress. We know our self and our ability and capability when we are under stress. However, too much stress is not good. It may drive us to be crazy and lead to physical and psychological distress. In sum, if we face with stress, we must manage the stress wisely. In addition, family, teachers, close friend must give their hand in supporting and help the adolescents who are in stress solve their problems. Other than that, depression is also a problem for youth and it is common psychological problem in adolescence. I believe that all people have periods in which they feel depressed or

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uncertain. Depression can defined as feeling sad, frustrated and hopeless about life, accompanied by loss of pleasure in most activities and disturbances in sleep, appetite, concentration and energy (Berk, 2005, p.614). According to Teuting, Ko and Hirschfield, (1981), (as cited in Ingersoll, 1989), depression in adolescents is linked to poor academic performance, truancy, delinquency, and acting out, substance abuse, and alienation from family and peers. Berk (2005) mentioned that, the factors leads to depression are the combination of biological and environmental factor. In order to understand the causes for depression among youths and throughout the life span as well, I come out with several theoretical models including psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioral, and environmental (Dacey & Kenny, 1997). Based on psychoanalytic model, the causes of depression, individuals have usually experienced a series of losses which may include losses of loved ones through death and relocation. For instance, someone who have experienced parental separation, death, a series of moves and moving away from trusted friends. These lead to a feeling of hopeless or despair at not being able to regain the lost objects or status. On the other hand, cognitive model view depression as resulting from negative cognition or thought. The negative cognitions lead to feelings of hopelessness, helplessness and depression. This model has been supported by some research. Adolescents who are rate themselves as depressed were found to have negative views of themselves, of the future and of their own performance (Hammen & Zupan, 1984), (as cited in Dacey and Kenny, 1997). Then again, according to behavioral models, the depression is results from low levels of positive reinforcement or from an inability to escape punishment. For example, adolescent show efforts to find a part- time are repeatedly unsuccessful because of economic recession. Over time, the adolescent may give up trying. For this reason, the adolescent become depressed. Nevertheless, in the environmental model, depression is as consequence of environmental circumstances, such

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as negative life events, or high level of life stress and few sources of support. All over again, the support from parents, peers, teachers and community can be of assistance to overcome and reduce depression among adolescents. Caring and attention from those is very important. It has the power to cure the depression or anxiety. Besides it is a salve for pain. Above and beyond, it seems like today's teens face much more challenges than ever before. Today's issues seem more life-threatening and life-changing, including suicide, delinquency, drug abuse and sexuality. In brief, these issues are happen as a result of depression and stress. They use shortcut way to solve their problems without think more deeply about their future. I will touch on these issues one by one but for a split second and not go too deeper. Firstly, committing suicide is common case in our country it not even be weird anymore. Moreover, the rate and statistic of committing suicide is increase from day to days in our country. As I said earlier, suicide is response to stress and depression for some adolescents. Berk, (2005) exposes that biology and environment jointly contribute to suicidal behavior, with a highly introverted or impulsive personality, economic disadvantage, family conflict, and abuse and neglect increasing the risk. Thus, as a step for prevention and treatment, parents and teachers must be trained in recognizing warning signs such as inability to concentrate, appetite change and so on. Furthermore, parents, teachers, schools or community should be psychologically and physically available. Meaning that, must give the adolescents your full attention, indicate when and where you can be located and emphasize that you are always willing to talk (Berk, 2005). Secondly is delinquency. The extensive coverage given to the issue of juvenile delinquency in Malaysian media indicates the seriousness of this problem. The question for this issue is whose fault is it? Who should be blame? Parents, the school, peers and the media should play

significant role for this case. However, all of them, without exception, disclaim their

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responsibility. Many parents point the finger at media because give deviant exposure to their children. While, the media deny the influence of particular program by making argument no one is forced to watch any of the programs. As, the teachers and school authorities perceive juvenile delinquency not to be an outcome of the school system. If parents, teachers, school authorities and media are not responsible for adolescents delinquency, who, then is responsible? Thus, according to Chiam Heng Keng (1995), everyone is responsible. As he said when a crime is committed in a community, it is, in sense caused by everyone. Hence, love and respect are the best solution for this problem. As forwarded by Chiam Keng Heng treating a person with respect and teaching him to respect himself are powerful weapons for reformation, even hardcore delinquents (1995, p.236). Next issue is drug abuse. In coping with challenges of adolescence, youth may turn to drug and alcohol for a variety of reasons (Feigelman & Feigelman, 1993), (as cited in Dacey & Kenny, 1997). The best way to deal with this problem is to teach the youth about the danger involved. Besides make a prevention program. Last of all, sexuality and drug abuse problem are often found together. Elliott and Morse (1989) state that typically, the young teen will begin by engaging in some delinquent behavior, progress to drug use, and then become sexually active (as cited in Dacey & Kenny, 1997). The frequency of intercourse is much higher for teen who are also involved in drug use. Today, the number of sexually active Malaysian adolescents is at the highest rate. One of the solutions to this dilemma is to assist adolescents handle human relationships and to demonstrate that there is more to male-female relationship than sex. Problems of adolescents sexuality cannot be swept under the carpet. Teenage sexuality can no longer be regarded as taboo and its problems ignored. Perhaps, the problems become worst and worst.

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In conclusion, this topic covered the several challenges and concerns of youth. There is no doubt that for most families, the youth years present a challenge for both parents and children. Overall, the challenges that I state above are: puberty, competitiveness in education, identity crisis, social disable, adolescent-family conflict, mental disturbance, depression, suicide, delinquency, drug abuse and sexuality. All in all, positive family environment including fun family activities, open parent-child communication and the encouragement to participate in positive extracurricular and community activities, youths are able to navigate these years with relative ease.

References

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Youth concerns Ciccarelli, S.K., White, J.N. (2009). Psychology (2nd E.d.) . NJ: Pearson Education.

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