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Trial Function
a A
at + b At + B
at
n
+ bt
n1
+ ... At
n
+ Bt
n1
+ ...
ae
t
Ae
t
a cos(t) + b sin(t) Acos(t) + B sin(t)
t
0
K = i
0
e
+
t
0
t t
0
and v
L
= Ri
0
e
t t
0
t t
0
and i
C
=
v
0
R
e
t t
0
t +5 t
0
t
0
0
t
C
o
t
C
o
v
< 1% v
v
i
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 75
First-Order Circuits with DC sources (Step Response)
t
u(t-t )
t
0
u(t)
0
1
1
t
Unit Step function is dened as:
_
u(t) = 0 for t 0
u(t) = 1 for t 0
+
Dening t
= t t
0
, one can see that u(t
) = u(t t
0
) is:
_
u(t t
0
) = 0 for t t
0
u(t t
0
) = 1 for t t
+
0
Step functions are one way to illustrate switched circuit as is shown in the example below.
0
t = t
0
u(t-t )
C
R R
C
s
v
s
v
+
-
+
-
Step response of an RC circuit
Consider the RC circuit above. The switch closes at time t = 0 and the capacitor has an
initial voltage of v
0
. For t > 0, KVL results in Ri
c
+ v
C
= v
s
, or:
RC
dv
C
dt
+ v
C
= v
s
I.C.: v
C
(t = 0
+
) = v
0
We have found the natural solution to RC circuit to be:
v
C,n
= Ke
and = RC
To nd the forced response, v
C,f
, we note that the RHS of the dierential equation is a
constant. Table of trial force functions on page 70 indicates that the forced response should
also be a constant, v
C,f
= A. Substituting for v
C,f
in the dierential equation, we get:
RC
dA
dt
+ A = v
s
v
C,f
= A = v
s
v
C
= v
C,n
+ v
C,f
= Ke
+ v
s
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 76
Constant of K is found from the initial condition: v
C
(t = 0
+
) = v
0
:
v
C
(t = 0
+
) = v
0
= Ke
+ v
s
= K + v
s
K = v
0
v
s
Thus, the capacitor voltage waveform is:
v
C
(t) = (v
0
v
s
)e
+ v
s
If we wait long enough, (mathematically: t , practically: 5) the circuit will reach DC
steady condition again, current in the capacitor becomes zero and its voltage reaches v
s
as
can be see either from the circuit or from the expression for v
C
(t).
0
0
t +5
t
0 0
t +5
t
t
s
t
C
s
C
0
-v /R
i v
v
v
If the switch was closed at time t = t
0
instead of time zero, the capacitor voltage waveform
would be (let t
= t t
0
and switch closing at t
= 0):
v
C
(t) = (v
0
v
s
)e
t t
0
+ v
s
Since v
0
is the initial value of v
C
and v
s
is its nal value , the above equation can be re-written
as:
v
C
at Time t
=
_
Initial Value of
v
C
Final Value of
v
C
_
e
t t
0
+
Final Value of
v
C
In fact, all voltages and currents in the circuit (also called state variables) will have the
same waveform:
State Variable
at Time t
=
_
Initial Value of
State Variable
Final Value of
State Variable
_
e
t t
0
+
Final Value of
State Variable
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 77
Step response of an RL circuit
t = t
0
i
R L
+
-
v
L
L
i
s
Consider the RL circuit shown. The switch closes at time t = t
0
and the inductor has an initial current of i
0
. We can nd the
inductor current waveform following the procedure similar to
one used for step response of RC circuits.
Alternatively, we can use the state variable formula identied above. Here the state
variable of interest is i
L
. The time constant of the circuit is = L/R. The nal value of
the state variable is i
L
(t ) when the switch is closed and circuit has reached a DC
steady state condition. Replacing the inductor with a short circuit, we nd i
L
(t ) = i
s
.
Substituting in the state variable formula above, we get
i
L
(t) = (i
0
i
s
)e
t t
0
+ i
s
Procedure for Solving First-Order Circuits
1. If the initial conditions are not given, use DC steady-state analysis to nd the initial
conditions (v
c
and i
L
)
2. Solve the time dependent circuit:
a) Direct solution using KVL and KCL, node-voltage and mesh current methods, etc.
b) Reduce the circuit to simple RC or RL circuits above and use the formulas.
12
2
6
18 V
1
F
+
c
i
v
-
t = 0 12
12
+
-
2
6
c
v
+
-
18 V
18 V
A
i
c
v =v
12
12
+
-
Example 1: The circuit is in DC steady-state for
t < 0. Find i for t > 0
As the initial conditions are not given, we need to
solve the DC steady-state circuit for t < 0 rst.
We redraw the circuit at t < 0 (switch is closed)
and replace the capacitor with an open circuit.
We proceed with solving the circuit with node-
voltage method. As the 2 resistor does not carry
any current, v
A
= v
C
. Then:
KCL at v
A
:
v
C
18
12
+
v
c
6
+
v
C
12
= 0
v
C
= 4.5 V for t < 0
No-jump condition leads to the initial condition for t > 0: v
C
(0
+
) = v
C
(0
) = 4.5 V. Note
that although we like to nd i, the initial condition is obtained for v
C
as no-jump condition
only applies to v
C
and i may have a discontinuity at the switching time.
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 78
-
12
12
12
2
6
v
c
v
c
18 V
1
F
+
A
i
v
+
-
We now proceed to solve t > 0 circuit:
Method 1: Direct solution:
Both node-voltage and mesh-current methods
lead to 2 equations. As we are interested in v
C
,
we proceed with node-voltage method:
KCL at v
A
:
v
A
6
+
v
A
v
C
2
+
v
A
12
= 0
2v
A
+ 6v
A
6v
C
+ v
A
= 0 v
A
=
2
3
v
C
KCL at v
C
:
v
C
v
A
2
+ i
C
= 0
v
C
v
A
2
+
1
12
dv
C
dt
= 0
where we substituted for i
C
from the capacitor i-v equation. The above are two equations
in our two node-voltages v
A
and v
C
. Substituting for v
A
from rst into the second, we get:
6v
C
6
_
2
3
v
C
_
+
dv
C
dt
= 0
dv
C
dt
+ 2v
C
= 0 and v
C
(0
+
) = 4.5 V
As the RHS of the dierential equation is zero, solution consists only of the natural solution.
Using the trial function of Ke
st
, we nd:
sKe
st
+ 2Ke
st
= 0 s = 2
v
C
(t) = Ke
2t
and K is found from the initial condition:
v
C
(0
+
) = 4.5 = Ke
20
K = 4.5 v
C
(t) = 4.5e
2t
(V)
We can now calculate i from our node voltage equations:
v
A
(t) =
2
3
v
C
(t) = 3e
2t
(V)
i(t) =
v
A
(t)
12
= 0.25e
2t
(A)
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 79
Method 2: Reduction to Thevenin form:
In this method, we reduce the circuit into a simple RC circuit by separating the capacitor
from the circuit and nding Thevenin equivalent of the remaining two-terminal subcircuit:
12
1
F
i
2
6 12
12
1
F
12
1
F
6
2
6 || 12 =
4
We have solved this circuit before and the solution is:
v
C
(t) = v
C
(t = t
+
0
) e
t t
0
with = RC
t
0
= 0 and v
C
(t = t
+
0
) = v
C
(0
+
) = 4.5 and = RC =
6
12
= 0.5
v
C
(t) = 4.5e
2t
(V)
We now need to go back to the original circuit to calculate i, for example, by writing the
node-voltage equations and use v
C
to nd the other parameters as was done above.
i
t = 1 s
10 V 10 V
25 150 mH
50 50
L
+
i
i
10 V
50
L
L i=0
75 +
) = 0.2 A.
We now proceed to solve t > 0 circuit:
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 80
i
50
L 10 V
75
10 V
150 mH
+
v
L
v
L
+
50
L 10 V
75 150 mH 75 150 mH
= 0.2
10
50
+
t t
0
+ i
s
t
0
= 1
i
0
= i
L
(t = t
+
0
) = +0.2 and i
s
= 0.2
=
L
R
=
150 10
3
30
= 5 10
3
i
L
(t) = [0.2 (0.2)]e
200(t1)
+ (0.2)
i
L
(t) = 0.4e
200(t1)
0.2 (A)
o
v
1
C
i
v
c
c
i
c
i=0
u(t)
+
v
+
R
+
+
Example 3: Integrator Find v
o
if v
C
(t = 0) = 0.
We replace the OpAmp with its circuit model. As
the current owing into the OpAmp is zero, the
current in the resistor is the same as i
C
. We also
note the connection between output and inverting
input terminal so negative feedback exists:
Negative Feedback: v
n
= v
p
= 0
Ohms Law: Ri
C
= v
1
v
n
= v
1
Capacitor i-v: i
c
= C
dv
C
dt
= C
d(v
n
v
o
)
dt
= C
dv
o
dt
Substituting for i
C
from Ohms law into capacitor i-v equation, and integrating the resulting
equation we get:
v
1
R
= C
dv
o
dt
_
t
0
dv
o
dt
dt
=
1
RC
_
t
0
v
1
(t
)dt
v
o
(t) =
1
RC
_
t
0
v
1
(t
)dt
since v
C
(t = 0) = v
o
(t = 0) = 0. As can be seen, this is an integrator circuitthe output
voltage is proportional to the integral of the input voltage waveform.
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 82
o
v
1
i
c
i
c
i=0
u(t)
C
v
c
+
v
+
R
+
+
Example 4: Dierentiator: Find v
o
if v
C
(t = 0) = 0.
We replace the OpAmp with its circuit model. As
the current owing into the OpAmp is zero, the
current in the resistor is the same as i
C
. We also
note the connection between output and inverting
input terminal so negative feedback exists:
Negative Feedback: v
n
= v
p
= 0
Ohms Law: Ri
C
= v
n
v
o
= v
o
Capacitor i-v: i
c
= C
dv
C
dt
= C
d(v
1
v
n
)
dt
= C
dv
1
dt
Substituting for i
C
from Ohms law into capacitor i-v equation, we get:
v
o
R
= C
dv
1
dt
v
o
(t) = RC
dv
1
dt
As can be seen, this is a dierentiator circuitthe output voltage is proportional to the
derivative of the input voltage waveform.
The above two circuits, the integrator and the dierentiator, together with inverting and
non-inverting summers are the building block of analog computers.
Example: Design an OpAmp circuit to nd v
o
(t) = 10v
s
(t) +
_
t
0
v
s
(t
)dt
.
o s
B
A
c
C= 1/R
+
R
v
+
R
R
v
R
R
+
R
v
v
v
A
=
_
t
0
v
s
(t
)dt
v
o
= v
A
v
B
= 10v
s
(t)+
_
t
0
v
s
(t
)dt
v
B
= 10v
s
(t)
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 83
Example: Design an OpAmp circuit which solves the dierential equation:
d
2
v
o
dt
2
+ 2
dv
o
dt
+ v
o
= v
s
(t).
Rewrite the equation in the form:
d
2
v
o
dt
2
= 2
dv
o
dt
v
o
+ v
s
(t)
The block diagram of the circuit is:
Inverting
Amp.
Inverting
Summer
dt
0
dv
v
0
dt
0
dv
v
0
v
s
v
s
0
dv
2
dt
2
Integrator Integrator
and the circuit itself is:
s
o
C= 1/R
C= 1/R
+
R
R
v
v
+
R R
R
0.5 R
+
R
+
R
MAE140 Notes, Winter 2001 84