Acid rain is rain consisting of water droplets that are unusually acidic because of atmospheric pollution - most notably

the excessive amounts of sulfur and nitrogen released by cars and industrial processes. Acid rain is also called acid deposition because this term includes other forms of acidic precipitation such as snow. Acidic deposition occurs in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of precipitation that removes acids from the atmosphere and deposits them on the Earths surface. Dry deposition polluting particles and gases stick to the ground via dust and smoke in the absence of precipitation. This form of deposition is dangerous however because precipitation can eventually wash pollutants into streams, lakes, and rivers. Acidity itself is determined based on the pH level of the water droplets. PH is the scale measuring the amount of acid in the water and liquid. The pH scaleranges from 0 to 14 with lower pH being more acidic while a high pH is alkaline; seven is neutral. Normal rain water is slightly acidic and has a pH range of 5.3-6.0. Acid deposition is anything below that scale. It is also important to note that the pH scale is logarithmic and each whole number on the scale represents a 10-fold change. Today, acid deposition is present in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and much of Europe including portions of Sweden, Norway, and Germany. In addition, parts of South Asia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, and Southern India are all in danger of being impacted by acid deposition in the future. Causes and History of Acid Rain Acid deposition can occur via natural sources like volcanoes but it is mainly caused by the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide during fossil fuel combustion. When these gases are discharged into the atmosphere they react with the water, oxygen, and other gases already present there to form sulfuric acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. These acids then disperse over large areas because of wind patterns and fall back to the ground as acid rain or other forms of precipitation. The gases responsible for acid deposition are normally a byproduct of electric power generation and the burning of coal. As such, it began entering the atmosphere in large amounts during the Industrial Revolution and was first discovered by a Scottish chemist, Robert Angus Smith, in 1852. In that year, he discovered the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Although it was discovered in the 1800s, acid deposition did not gain significant public attention until the 1960s and the term acid rain was coined in 1972. Public attention further increased in the 1970s when the New York Times published reports about problems occurring in theHubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. Effects of Acid Rain

After studying the Hubbard Brook Forest and other areas today, there are several important impacts of acid deposition on both natural and man-made environments. Aquatic settings are the most clearly impacted by acid deposition though because acidic precipitation falls directly into them. Both dry and wet deposition also runs off of forests, fields, and roads and flows into lakes, rivers, and streams. As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted but over time, acids can accrue and lower the overall pH of the body. Acid deposition also causes clay soils to release aluminum and magnesium further lowering the pH in some areas. If the pH of a lake drops below 4.8, its plants and animals risk death and it is estimated that around 50,000 lakes in the United States and Canada have a pH below normal (about 5.3 for water). Several hundred of these have a pH too low to support any aquatic life. Aside from aquatic bodies, acid deposition can significantly impact forests. As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them lose their leaves, damage their bark, and stunt their growth. By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects. Acid falling on a forests soil is also harmful because it disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency. Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the clouds blankets them. Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the most advanced cases are in Eastern Europe. Its estimated that in Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in Switzerland have been affected. Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art because of its ability to corrode certain materials. As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with limestone) it reacts with minerals in the stones sometimes causing it to disintegrate and wash away. Acid deposition can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below ground. What's Being Done? Because of these problems and the adverse effects air pollution has on human health, a number of steps are being taken to reduce sulfur and nitrogen emissions. Most notably, many governments are now requiring energy producers to clean smoke stacks by using scrubbers which trap pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere and catalytic converters in cars to reduce their emissions. Additionally, alternative energy sources are gaining more prominence today and funding is being given to the restoration of ecosystems damaged by acid rain worldwide.

What are the Causes of Deforestation? The deforestation causes include many factors. The destruction of the forests is occurring due to various reasons, one of the main

reasons being the short-term economic benefits. Corruption at the government institutions, wealth and power due to harvesting of the riches of the forest, population growth and urbanization are some of the common causes of deforestation. Given below are some more common causes of deforestation:

the rainwater into waterways. Because of this, merely replanting trees may not help in solving the problems caused by deforestation, for by the time the trees mature, the soil will be totally devoid of essential nutrients. Ultimately, cultivation in this land will also become impossible, resulting in the land becoming useless. Large tracts of land will be rendered permanently impoverished due to soil erosion.

Urban Construction
The cutting down of trees for lumber that is used for building materials, furniture, and paper products have a major impact on forest life. Forests are cleared to accommodate expanding urban areas. This results in loss of forest area and massive deforestation.

Disruption of the Water Cycle

Trees contribute in a large way in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots, which is then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for instance, remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. The groundwater tables are affected and soon get depleted. The trees help in prevention of running off of water and help the soil absorb the flowing water. When there are no trees, water just runs off, leaving no chance for the groundwater tables to absorb more water. Thus, ultimately leading to reduction in water resources.

Agriculture
Forests are also cut down to clear land for growing crops, build farms, ranches and other food growing lands.

Grazing Land
Forests are cut down in order create land for grazing cattle. Huge herds of animals require food and forests are cleared out to make way for grazing lands for these cattle.

Loss of Biodiversity Used for Fuel

Trees are cut down in developing countries to be used as firewood or turned into charcoal, which are used for cooking and heating purposes. The unique biodiversity of various geographical areas is being lost on a scale that is quite unprecedented. Even though tropical rainforest make up just 6 percent of the surface area of the Earth, about 80-90 percent of the entire species of the world exist here. Due to massive deforestation, about 50 to 100 species of animals are being lost each day. The outcome of which is the extinction of animals and plants on a massive scale. The deforestation effects on animals is very heartbreaking. They not only lose their habitat and protective cover, they are pushed to extinction. Many beautiful creatures, both plants and animals have vanished from the face of the earth.

Commercial Purposes
Some of the other causes of deforestation are: clearing forests for oil and mining exploitation, to make highways and roads, slash and burn farming techniques, wildfires, and acid rain. Forest fires can occur naturally or in most cases are deliberate attempts by man to clear huge forests. Most of the time, these forests may recover, but usually the cleared land is used for construction and agriculture purposes. This leads to loss of forests and loss of habitat for the local wildlife.

Flooding and Drought

One of the vital functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood and then drought in the affected area. Thus, leading to disruption of human settlements and loss of life in thousands.

Illegal Logging
Many government agencies are fighting illegal logging to protect the forests. However, any type of logging legal or illegal leads to deforestation. Trees are cut down indiscriminately by logging companies, to fulfill the demands of the wood market. This does not give a chance to the local wildlife and trees to regenerate and sustain themselves. Thus, leading to loss of wildlife forever. What are the Effects of Deforestation? There are a number of adverse effects of deforestation, that include environmental and economical. Some of these deforestation effects are discussed below:

Climate Change
It is well-known that global warming is being caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, what is not known quite as well is that deforestation has a direction association with carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Trees act as a major storage depot for carbon, since they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is then used to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that make up trees. When deforestation occurs, many of the trees are burnt or they are allowed to rot, which results in releasing the carbon that is stored in them as carbon dioxide. This, in turn, leads to greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These are just a few of the causes and effects of deforestation.

Erosion of Soil
When forest areas are cleared, it results in exposing the soil to the sun, making it very dry and eventually, infertile, due to volatile nutrients such as nitrogen being lost. In addition, when there is rainfall, it washes away the rest of the nutrients, which flow with

The consequences of deforestation are very unpleasant as every form of life on earth is interlinked with one another. Not only do animals lose their homes, but humans dependent on the local ecology are also affected. The water cycle gets disturbed leading to floods and droughts. People dependent on the forests for their survival lose their livelihood. Global warming is another problem looming over our heads. Deforestation causes and its effects can be stopped to some extent, if we all do our bit towards the environment. Reduce emissions by avoiding use of cars and bikes indiscriminately. Make our factories more cleaner and monitor their emissions. Develop better ways of farming that help increase the yield without having an impact on the neighboring forest areas. Forest management and strict monitoring of deforestation should be carried out by various government and other nonprofit agencies. Reforestation of lost areas and following sustainable practices will help us balance our green cover. Remember, trees give us life, without them it will be impossible to sustain life.

rhundrede forsgte at pvise, at der fandtes en hvid race som skulle vre den sorte race overlegen p det fysiske og p det mentale plan. Dengang troede man at menneskeheden var opdelt i flere racer. Ernest Renan (1823-1892) pointed out the blacks of Africa, the aboriginals of Australia and the indians of America as members of the " inferior race". The new world When Christopher Columbus discovered the new world, he met the the indians. He was surprised that they human creatures, just like the Europeans. Back then, in the 15th century Europeans doubted that Indians had a soul, since they were lconsidered to be more animal than human. Now the native Americans only make up a tiny part of the population of North America. Racism at its worst One of the worst manifestations of racist ideas took place in Germany under the command of Hitler. Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. His father was a mad drunkard who died when Hitler was 14. His teachers bescribed Hitler as hot-tempered, sellfish and lazy. He later travelled to Vienna to become a painter. In Vienna he built up a terrible hate of jews. In that period many jews had good jobs and were fairly wealthy, which really made Hitler envious. When Hitlers mothe died he went into politics, and founded "The German National Socialist Working Party" in 1920. Their main ideas were:

Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others. Racism and discrimination have been used as powerful weapons encouraging fear or hatred of others in times of conflict and war, and even during economic downturns.

Racism is also a very touchy subject for some people, as issues concerning free speech and Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights come into play. Some people argue that talking about supporting racial discrimination and prejudice is just words and that free speech should allow such views to be aired without restriction. Others point out that these words can lead to some very dire and serious consequences (the Nazi government policies being one example).

The history of racism - Read more Battle of the races In the past historians and scientists have tried to prove that there was a white race that was supreme to other races both physically and mentally. Back then it was commonly believed that there was more than one human race Nogle historikere i det 18. og 19.

Throw out the jew, communists, homosexuals, handicapped, gipsies etc Domination of the "German race" Work for everybody More power to Germany

In 1933 Hitler was elected as kansler, after which he declared himself dictator. Hitler then initiated a systematic persecution of jews. Hitler blamed the jews for the poverty and unemployment and made them into the scapegoats of society. He built

concentration and extermination camps and more than 6 million jews died. The future It is yet unknown what how racism will develop in the future. In many countries there is a rising fear of racism, racist movements are growing and their actions are gettin increasingly violent. It is hard to do something about racism, in some countries all racist publications are illegal, but that surely wont stop the racist way of thinking. Prevention There is no perfect way to fight racism, and no matter what racism will probably always exist, what we can do however, is to limit its extent as much as possible. We think that the best weapon against racism is knowledge. The best ways to fight racism is to think, learn, be open, get an education, ask questions and first of all: Get to know other people. The encounter with a stranger is not a risk of losing something, it is a chance of getting something. It is not only a chance to get to know other people and cultures, it is a chance of getting to know yourself and your own culture. The world might never be free from racism and prejudices, but if we do our best, it will always be a bit better.

In developing a target for reducing its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions, EPA accounted for the following GHG emission sources, per CEQ guidance:

Scope 1 emission sources: o Onsite fuel combustion at reporting facilities. o Fuel consumed in EPA's fleet vehicles. o Fugitive emissions in reporting facilities from o Process emissions associated with specialized
laboratory activities.

refrigeration and fire suppression equipment.

Scope 2 emission sources: o Purchase electricity, steam, hot water, and

chilled water consumed at EPA's reporting facilities. Scope 3 Reduction Goal

On June 2, 2010, EPA submitted its Scope 3 GHG emissions reduction target to CEQ and OMB in accordance with EO 13514 requirements. EPAs goal is to reduce the required subset of its Scope 3 GHG emissions by 8 percent by FY 2020 compared to its FY 2008 baseline of 67,315 MTCO2e. Required categories of Scope 3 GHG emissions that EPA accounted for in its Scope 3 GHG emissions reduction target include:

Employee travel, including business air travel, business

ground travel, and employee commuting. EPA's Greenhouse Gas Reduction Goals and Strategies

Transmission and distribution (T&D) losses related to

purchased electricity consumed at EPA's reporting facilities. and wastewater treatment. Strategies

The following goals help EPA meet federal requirements and demonstrate leadership in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions. EPA intends to accomplish these goals using an array of different strategies. Goals Scope 1 and 2 Reduction Goal

Contracted waste disposal, including solid waste disposal

EPA has developed a variety of strategies to help the Agency reduce its GHG emissions resulting from its day-to-day operations. Inventory Development

On December 24, 2009, EPA submitted its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions reduction target to the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in accordance with the requirements of Executive Order (EO) 13514. EPA committed to reducing its fiscal year (FY) 2020 combined Scope 1 and Scope 2 GHG emissions by 25 percent from its FY 2008 baseline of 140,780 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MTCO2e). To develop its inventory prior to EO 13514, EPA followed the GHG Inventory Guidance developed by EPAs Climate Leaders Program. The Agencys initial GHG emissions inventory quantified Scope 1 EO 13514, the first executive order to require federal agencies to develop comprehensive inventories of their GHG emissions, was signed on October 5, 2009. In January 2008, however, EPA had voluntarily begun developing a GHG emissions inventory in order to better understand and manage the Agency's carbon footprint.

and 2 stationary emissions associated with energy consumption at the Agencys 35 reporting facilities for three of the six major GHGscarbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). In FY 2009, EPA expanded its inventory to include CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions resulting from fuel use in its fleet vehicles and fugitive emissions of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) associated with building airconditioning equipment. Learn more about EPAs pre-EO 13514 inventory. In accordance with EO 13514 Section 9 guidance, EPA has augmented its Scope 1 and 2 inventory by accounting for fugitive emissions associated with building fire suppression and mobile airconditioning equipment and process emissions from laboratory research activities, fume hood tracer gas testing, onsite waste incineration, and chemical use in laboratory and office spaces. EO 13514 also requires agencies to inventory and reduce their Scope 3 GHG emissions. In FY 2010, EPA developed initial emission estimates for required categories of Scope 3 emissions, including T&D losses associated with purchased electricity, employee business travel, employee commuting, contracted waste disposal, and contracted wastewater treatment, as well as several optional sources of Scope 3 GHG emissions, including energy use in leased office space. EPA is working to estimate additional currently optional categories of Scope 3 GHG emissions such as supply chain emissions and energy used for site remediation activities. Scope 1 and 2 Emission Reduction Strategies EPA is developing the following strategies to reduce its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions as part of its Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan (SSPP), which EPA submitted to CEQ on June 2, 2010:

Scope 3 Emission Reduction Strategies

EPA is also developing the following strategies to reduce its Scope 3 GHG emissions as part of its SSPP:

Continue pursuing green building design, construction, Reduce employee travel through increased use of
that reduce single-occupancy vehicle trips. facilities. videoconferencing, webinars, and conference calls.

operation, and acquisition for new and updated leases.

Promote and encourage alternative commuting options Reduce resource use and encourage waste diversion at all

Reducing Acid Rain

Congress created the Acid Rain Program in Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. The overall goal of the program is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to the public, the program employs both traditional and innovative, market-based approaches for controlling air pollution. Specifically, the program seeks to limit, or cap, SO2emissions from power plants at 8.95 million tons annually starting in 2010, authorizes those plants to trade SO2allowances, and reduces NOxemission rates. In addition, the program encourages energy efficiency and pollution prevention. There are several ways to reduce acid rainmore properly called acid depositionranging from societal changes to individual action. It is critical that acid deposition be reduced, not only in the United States and Canada, but also throughout the world to preserve the integrity of natural habitats, as well as to reduce damage to manmade structures. EPA has taken steps to limit the amount of NOx and SO2 emitted into the atmosphere because they are the main contributors to acid deposition (for more information, see EPAs Acid Rain Program). Additionally, individuals and society as a whole can participate in various efforts to help reduce acid deposition:

Implement new energy conservation projects to reduce

facility energy intensity.

Continue to purchase green power and renewable energy

certificates (RECs). Learn more about EPA's green power efforts. green fleet.

Reduce fleet fuel consumption. Learn more about EPA's Pursue new onsite renewable energy generation in major
renovations and new construction. Learn more about EPA's use of renewable energy technologies. to ensure efficient facility operations.

Conduct regular energy assessments and recommissioning Indentify opportunities for space consolidation to
improve laboratory and office infrastructure and to increase employees capacity to telework.

Understand acid depositions causes and effects

Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes Use alternative energy sources Restore a damaged environment Look to the future Take action as individuals

leaving the smokestack. Power plants can also switch fuelsfor example, burning natural gas creates much less SO2 than burning coal. Certain approaches will also have the additional benefit of reducing other pollutants such as mercury and carbon dioxide (CO2). Understanding these co-benefits has become important in seeking cost-effective air pollution reduction strategies. Finally, power plants can use technologies that do not burn fossil fuels. Each of these options, however, has its own costs and benefits; there is no single universal solution. Similar to scrubbers on power plants, catalytic converters reduce NOx emissions from cars. These devices have been required for over 20 years in the United States, and it is important to keep them working properly. Recently, tailpipe restrictions were tightened to help curb NOx emissions. EPA also continues to make, changes to gasoline that allow it to burn cleaner. Top of Page Use alternative energy sources

Understand acid depositions causes and effects

To understand acid deposition's causes and effects, and to track changes in the environment, scientists from EPA, state governments, and academia study acidification processes. They collect air and water samples and measure them for various characteristics such as pH and chemical composition, and research the effects of acid deposition on human-made materials such as marble and bronze. Finally, scientists work to understand the effects of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)the pollutants that cause acid deposition and contribute to particulate matter on human health. See the acid rain effects section for more information. To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain damages the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be made to the air pollution sources that cause the problem. The answers to these questions help leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution and therefore, how to reduceor even eliminateacid rain. Because there are many solutions to the acid rain problem, leaders have a choice of which options or combination of options are best. The next section describes some of the steps that can be taken to tackle the acid deposition problem. Top of Page Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes

There are other sources of electricity besides fossil fuels. They include nuclear power, hydropower, wind energy, geothermal energy, and solar energy. Nuclear and hydropower are used most widely in the United States, while wind, solar, and geothermal energy have not yet been harnessed on a large enough scale to make them economically-feasible alternatives. There are also alternative energies, such as natural gas, batteries, and fuel cells, available to power automobiles. All sources of energy have environmental costs as well as benefits. Some types of energy are more expensive to produce than others, which means that not all Americans can afford all of them. Nuclear power, hydropower, and coal are the cheapest formsof energy today, but advancements in technologies and regulatory developments may change this in the future. All of these factors must be weighed when deciding which energy source to use today and which to invest in for tomorrow. Top of Page Restore a damaged environment

Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil. Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants that are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned: sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Coal accounts for most U.S. SO2 emissions and a large portion of NOxemissions. Sulfur is present in coal as an impurity, and it reacts with air when the coal is burned to form SO2. In contrast, NOx is formed when any fossil fuel is burned. There are several options for reducing SO2 emissions, including using coal containing less sulfur, washing the coal, and using devices called scrubbers to chemically remove the SO2 from the gases

Acid deposition penetrates deeply into the fabric of an ecosystem, changing the chemistry of the soil and streams and narrowing

sometimes to nothingthe space where certain plants and animals can survive. Because there are so many changes, it takes many years for ecosystems to recover from acid deposition, even after emissions are reduced and the rain pH is restored to normal. For example, while visibility might improve within days, and small or episodic chemical changes in streams improve within months, chronically acidified lakes, streams, forests, and soils can take years to decades, or even centuries (in the case of soils) to heal. However, there are some things that people can do to bring back lakes and streams more quickly. Limestone or lime (a naturally occurring basic compound) can be added to acidic lakes to cancel out the acidity. This process, called liming, has been used extensively in Norway and Sweden but is not used very often in the United States Liming tends to be expensive, has to be done repeatedly to keep the water from returning to its acidic condition, and is considered a short-term remedy in only specific areas, rather than an effort to reduce or prevent pollution. Furthermore, it does not solve the broader problems of changes in soil chemistry and forest health in the watershed, and it does nothing to address visibility reductions, materials damage, and risk to human health. However, liming does often permit fish to remain in a lake, allowing the native population to survive in place until emissions reductions reduce the amount of acid deposition in the area. Top of Page Look to the future

Take action as individuals It may seem like there is not much that one individual can do to stop acid deposition. However, like many environmental problems, acid deposition is caused by the cumulative actions of millions of individual people. Therefore, each individual can also reduce their contribution to the problem and become part of the solution. Individuals can contribute directly by conserving energy, since energy production causes the largest portion of the acid deposition problem. For example, you can:

Turn off lights, computers, and other appliances when

you're not using them.

Use energy-efficient appliances: lighting, air

conditioners, heaters, refrigerators, washing machines, etc. For more information, see EPAs ENERGY STAR Program .

Only use electric appliances when you need them. Keep your thermostat at 68F in the winter and 72F in
the summer. You can turn it even lower in the winter and higher in the summer when you are away from home.

Insulate your home as best you can. Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or
bicycle whenever possible

Buy vehicles with low NOx emissions, and properly Be well informed.
maintain your vehicle.

Effects of Acid Rain - Surface Waters and Aquatic Animals

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic, or water, environments, such as streams, lakes, and marshes. Acid rain flows into streams, lakes, and marshes after falling on forests, fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats. Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, although some lakes are naturally acidic even without the effects of acid rain. Acid rain primarily affects sensitive bodies of water, which are located in watersheds whose soils have a limited ability to neutralize acidic compounds (called buffering capacity). Lakes and streams become acidic (i.e., the pH value goes down) when the water itself and its surrounding soil cannot buffer the acid rain enough to neutralize it. In areas where buffering capacity is low, acid rain releases aluminum from soils into lakes and streams; aluminum is highly toxic to many species of aquatic organisms.

As emissions from the largest known sources of acid deposition power plants and automobilesare reduced, EPA scientists and their colleagues must assess the reductions to make sure they are achieving the results that Congress anticipated when it created the Acid Rain Program in 1990. If these assessments show that acid deposition is still harming the environment, Congress may begin to consider additional ways to reduce emissions that cause acid deposition. It may consider additional emission reductions from sources that have already been controlled, or methods to reduce emissions from other sources. Congress may also focus on energy efficiency and alternative energy. Implementation of costeffective mechanisms to reduce emissions and their impact on the environment will continue to evolve.

Where Does Acid Rain Affect Lakes and Streams? Many lakes and streams examined in a National Surface Water Survey (NSWS) suffer from chronic acidity, a condition in which water has a constant low pH level. The survey investigated the effects of acidic deposition in over 1,000 lakes larger than 10 acres and in thousands of miles of streams believed to be sensitive to acidification. Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams. Several regions in the U.S. were identified as containing many of the surface waters sensitive to acidification. They include the Adirondacks and Catskill Mountains in New York state, the mid-Appalachian highlands along the east coast, the upper Midwest, and mountainous areas of the Western United States. In areas like the Northeastern United States, where soil-buffering capacity is poor, some lakes now have a pH value of less than 5. One of the most acidic lakes reported is Little Echo Pond in Franklin, New York. Little Echo Pond has a pH of 4.2. Acidification is also a problem in lakes that were not surveyed in federal research projects. For example, although lakes smaller than 10 acres were not included in the NSWS, there are from one to four times as many of these small lakes as there are larger lakes. In the Adirondacks, the percentage of acidic lakes is significantly higher when it includes smaller lakes. Streams flowing over soil with low buffering capacity are as susceptible to damage from acid rain as lakes. Approximately 580 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain are acidic primarily due to acidic deposition. In the New Jersey Pine Barrens, for example, over 90 percent of the streams are acidic, which is the highest rate of acidic streams in the nation. Over 1,350 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands (mid-Appalachia) are acidic, primarily due to acidic deposition. The acidification problem in both the U.S. and Canada grows in magnitude if episodic acidification is taken into account. Episodic acidification refers to brief periods during which pH levels decrease due to runoff from melting snow or heavy downpours. Lakes and streams in many areas throughout the U.S. are sensitive to episodic acidification. In the Mid-Appalachians, the MidAtlantic Coastal Plain, and the Adirondack Mountains, many additional lakes and streams become temporarily acidic during storms and spring snowmelt. For example, approximately 70 percent of sensitive lakes in the Adirondacks are at risk of episodic acidification. This amount is over three times the amount

of chronically acidic lakes. In the mid-Appalachians, approximately 30 percent of sensitive streams are likely to become acidic during an episode. This level is seven times the number of chronically acidic streams in that area. Episodic acidification can cause fish kills. Emissions from U.S. sources also contribute to acidic deposition in eastern Canada, where the soil is very similar to the soil of the Adirondack Mountains, and the lakes are consequently extremely vulnerable to chronic acidification problems. The Canadian government has estimated that 14,000 lakes in eastern Canada are acidic. How Does Acid Rain Affect Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms? Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce fish population numbers, completely eliminate fish species from a waterbody, and decrease biodiversity. As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminum is released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that watershed. So, as pH in a lake or stream decreases, aluminum levels increase. Both low pH and increased aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels cause chronic stress that may not kill individual fish, but leads to lower body weight and smaller size and makes fish less able to compete for food and habitat. Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acid lakes have no fish. The chart below shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout.

How Does Acid Rain Affect Ecosystems? Together, biological organisms and the environment in which they live are called an ecosystem. The plants and animals living within an ecosystem are highly interdependent. For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high levels of acidity, but if they eat insects like the mayfly, they may be affected because part of their food

supply may disappear. Because of the connections between the many fish, plants, and other organisms living in an aquatic ecosystem, changes in pH or aluminum levels affect biodiversity as well. Thus, as lakes and streams become more acidic, the numbers and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live in these waters decrease. What is the Role of Nitrogen in Acid Rain and Other Environmental Problems? The impact of nitrogen on surface waters is also critical. Nitrogen plays a significant role in episodic acidification and new research recognizes the importance of nitrogen in long-term chronic acidification as well. Furthermore, the adverse impact of atmospheric nitrogen deposition on estuaries and near-coastal water bodies is significant. Scientists estimate that 10 to 45 percent of the nitrogen produced by various human activities that reaches estuaries and coastal ecosystems is transported and deposited via the atmosphere. For example, about 30 percent of the nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay comes from atmospheric deposition. Nitrogen is an important factor in causing eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water bodies. The symptoms of eutrophication include blooms of algae (both toxic and nontoxic), declines in the health of fish and shellfish, loss of seagrass beds and coral reefs, and ecological changes in food webs. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), these conditions are common in many of our nation's coastal ecosystems. These ecological changes impact human populations by changing the availability of seafood and creating a risk of consuming contaminated fish or shellfish, reducing our ability to use and enjoy our coastal ecosystems, and causing economic impact on people who rely on healthy coastal ecosystems, such as fishermen and those who cater to tourists.

How is EPAs Acid Rain Program Addressing These Issues? Acid rain control will produce significant benefits in terms of lowered surface water acidity. If acidic deposition levels were to remain constant over the next 50 years (the time frame used for projection models), the acidification rate of lakes in the Adirondack Mountains that are larger than 10 acres would rise by 50 percent or more. Scientists predict, however, that the decrease in SO2 emissions required by the Acid Rain Program will significantly reduce acidification due to atmospheric sulfur. Without the reductions in SO2emissions, the proportions of acidic aquatic ecosystems would remain high Effects of Acid Rain Forests Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have noted a slowed growth of some forests. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be green and healthy. In extreme cases, individual trees or entire areas of the forest simply die off without an obvious reason. After much analysis, researchers now know that acid rain causes slower growth, injury, or death of forests. Acid rain has been implicated in forest and soil degradation in many areas of the eastern U.S., particularly high elevation forests of the Appalachian Mountains from Maine to Georgia that include areas such as the Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountain National Parks. Of course, acid rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other factors contribute to the overall stress of these areas, including air pollutants, insects, disease, drought, or very cold weather. In most cases, in fact, the impacts of acid rain on trees are due to the combined effects of acid rain and these other environmental stressors. After many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants. Acid Rain on the Forest Floor A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some trickles over the ground and runs into streams, rivers, or lakes, and some of the water soaks into the soil. That soil may neutralize some or all of the acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability is called buffering capacity, and without it, soils become more acidic. Differences in soil buffering capacity are an important reason why some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed at all. The ability of forest soils to resist, or buffer, acidity depends on the thickness and composition of the soil, as well as the type of bedrock beneath the forest floor. Midwestern states like

Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered. Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack and Catskill Mountains, have thin soils with low buffering capacity. How Acid Rain Harms Trees Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing them to toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death of trees is a result of these effects of acid rain in combination with one or more additional threats.

visibility impairment, meaning we cannot see as far or as clearly through the air. Sulfate particles account for 50 to 70 percent of the visibility reduction in the eastern part of the U.S., affecting our enjoyment of national parks, such as the Shenandoah and the Great Smoky Mountains. The Acid Rain Program is expected to improve the visual range in the eastern U.S. by 30 percent. Based on a study of the value national park visitors place on visibility, the visual range improvements expected at national parks of the eastern United States due to the Acid Rain Program's SO2reductions will be worth over a billion dollars annually by the year 2010. In the western part of the U.S., nitrates and carbon also play roles, but sulfates have been implicated as an important source of visibility impairment in many of the Colorado River Plateau national parks, including the Grand Canyon, Canyonlands, and Bryce Canyon. Effects of Acid Rain - Human Health Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more dangerous than walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that cause acid rainsulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)do damage human health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep into people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis. Based on health concerns, SO2 and NOx have historically been regulated under the Clean Air Act, including the Acid Rain Program. In the eastern U.S., sulfate aerosols make up about 25 percent of fine particles. By lowering SO2 and NOx emissions from power generation, the Acid Rain Program will reduce the levels of fine sulfate and nitrate particles and so reduce the incidence and the severity of these health problems. When fully implemented by the year 2010, the public health benefits of the Acid Rain Program are estimated to be valued at $50 billion annually, due to decreased mortality, hospital admissions, and emergency room visits.

Scientists know that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Scientists believe that this combination of loss of soil nutrients and increase of toxic aluminum may be one way that acid rain harms trees. Such substances also wash away in the runoff and are carried into streams, rivers, and lakes. More of these substances are released from the soil when the rainfall is more acidic. However, trees can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Forests in high mountain regions often are exposed to greater amounts of acid than other forests because they tend to be surrounded by acidic clouds and fog that are more acidic than rainfall. Scientists believe that when leaves are frequently bathed in this acid fog, essential nutrients in their leaves and needles are stripped away. This loss of nutrients in their foliage makes trees more susceptible to damage by other environmental factors, particularly cold winter weather. How Acid Rain Affects Other Plants

Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Although damaged by other air pollutants such as ground level ozone, food crops are not usually seriously affected because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace nutrients that have washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is an alkaline material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a buffer against acidity. Effects of Acid Rain - Visibility Sulfates and nitrates that form in the atmosphere from sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions contribute to

Decreases in NOx emissions are also expected to have a beneficial impact on human health by reducing the nitrogen oxides available to react with volatile organic compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on human health include a number of morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation, What is Acid Rain?

capacity of the soils involved; and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water. Dry Deposition

In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic. About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.

Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) CASTNET provides atmospheric data on the dry deposition component of total acid deposition, ground-level ozone and other forms of atmospheric pollution. National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP) NADP is a network of over 100 federal, state and local government agencies, and private sector entities that collect data on acid deposition, as well as mercury deposition. EPA Clean Air Markets Data and Maps Provides access to a variety of data associated with emissions trading programs, including trends in emissions and heat input, environmental assessment maps, data sets and reports on acid deposition, facility attributes and contacts, and other file downloads

"Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all NOx come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state and national borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles.

Wet Deposition Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depends on several factors, including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and buffering