Kinematics Jan 2013

Kinematics
The Study of Deformation & Motion
Definition
the various possible types of motion in themselves, leaving out the causes to which the initiation of motion may be ascribed constitutes the science of Kinematics.ET Whittaker Kinematics does not deal with predicting the deformation resulting from a given loading, but rather with the machinery for describing all possible deformations a body can undergo EB Tadmore et al.
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 2 oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/29/2012
Context
There are three major aspects that interest us of the behavior of a continuously distributed body. The first subject of this chapter, kinematics, is an organized geometrical description of its displacement and motion. We shall also look at a mathematical description of internal forces. In the next chapter we shall look at basic balance laws and the second law of thermodynamics which describes the inbalance of entropy. The emphasis here is the fact that these principles are independent of the material considered. While we may use the terminology of solid mechanics, these laws are valid for any continuously distributed material.
Balance Laws and the Theory of Stress

All materials respond to external influences by obeying these same laws. The differences observed in their responses are results of their constitution. Such constitutive models distinguish between solids and fluids, elastic and inelastic or time independent and materials with time dependent behaviors. We shall endeavor to engage general principles in their most general forms.
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos
oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/29/2012
Balance Laws and the Theory of Stress
Many books that engineering students encounter at this point treat the three levels of relations (kinematic, balance laws and constitutive models) differently for different materials. The reality is that only the constitutive models differ. The kinematics, transmission of forces and balance laws are material independent.
Placement of Bodies
The abstract material body will be considered as a three-dimensional manifold with boundary, consisting of points, which we call material (in contrast to spatial points). The body becomes observable by us when it moves through the space. Mathematically, such a motion is a time-dependent embedding into the Euclidean space. We assume that at each instant, there is a mapping of each point in the body to R 3 and that all coordinate changes are differentiable.
Placements in 3-D Euclidean Space

2 The deformation, = (, ) can take the 2-D form such as: 1 , 2 = 1 + 2 /2, 2 . Using 3.5 Mathematica (oafakDeform.nb) 3
Deformation of the original material can be viewed as placements in 3-D Euclidean Space. Motion is a time dependent
sequence of placements
Spatial Space
At each instant, this embedding is called a placement of the body B at a time R, and it is given by a mapping : B E Or, including the time directly, we can write, (, ): B E So that the motion of the body is the smooth function that assigns to each Euclidean point B a point, = (, )
Basic Hypotheses
1. That the mapping (, ): B E be bijective. Physically this one-to-one mapping guarantees that no two material points occupy the same spatial point at once. Physically, we are saying that the material does not penetrate itself. 2. That the determinant of the material gradient is never zero or, , , 0
Material Indestructibility
The last stipulation guarantees that the deformation must not be such that the material vanishes. For the Jacobian to vanish, we must be able to deform a finite material to nothingness. That situation is not envisaged here in the hypothesis. Beginning from an initial state when , = 1, we can easily conclude that for continuity, , > 0 . Otherwise, the state , = 0 shall have been reached prior to any negative state; An impossibility!
Material & Spatial Vectors

The Reference Placement of the material is defined as an abstract state for the identification of the actual material points. Several authors find it necessary to use some initial or undeformed state of the material for this purpose. For our use here, we consider it purely imaginary and existing only for the purpose of analysis. The points in the reference state are called Material Points. The vector space associated with it contains material vectors. The reference placement is time independent.
Material & Spatial Vectors

The body in question is seen only as it evolves through time in the mapping we have previously defined. The vectors associated with the spatial points = (, ) are called spatial vectors. Vectors associated with material points are material vectors. Note that this separation, though necessary for analysis is artificial and imaginary. In fact, only the spatial placement is visible as it evolves over time.
Velocity & Acceleration

The spatial vectors,
(, ) = ,
and
2 (, ) = , 2 are the velocity and acceleration of the material point at time . Let it be clear that despite the fact that and are not vectors (they are points) but and are spatial and material vectors respectively.
Further Hypotheses
1. We further assume that material cannot cross the boundary of a spatial region convecting with the body.
14
Convected Coordinates
Imagine the coordinate system were to be fixed with the body and deforms with it. Such a coordinate system is said to be convected coordinate system Even if we started out with rectangular Cartesian, we would end up with a curvilinear system as shown below:
15
16
The two figures above show the location near the corner of a triangle prior to and sequel to a deformation transformation when coordinate lines are allowed to deform with the material. As a result of the deformation, the coordinate locating the point of interest did not change since we allow the coordinates to deform with the triangle. In the deformed state, what started as a Cartesian system has been transformed to curvilinear coordinates. The coordinate curves are bent and therefore the coordinate bases are now tangents to the coordinate lines.
In the undeformed system here, the coordinate bases and coordinate lines are one and the same. All that has changed because of the deformation. The straight edge of the triangle itself looks more like an arc in the deformed state. Yet, in all this, the coordinate shift from the highlighted point to the triangle edge remains unchanged. The above shows that the convected coordinates retain the location but lose the bases.
The Deformation Gradient

At any instant, the vector differential of the mapping, = (, ) in the Gateaux sense is, = , So that we can write that, = , Where the Frecht derivative, the tensor , = , is called the deformation gradient. Clearly, the deformation gradient maps infinitesimal material vectors (e.g. ) to infinitesimal spatial vectors (e.g. ).
Homogeneous Deformation
At a particular instant in time, the placement , is the instantaneous displacement. , normally varies throughout the material body. In the special case when is constant through the material space, we have Homogeneous Deformation. Dropping the subscript , we may write that, for homogeneous deformations at a particular instant,
Homogeneous Deformation
Dropping the subscript , we may write that, for homogeneous deformations at a particular instant, for the material points and , = From the above, we can see that the homogeneous deformation gradient maps material vectors into spatial vectors.
21
Material and Spatial Mapping
Dropping the functional dependencies, we have that, = In which the deformation gradient maps material vectors to spatial. We can also write, 1 = So that the inverse of the deformation gradient maps spatial vectors to material vectors.
22
Transposes
Consider a spatial vector . Take its inner product with the spatial vector equation, = , we obtain, = = T Which clearly shows that T is a material vector. Clearly, T maps spatial vectors to material vectors. Given a material vector , a similar consideration for the scalar equation, 1 = = T
Clearly shows that T is a map of material vectors to spatial vectors.

Polar Decomposition Theorem
For a given deformation gradient , there is a unique rotation tensor , and unique, positive definite symmetric tensors and for which, = = This is a fundamental theorem in continuum mechanics called the Polar decomposition theorem.
24
Examples of deformation mappings

The deformation, = (, ) can take the 2-D form such 2 as: 1 , 2 = 1 + 2 /2, 2 . Using Mathematica (Reddy3.15.nb) the resulting deformation is:
25
26
The deformation, = (, ) can take the 2-D form such as: 1 , 2 =

1 4
18 +
1 41 + 62 , 4
14 + 62 . Using
Mathematica (Reddy3.4.3.15.nb) the resulting deformation is:
27
The deformation, = (, ) can take the 2-D form such as: 1 , 2 = 4 21 2 , 2 + . Using Mathematica (Holzapfel72.nb) the resulting deformation is:
31 2 2 2
28
Lines & Circles
29
Animation
An example of the function = (, ) evolving temporally and spatially. This Mathematica animation demonstrates all the issues discussed previously including: 1. Reference Placement 2. Motion Function 3. Spatial Placements 4. Time dependency File presently at OAFAKAnimate.nb
Polar Decomposition
By the results of this theorem, = = is called the rotation tensor while and are the right (or material) stretch tensor and the left (spatial) stretch tensors respectively. Being a rotation tensor, must be proper orthogonal. In addition to being an orthogonal matrix, the matrix representation of must have a determinant that is positive: det = +1.
31
Note that = T = T T = T = 2 . Definition: Positive Definite. A tensor is positive definite if for every real vector , the quadratic form > . If Then is said to be positive semi-definite. Now every positive definite tensor has a square root such that,
2 = =
32
Proof
To prove this theorem, we must first show that is symmetric and positive definite. Symmetry is obvious. To show positive definiteness, For an arbitrary real vector consider the expression, . Let the vector = . Then we can write, = = 2 > 0 as the magnitude of any real vector must be positive. Hence = is positive definite.
33
Uniqueness of the Root

A spectral decomposition of the symmetric, positive definite tensor can be written as,
3
=
=1
Given that = 2 is the eigenvalue corresponding to the normalized eigenvector . Every quadratic form with this spectral representation must be greater than zero.

It follows easily that each eigenvalue is positive because contracting with each eigenvector from the left and right, we have,
3
= > 0.
=1 (note very carefully the suppression of the summation convention here)
Above proves that each eigenvalue is greater than zero and in the spectral form, = det = 3 > 0 . And =1 since the determinant of a matrix is an invariant, this holds true even in non spectral forms of .

Now, let =
=1 3
Clearly, =
1 1 1 + 2 2 2 + 3 3 3
=1 3 3
=
=1
2 =
=1
= .
And this square root is unique, for were it not so, there would be another positive definite tensor such that, = 2 = .

The eigenvalue equation, 2 = is satisfied by each eigenvalue/vector pair for . From the above, we may write, 2 = 2 = + = . In the last expression, must be equal to zero. If not, we then have the fact that + = This would mean that is an eigenvalue of . An impossibility because is positive definite and can only have positive eigenvalues. If we had started with, 2 = 2 = + = we would equally reach the conclusion that = .
Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos 37
And this will remain true as we use each eigenvalue of . is also an eigenvalue/vector for . That proves that they are the same tensor. Hence the square root of the tensor is unique
Polar Decomposition: Physical Meaning
Photo from wikipedia

The Rotation
To complete the Polar Decomposition Theorem, we now need to show that the in = is a rotation. Now, from the above equation, we have that, = so that = = 2 = Which shows to be an orthogonal tensor. But det = det = det det > 0.
From physical considerations, we know that determinant of the deformation gradient is necessarily positive and that of the inverse of is positive because is also positive definite. Hence we can see that, det = +. Which, when added to the fact that = means that is a rotation.
The Stretch Tensors
It is an easy matter now to find the tensor such that = = It is obvious that = is symmetric and is the square root of the Finger tensor, = = = 2 is the Right Stretch tensor while is called the Left Stretch Tensor
40
The Strain Tensor

The tensor, 1 1 2 = = 2 2 is called the Green-St Venant or Lagrange Strain Tensor. Note immediately that this tensor vanishes if the deformation gradient is a rotation or the identity tensor. This is a general property of all strain tensors. This is a general property of all strain tensors. Guided by this fact, other strain tensors can be defined:
41
Strain Tensors
In fact any tensor satisfying, 1 0 log when = 0 = 1 0 log when = 0 is a strain tensor. Clearly, = 2 in the first case gives the Lagrange strain tensor while = 2 in the second gives the Eulerian strain tensor.
Homework
1.
i. , and map material vectors to material vectors ii. and map spatial vectors to spatial vectors iii. maps material vectors to spatial vectors 2. Using the definition of the principal invariants of a tensor, show i. 1 = 21 + 3 1 ii. 2 = 2 tr 2 tr 2
Starting with the mapping properties of the deformation gradient, show that
3.
And use the fact that for any tensor , 3 = 1 tr 3 3tr tr 2 + 2tr(3 ) to show that 6 2 = 83 + 42 + 21 + 1
43 oafak@unilag.edu.ng 12/29/2012
= 42 + 4tr + 3 = 42 + 41 + 3
Infinitesimal Fibers
Consider two infinitesimal fibers R and R in the undeformed state. These can be represented by the two material vectors. The equivalent spatial fibers are spatial vectors and . A dot product of these has a physical meaning: = = R T = R T = R T R = R = R R
44
Infinitesimal Fibers
Setting = , we immediately obtain, 2 = R 2 So that = R The deformed length of an infinitesimal fiber is characterized by the Right Stretch Tensor.
45
Contained Angle
The cosine of the angle between two deformed infinitesimal fibers can be obtained from, = Which is the same as the cosine of the angle between the vectors and . Clearly, also characterizes the angles between infinitesimal fibers.
The Stretch Vector
Consider the material vector = Where we have chosen the unit vector coinciding with the particular material fibre. The corresponding spatial fibre at a given time (suppressing the dependency on time), is given by, = = Plus some terms that will vanish as we make small.
The Stretch Vector

In the limit as approaches zero, lim = 0 The magnitude of this quantity is defined as the material stretch = Clearly, 2 = = If we write = . By the definition of the transpose, we can see that, 2 = T = T = ()
Principal Stretches & Directions

The Right Stretch Tensor is symmetric and positive definite. It can therefore be written in its spectral form as: 3 = =1 We are in a position to write the spectral forms of other important tensors as follows: = T 3 = =1 T 3 3 = =1 = =1 Where = Showing that the Left Stretch Tensor has the same eigenvalues but a rotated eigenvector from its corresponding Right Stretch Tensor.
Spectral Forms
Moreover, = 2 = 3 = =1 2 A result that follows immediately we realize that , = 1,2,3 is an orthonormal set. 3 = = =1 3 = =1 Remember that is not symmetric. Its product bases is made up of eigenvectors from the left and right stretch tensors.
Spectral Forms
The Lagrangian Strain Tensor, 1 1 3 = = =1 2 1 2 2
51
Volume & Area Changes

Consider an elemental volume in the reference state in the form of a parallelepiped with dimensions , and . Let this deform to the paralellepiped bounded by , and in the current placement caused by a deformation gradient . We require that this parallelepiped be of a non-trivial size, ie , , 0 This means the material vectors , and are linearly independent. Clearly, we must have that = , = and = .
Deformation of Volume
53
The Volume change

The undeformed volume is given by, = , , and the deformed volume = , , = , , Clearly seeing that , and are independent vectors, , , = = 3 = det > 0 , , We can also write, =
Area Changes
For an element of area in the deformed body with a vector projecting out of its plane (does not have to be normal to it) we have the following relationship: = = = where is the element of area that transformed to and is the image of in the undeformed material. Noting that, = we have, = = where is the zero vector.
Nanson Formula
For an arbitrary vector , we have: = so that, = = where is the cofactor tensor of the deformation gradient.
56
Examples
For the uniform biaxial deformation, given that {1 , 2 , 3 } = {1 1 , 2 2 , 3 }. Compute the Deformation Gradient tensor, the Lagrangian Strain Tensor as well as the Eulerian Strain Tensor components. 1 0 0 1 1 , 2 2 , 3 = = 0 2 0 1 , 2 , 3 0 0 1 Clearly in this case, 1 2 0 0 = = 1 = = 0 2 2 0 0 0 1
And the Piola 1 2 0 0 Tensor = 1 = 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 Now, the Lagrangian Strain Tensor 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 = = 0 2 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 And the Eulerian Strain Tensor 1 1 2 0 0 1 1 = = 0 1 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0
163.24 34.6 4.2 Show that the tensor C 34.6 19. 30. is 4.2 30. 178. positive definite. (a) Find the square root of the C by finding its spectral decomposition from its eigenvalues and eigenvectors. (b) Use the Mathematica function MatrixPower[C, ] to compare your result.
59
In Cartesian Coordinates, the deformation of a rectangular sheet is given by: = + + + + Compute the tensors , , , and . Show that = . For 1 = 1.1, 2 = 1.25, 1 = 0.15, 2 = 0.2, determine the principal values and directions of . Verify that the principal directions are mutually orthogonal. Compute the strain invariants and show that they are consistent with the characteristic equation. 1 1 0 = 2 2 0 0 0 3 2 2 2 + 1 1 1 + 2 2 0 2 = 1 1 + 2 2 1 + 2 0 2 0 0 2 3 Full code @ Taber02.nb
Homework
A body undergoes a deformation defined by, 1 = 1 , 2 = 2 + 3 , 3 = 2 3 where , are constants. Determine , , , and . Given the Deformation Gradient Tensor 0 1 0 0 0 1 Find the rotation tensor, the right stretch tensor and the left stretch tensor. Demonstrate that the Rotation tensor is true orthogonal.
3 2
4 3
Homework
In the isochoric deformation gradient,
1 cos = 1 sin 0
2 sin 2 cos 0
0 0 . Show that 1 = 1 2 1
62
Material & Spatial Derivatives

Our main concern in this section is with scalars, vectors and tensors of different orders defined over the Euclidean Point Space. We call them Tensor Fields or Tensor Point Functions. By motion, we mean the mapping, : Which is a smooth function that assigns to each material point and time a point = (, ) In the Euclidean point space occupied by the reference particle at .
Reference Map
We assume that the Frecht derivative, has a non vanishing determinant = so that the inverse, = 1 (, )
exists. It is called the Reference Map. A field description of any tensor with respect to and is a material description while a description with respect to and is a spatial description. The motion and the reference maps provide a way to obtain a spatial description from a material description and vice versa.
Reference Map
For a given arbitrary-order tensor field (scalar, vector, or higher-order tensor) (, ) over the reference placement, a simple change of variables gives, , = 1 (, ), , By a simple application of the reference map. The reverse operation for a field over a spatial placement, , = (, ), , results from the motion description directly.
(Not distinguishing between the functions, subscript or free, can cause a lot of confusion. Some writers try to avoid this by using uppercase variables for the material functions while using lower case for spatial)
65
Time Derivatives
Material or substantial derivative of a field defined over the reference placement can be written as, , =
To compute this derivative for a tensor , over a spatial placement requires that we perform the change of variables with the motion function, = (, ) to first obtain, (, ), , and then perform the material time derivative.
Time Derivatives
We know from calculus that the total differential of a composite function , , , , = + So that the material time derivative can be computed directly: , , , = + , = grad , +
67
Time Derivatives
On the RHS, the first term, grad , is the convective term and the product with the velocity depends on the size of the object , .
, The second term,
depending on fixing the
spatial coordinate is the local derivative.
68
Scalar Function
Let , = , , a scalar spatial field. Then the substantial derivative becomes, , , , = + , = grad , + The product now being a dot product on account of the fact that grad , is a vector.
Vector Function
Let , = , , a vector spatial field. Then the substantial derivative becomes, , , , = + , = grad , +
The product now being a contraction operation on account of the fact that grad , is second order tensor. In particular, the acceleration is given by = grad +
Tensor Function
Let , = , , a tensor spatial field. Then the substantial derivative becomes, , , , = + , = grad , + The product now being a contraction operation on account of the fact that grad , is third order tensor.
Spatial Derivatives
We have seen that the material evolves in space in a continuous sequence of spatial placements. This is time dependent. We also have a reference, time independent placement. It is always necessary to distinguish between these two. Accordingly we have referred to the tensor fields in one as spatial tensors and those in the other as material tensors.
72
Spatial Derivatives
Apart from time derivatives, we need spatial derivatives to compute gradients, divergences, curls, etc. of field variables. For this purpose it is necessary to distinguish between the derivatives of variables in the Material and in the Spatial description.
73
Material & Spatial Gradients

Consider a scalar field . Differentiating in spatial coordinates gives us, . Applying the chain rule, we have, = Which in full vector form, Grad = = T grad Here we have referred to the material gradient in upper case and the spatial in lower case using the nabla sign only for the material. Such notations are not consistent in the Literature.
Vector Gradients
We similarly apply the gradient operator to a vector defined over the material placement: = Again the above components show that Grad = = grad
75
Vector Gradients, contd

It follows immediately that Div tr = tr grad = grad T : = grad : T = T : grad by the definition of the inner product. We also note that, 1 = grad Again remember here that the definition of divergence is the trace of grad so that, div = tr grad = tr 1 = : T = T : as required to be shown.
Example
Given a motion = (, ) in the explicit form, X2 2X3 x1, x2, x3 = X1, , X3 1 + 1 + Calculate the acceleration by differentiating twice. Find the same acceleration by expressing velocity in spatial terms and taking the material derivative. Full dialog in Kinematics.nb
77
Exercise
In motion 1 + 1 , 1 + 2 2 , 1 + 2 3 , Find the velocity and acceleration by using a material description. Show that the same result can be obtained from a spatial description using the Substantive derivative of the spatial velocity. Comment on the practical implications of your results (Tadmore 3.9) Use Mathematica to illustrate this motion, Find the deformation gradient and the stretch tensors of the motion.
find the tensor as well as physical components of the deformation gradient if the material and spatial frames are referred to spherical polar coordinates 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 2 = 1 2 3 = 3 3 3 1 2 3 To obtain physical components we note that the contravariant component is spatial while the covariant is material. If the magnitudes of the material vectors are and that of the spatial are then, the physical component, = and = {1, , sin }. Accordingly, =

. The vector = 1, , sin , 1 sin 1 sin sin sin sin
sin
79
Velocity Gradient
The spatial tensor field, = grad[ , ]is defined as the velocity gradient. Recall that the deformation gradient, = Grad (, ) The material derivative of this equation, = Grad (, ) = Grad , = grad (, )
So that = . Therefore, = 1
80
Velocity Gradient
Beginning with = , the transpose yields,

T
= T T
Differentiating 1 = , we can see that 1 = 1 So that, 1 = 1 1 = 1
81
Deformation Rates & Spins

We are now able to define tensors that quantify the deformation and spin rates. Recall that we are always able to break a second-order tensor into its symmetric and antisymmetric parts. The symmetric part: 1 1 T = + grad[ , ] + gradT [ , ] 2 2 is defined as the rate of deformation or stretching tensor. And the anti-symmetric part, 1 1 T = grad , gradT [ , ] 2 2 is the spin tensor.
While these two resemble the definition for the small strain tensors and rotation as they relate to the displacement gradient, the quantities here are not approximations but apply even in large deformation and spin rates. Using the two equations above, we are able to write, = +
83

Now we note that, = = = 1 = 1 = Using the fact that for an element of spatial length , 2 = We can differentiate the latter, 2 = + = 2 = 2 = 2 + = 2 + 2 = 2
Special Motions
For any tensor dependent on a parameter , Liouville Formula (previously established) says that 1 det = tr det Now substitute the deformation gradient for and let the parameter be elapsed time . It follows easily that the above equation becomes, = div , where = det and =
.
We now consider rigid, irrotational and isochoric motions.

Rigid Motions
Whenever motion evolves in such a way as to keep the distances between two spatial points unchanged in time, we have rigid motion. Consider a small material fibre lying between the points and Y. As the motion evolves, the length () of the fibre is, = = , , or 2 = , , , , differentiating, = , ,
Rigid Motion
We now proceed to show that in such a motion, the stretching rate, , = . We note that, for a rigid motion, the time rate of change, = 0. This clearly means that, = , , = 0 Differentiating the above, bearing in mind that grad = gradT + gradT , we have, gradT , + , , = 0 so that , = , gradT ,
Rigid Motion
Differentiating wrt grad , = gradT , which shows in particular, when we allow = , that grad , = gradT , or that the velocity gradient is skew. This immediately implies that the symmetric part, , = . Furthermore, the above equations, taken together implies that, , B grad , = grad , so that grad , = , = () where is a spatially constant skew tensor.
Rigid Motion
The velocity of a rigid motion can therefore be expressed as, , = , gradT , = , + () = + where is the velocity of the origin and the axial vector is the vector cross of .
89
Irrotational Motions
Define vorticity; the spatial vector field, (, ) = curl But for any two vectors and , : = 2 and, : grad = curl , Given any tensor , = curl = : grad = : = : + = : = : = Clearly, the vorticity is twice the axial spin vector
Irrotational Motions
Motion is irrotational if (x,t)=0 or, equivalently, curl (, ) = This implies that (, )such that , = grad. The velocity in an irrotational flow is the gradient of a potential field. In irrotational motion, the material substantial acceleration takes the form, 1 + grad = + grad 2 = 2
91
Proof
= T so that, 2 = T = grad 2 2 1 = + = + grad 2 + 2 2 When flow is irrotational, (x,t)=0 Hence, 1 + grad 2 = 2
Isochoric Motion
If during the motion, the volume of any arbitrary material region does not change, the motion is called isochoric or isovolumic. Recall that the volume ratio = Furthermore, = div , . Consequently, isochoric motion results when = 0 or div , = 0. The last condition derives from the Reynolds transport theorem that we next discuss.
Reynolds Transport Theorem

Differentiation of spatial integrals. Consider the time derivative of the spatial integral, , B The domain of integration is varying with time, hence we cannot simply convert this to a differentiation under the integral sign. By Liouvilles formula, we can write, , = , B B converting the domain to a fixed referential placement.
It is now possible to differentiate under the integral and write, , = , B B = = = = B B B B , + , , + , div , + , div , + , div
95
Reynolds Transport Theorem

We can therefore write, , = , + , div B B Setting the function , = 1, we can calculate the material derivative of the spatial volume: = div B B so that if the volume does not change over time, div = 0.
Steady Motion
Motion is said to be steady when the local acceleration , t B (at every point) is zero. In this case, the substantial acceleration, = + grad = grad In this case, the deformed body, B is independent of time. Hence, B = B In steady motion, all the particles that pass through a particular spatial point (coincides here with material point) does so at the same velocity.
Steady Motion
A particle path is the trajectory of an individual particle as the flow evolves. This path is,
= 0 +
,
0
or, equivalently the solution to the differential equation, = (, ) Given a steady motion, solutions to the differential equation, () = ( ) are called streamlines. For steady motion, these two equations coincide and the path lines become streamlines.
Exercises
Romano 4.71 Given the motion = 1
2 + 1 , 2 , 3
Find the Material and spatial representation of the velocity and acceleration. Romano 4.73 Explain why the following Mathematica code shows that the kinetic field v is rigid: 1 : = 23 52 ; 2 : = 51 33 ; 3 : = 32 21 ; xx: = {1 , 2 , 3 }; vv:={v1,v2,v3};{xx} vv
99
Exercises
Romano 4.74. Show that a rigid motion is also isochoric. In a rigid motion, = Sym grad , = . Because grad , is skew and there must be a vector such that grad , = . The trace of this must vanish. This trace is the div , = 0. Now for isochoric motion, = div = 0. A rigid motion is therefore necessarily isochoric.
100
Exercises
For a vector field , , if sym grad = , Show that div = 0. Is the converse true? div = tr grad = tr sym grad + skw grad = tr sym grad + tr skw grad =0+0 We have used the fact that trace operation is linear and that the trace of any skew tensor is zero. The converse is NOT true. For any tensor tr = 0 = 0 The implication is one directional because there are non-zero tensors with zero traces. Question: Correlate this with Slide 100
Exercises
Romano 4.75 Find a class of isochoric, non-rigid motions. In isochoric motion, div = 0. Is it possible to find 0? div = tr grad = For the stretching tensor still to remain nonzero, we must have that grad is not skew. This is possible if , = but 1 ,1 2 ,2 3 ,3 0.
102
Exercises
Gurtin 10.1 Show that a motion whose velocity field is rigid is itself rigid. If velocity is constant, then gradT , = . In this case, we have a rigid motion with, , = , gradT , = , + () = + So that = .
Exercises
oafak 3.21. When a blood vessel is under pressure, the following deformation transformations were observed, = , = + , = Compute the deformation gradient, Cauchy-Green Tensor, Lagrangian. and Eulerian strain tensors for this deformation. Do this manually as well as with Mathematica
104
Exercises
Taber 141 oafak 3.22 A cylindrical tube undergoes the deformation given by = , = + , = + () where , , and , , , are polar coordinates of a point in the tube before and after deformation respectively, and are scalar functions of . (a) Explain the meaning of the situation where (i) = 0, (ii) = 0. (b) Compute , and , (c) Find the Lagrangian and Eulerian strain components
oafak3.23 A body is in the state of plane strain relative to the plane. Assume all the components of the strain are known relative to Cartesian axes , , . Find the stress components relative to another axes rotated along the -axis by an angle oafak 3.25 A velocity field has components of the form, 1 = 1 2 , 2 = 1 2 and 3 = 0 where and are positive constants. Assume that the spatial mass density is independent of the current position so that grad = , express so that the conservation of mass is satisfied. () Find a condition for which the motion is isochoric.

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Kinematics

The Study of Deformation & Motion

Balance Laws and the Theory of Stress

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Balance Laws and the Theory of Stress

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Placements in 3-D Euclidean Space

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Material & Spatial Vectors

Material & Spatial Vectors

Velocity & Acceleration

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

The Deformation Gradient

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Material and Spatial Mapping

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Clearly shows that T is a map of material vectors to spatial vectors.

Polar Decomposition Theorem

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Examples of deformation mappings

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

The deformation, = (, ) can take the 2-D form such as: 1 , 2 =

Mathematica (Reddy3.4.3.15.nb) the resulting deformation is:

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Lines & Circles

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Uniqueness of the Root

Uniqueness of the Root

=1 (note very carefully the suppression of the summation convention here)

Uniqueness of the Root

Uniqueness of the Root

Polar Decomposition: Physical Meaning

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The Stretch Tensors

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

The Strain Tensor

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

The Stretch Vector

The Stretch Vector

Principal Stretches & Directions

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Volume & Area Changes

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

The Volume change

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Material & Spatial Derivatives

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

Department of Systems Engineering, University of Lagos

, The second term,