Phase Change Simulation

Chapter 8.
Phase Change Simulations

This chapter describes the phase change model available in FLUENT and the commands you use to set up a phase change problem. Information is organized into the following sections: Section 8.1 : Section 8.2 : Section 8.3 : Section 8.4 : Overview of Phase Change Modeling Phase Change Modeling Theory User Inputs for the Phase Change Model Solution Strategies for Phase Change Problems
8.1 Overview of Phase Change Modeling in FLUENT

FLUENT can be used to solve uid ow problems involving phase
change taking place at one temperature e.g., in pure metals or over a range of temperature e.g., in binary alloys. Instead of explicitly tracking the liquid-solid front as the phase change occurs, which requires a moving mesh methodology, an enthalpy-porosity formulation is used where the ow and enthalpy equations are solved with extra source terms on the xed grid. Marangoni shear, due to the variation of surface tension with temperature, is important in many industrial uid ow situations involving phase change. The phase change model in FLUENT provides the ability to specify the Marangoni gradient at a sloping surface, as well as an arbitrary shear at a boundary coinciding with one of the curvilinear grid lines. The model also allows you to specify the convective heat transfer, radiation, and heat ux at a wall as piecewise linear pro les, polynomials, or harmonic functions. FLUENT provides the following phase change modeling options: Calculation of liquid-solid phase change in pure metals as well as in binary alloys. Modeling of continuous casting processes i.e., pulling" of solid material out of the domain.
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Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Ability to specify an arbitrary shear at a curved boundary as a piecewise linear pro le or polynomial in terms of one of the Cartesian coordinates. Modeling of Marangoni convection due to the variation of surface tension with temperature. Modeling of the thermal contact resistance between frozen material and the wall e.g., due to an air gap. Ability to patch a momentum source in each Cartesian direction and or a heat source to simulate magnetic force elds or heat generation in the domain, for example. Display and patching of latent heat content, pull velocities in continuous casting and other relevant variables.
These modeling capabilities allow FLUENT to simulate a wide range of phase change problems including melting, solidi cation, crystal growth and continuous casting. The physical equations used for these phase change calculations are described in the following sections. Limitations of the As mentioned above, the phase change formulation in FLUENT Phase Change can be used to model the melting freezing of pure materials, as Model well as alloys. The liquid fraction versus temperature relationship used in FLUENT is the lever rule|i.e., a linear relationship Equation 8.2-3. Other relationships are possible 124 , but not available in FLUENT. The following FLUENT features cannot be used in conjunction with the phase change model: Radiation Combustion Speci ed periodic mass ow Cylindrical velocities
Overview of Phase In order for you to enable the phase change model, the energy equaChange Modeling tion must be active. You are then required to supply additional Procedures physical constants pertaining to the phase change problem liquidus
and solidus temperature, latent heat of freezing, etc.. You may invoke one of the enhanced boundary conditions that are available
c Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997
8.2 Phase Change Modeling Theory
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in the phase change model applied shear, free surface with surface tension gradient, or mixed heat transfer. Before solving the coupled uid ow and heat transfer problem, you should patch an initial temperature and latent heat distribution or solve the steady conduction problem as an initial condition. The coupled problem can then be solved as either steady or unsteady. Because of the nonlinear nature of these problems, however, in most cases an unsteady solution approach is preferred.

The enthalpy-porosity technique 137 140 is used in FLUENT for modeling the phase change process. In this technique, the melt interface is not tracked explicitly. Instead, a quantity called the liquid fraction is associated with each control volume in the domain and the liquid fraction is computed at each iteration. Both isothermal and non-isothermal phase change may be computed; the mushy zone is simply a region in which the liquid fraction lies between zero and unity. The mushy zone is modeled as a pseudo" porous medium in which the porosity decreases from 1 to 0 as the material solidi es. Thus, the uid velocities in the mushy zone are attenuated and reach values near zero when the material is fully solidi ed. In this section, an overview of the phase change theory is given. Please refer to 137 for details on the enthalpy-porosity method. The Energy The energy equation is written in terms of the sensible enthalpy, h, Equation de ned as
h = href +
where href = reference enthalpy Tref = reference temperature c = speci c heat at constant pressure The total enthalpy, H , is therefore
p
Tref
c dT
p
8.2-1
8.2-2 where H is the latent heat content. The latent heat content may vary between zero solid and L liquid, the latent heat of the material. Thus, the liquid fraction, , can be de ned as = H = 0
H = h + H
if T
Tsolidus
Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997
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= H = 1 L = H = T T , Tsolidus L liquidus , Tsolidus
if T
Tliquidus T Tliquidus 8.2-3
if Tsolidus
For phase change problems, the energy equation is written in terms of the total enthalpy as
@ h + @ H + @ u h + @ u H = @ krT + S @t @t @x @x @x
i i i i i
8.2-4
= density = uid velocity = Cartesian coordinate directions = thermal conductivity = source term Note that there are two extra terms containing H on the left-hand side. The rst is an unsteady latent heat content term; the second results in latent heat release when there is steady advection, as in continuous casting. There are two unknowns in Equation 8.2-4: h and H or, alternately, the liquid fraction, . The value of H depends on the temperature, as shown by Equation 8.2-3; H , in turn, changes the temperature through Equation 8.2-4. Thus, the additional equation required to obtain H is the H T relation given in Equation 8.2-3. Note that the H T relationship is di erent for di erent alloy systems. Equation 8.2-3 is the lever" rule. Solution Procedure The solution for temperature is essentially an iteration between Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4. FLUENT uses the iterative procedure outlined in 137 . First, a guess is made for the temperature and liquid fraction or the previously-calculated values are used. These values will, in general, be inconsistent in that both Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4 will not simultaneously be satis ed. The solution technique employed is then to alternate between Equations 8.2-3 and 8.2-4, manipulating the liquid fraction according to
where
u x k S
H
+1
= H +
n
c T , T
p
c
8.2-5

where H H
H n
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= current solution for latent heat content = latent heat content from previous iteration = underrelaxation factor T = Tliquidus , Tsolidus + Tsolidus Essentially, Equation 8.2-5 nudges H in the right direction, making H and the temperature consistent. You have control over the underrelaxation factor, , used in Equation 8.2-5. The label for this underrelaxation factor appears as DELH in the EXPERT UNDERRELAX-1 table or the Underrelaxation panel. The implementation in the enthalpy-porosity technique in FLUENT applies Equation 8.2-5 to each control volume many times during an iteration. The uid ow and temperature are solved over the domain, assuming a certain value of the liquid fraction. Then several inner iterations of Equation 8.2-5 are performed for each point in the domain, and the liquid fraction is updated. An update of properties completes one outer iteration. Velocity Treatment The procedure described above yields the temperature eld and the liquid fraction. When the liquid fraction in a control volume is less than unity, as in the mushy zone, a large sink is applied to each of the momentum equations to damp the velocity. The sink in the momentum equations takes the form
+1
n H
1 , 2 A u , u 3 + mush
i p;i p;i
8.2-6
where Amush = mushy zone constant u = pull velocity = small number to prevent division by zero Amush is a constant that measures the amplitude of the damping; values between 104 and 107 are recommended for most computations. The higher this value, the steeper the damping curve becomes, and the faster u drops to zero as the material freezes. Very large values may cause the solution to oscillate as control volumes alternately freeze and thaw with minor perturbations in liquid fraction. The term u is the pull velocity vector and it appears when continuous casting processes are being modeled. The presence of this term in Equation 8.2-6 allows newly solidi ed material to move at the pull velocity. A description of this feature is given in the next section.
i p;i
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8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

To set up a phase change problem in FLUENT, you must rst de ne the problem dimensionality, physical domain size and grid size in the usual way i.e., either by using the De ne Domain panel or the commands in the DEFINE-DOMAIN menu, or by reading a grid le. The additional inputs required for de ning a phase change problem are described below. Activating the You enable the phase change model by setting ACTIVATE PHASE Phase Change CHANGE MODEL to YES in the EXPERT OPTIONS table:
Model
MAIN ,! EXPERT ,! OPTIONS
MODELING OPTIONS NO ALLOW LINK SETTING NO ALLOW PROFILE SETTING NO ALLOW HEAT FLUX BOUNDARY CONDITIONS NO ALLOW EXTERNAL HEAT TRANSFER WALLS NO ALLOW WALL CONDUCTION NO ENABLE CONVECTION IN CONDUCTING WALLS NO ALLOW HEAT CONDUCTION FOR INLETS NO INCLUDE EXTERNAL RADIATION BC NO SET EMISSIVITY FOR INLETS OUTLET NO ENABLE NON-NEWTONIAN FLOW MODEL NO ENABLE POROUS FLOW MODEL NO ENABLE MOLE FRACTION INPUTS OTHERWISE MASS FRACTION NO ENABLE FAN RADIATOR MODEL NO ALLOW FIXED PRESSURE BOUNDARIES NO ALLOW SETTING FLOW ANGLES FOR PRESSURE-INLETS NO ENABLE STEADY CORIOLIS FORCE NO ENABLE MULTIPLE ROTATING REFERENCE FRAMES NO ENABLE SLIDING MESH CALCULATION YES ACTIVATE PHASE CHANGE MODELLING NO ENABLE DEFORMING MESH CALCULATION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the energy equation must be active i.e., you must have enabled calculation of temperature in the Models panel or in the DEFINE-MODELS menu. Physical Constants The physical constants for the phase change problem are set in the SETUP-1 PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS menu. When the phase change model is active, you will notice the following additional choices in this menu: SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT, CONTACT-RESISTANCE and PHASE-CHANGE. These options are described below.
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Surface Tension The menu selection SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT de nes the variGradient for ation of surface tension with temperature, d =dT . This paramMarangoni Flow eter is used to compute the surface-tension-gradient-driven shear
Marangoni shear on a boundary. For example, if the temperature gradient along an arc, s, is dT=ds, the applied shear stress is taken to be = d =dT dT
This shear stress is then decomposed into its Cartesian components and applied to the momentum equations. The example table below shows the input of the surface tension gradient
ds
8.3-1
@ = ,3:6 10,4 @T
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS: DENSITY VISCOSITY THERMAL-CONDUCTIVITY CP-SPECIFIC-HEAT OPERATING-PRESSURE SURFACE-TENSION-GRADIENT CONTACT-RESISTANCE PHASE-CHANGE QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSSTG R- ENTER SURFACE-TENSION GRADIENT R- UNITS= N M K ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ -3.6E-04
8.3-2
The Marangoni shear boundary condition may be applied to any bounding face of the computational domain, both for external boundaries and interior regions. However, the face must be a free surface i.e., a Z-WALL with slip|see Z-WALL boundary conditions below. Contact Resistance The menu selection CONTACT-RESISTANCE de nes an additional heat transfer resistance between walls and cells with liquid fraction less than unity. This accounts for the presence of an air gap between the walls and the frozen solid. Thus, the wall heat ux, as shown in Figure 8.3.1, is written as
T q = l=k, T +R
I w c
8.3-3
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Note that the contact resistance, R , has the same units as the inverse of the heat transfer coe cient. The same contact resistance will be applied at all W-WALLS and no-slip Z-WALLS that are adjacent to cells with liquid fraction less than unity.
c
Wall Near-wall Control Volume TW

q
TI
TW
q q
TI
q
l/k
RC
Figure 8.3.1: Circuit for Contact Resistance
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Phase Change The phase change properties for the melting solidi cation problem Properties are speci ed through the PHASE-CHANGE command: MAIN ,! SETUP-1 ,! PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS ,! PHASE-CHANGE
FLUENT rst asks you to de ne the SOLIDUS
in Equation 8.2-3:
TEMPERATURE, Tsolidus
R- ENTER SOLIDUS TEMPERATURE R- UNITS= K ++DEFAULT 1.1000E+03++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
Next, de ne the LIQUIDUS

R- ENTER LIQUIDUS TEMPERATURE R- UNITS= K ++DEFAULT 1.2000E+03++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
TEMPERATURE, Tliquidus
in Equation 8.2-3:
Then specify the LATENT Equation 8.2-3:

R- ENTER LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING R- UNITS= J KG ++DEFAULT 1.0000E+05++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
HEAT OF FREEZING
for the material, L in
Finally, enter the MUSHY ZONE CONSTANT, Amush in Equation 8.2-6, which determines the damping of velocities in the mushy zone.
R- ENTER MUSHY ZONE CONSTANT R- UNITS= KG M3 S ++DEFAULT 1.0000E+04++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
Enhanced One important concept to note is the de nition and use of the Boundary Z-WALL cells. When the phase change model is enabled, these are no Conditions longer ordinary wall cells like W-WALL cells, but are used for speci-
fying the enhanced boundary conditions: applied shear, mixed heat transfer and Marangoni surface tension gradient shear boundary
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conditions. The slip condition is the default at these Z-WALL cells. To set boundary conditions at Z-WALLs in phase change problems, you must use the text interface; phase change boundary conditions at Z-WALLs cannot be set through the GUI. The dialog below illustrates the use of these enhanced boundary conditions for a wall, Z1. The available options are discussed in further detail below.
MAIN ,! SETUP-1 ,! BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS
SETUP1BC Z 1 L- CUT VELOCITY LINKS TO MUSHY CELLS ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-YES++ YES L- ACTIVATE NO-SLIP CONDITION ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ NO L- ACTIVATE SPECIFIED-TEMPERATURE BOUNDARY ? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ NO COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: Z-WALL-BC QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS-
In this initial dialog, you are asked three questions:

CUT VELOCITY LINKS TO MUSHY CELLS ?
| The response to this question determines how the wall in uences the motion of adjacent solid cells and mushy cells. The default response is YES; that is, the wall is frictionless. An answer of NO will cause the velocity of the solidi ed material to be retarded accelerated by the wall velocity. ACTIVATE NO-SLIP CONDITION ? | The default NO is a slip condition, which allows you to specify a free surface if desired. An answer of YES will allow you to input Cartesian velocity components at the wall. ACTIVATE SPECIFIED-TEMPERATURE BOUNDARY ? | The default is NO which enables the mixed combined convection, radiation and speci ed heat ux heat transfer boundary condition. An answer of YES will allow you to specify a xed temperature at the boundary. In this case, the only option available in
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the Z-WALL-BC command see below will be applied shear, and the xed temperature will be requested in the Z-WALL ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS menu.
Mixed Heat The mixed heat transfer boundary condition is governed by the Transfer and Shear following equation: Stress Boundary 4 qnet = h T , Tenv + T 4 , Trad , qapplied 8.3-4 Conditions at
c
Z-WALLS
where qnet is the total heat ux at the boundary. You may toggle" on and o the various contributions to the right side of this equation by specifying nonzero or zero values for the convection heat transfer coe cient h , the wall emissivity , and the applied heat ux qapplied . In the following dialog, only the constants for convection heat transfer at the boundary are speci ed. In addition, the applied shear at the boundary is set to zero default.
c
Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSZ-WALL-BC R- HEAT TRANS. COEFF. R- UNITS= WATTS M.SQ-K ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 1. R- CONVECTIVE ENV. TEMP. R- UNITS= KELVIN ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 295. R- EMISSIVITY R- UNITS= DIMENSIONLESS ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- RADIATIVE ENV. TEMP. R- UNITS= KELVIN ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- HEAT FLUX R- UNITS= WATTS M.SQ. ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. R- SHEAR-STRESS R- UNITS= PASCALS ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 0. COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: Z-WALL-BC QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. Z1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS-
Note that the enhanced boundary conditions can also be speci ed as piecewise linear or polynomial pro les. This option is enabled
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in the usual manner, by setting ALLOW PROFILE SETTING to YES in the EXPERT OPTIONS menu. The independent variable may be any of the coordinate directions. The term u H in Equation 8.2-4 can be included in FLUENT's phase change model. It is possible, therefore, to compute phase change in continuous casting applications, where a solid region is pulled" out of the computational domain, and pulls newly solidi ed material with it. The term u H should be activated by you when your model includes pull velocities. This term is activated by answering YES to the following question:
@ @xi i @ @ xi i
Modeling Continuous Casting Using the Pull Velocity
EXPERT ,!PHASE-CHANGE-OPTIONS
L- TURN ON THE DEL.RHO U DELH TERM IN THE H-EQN? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++
FLUENT computes the pull velocities using a Laplace equation de-
tails are given below. By default, the boundary conditions are such that the solid will slide past all walls and will be pulled with a velocity equal to the inlet velocity to which the solid is attached. You may choose to attach the solid to a wall by not cutting the links to mushy cells. The pull rate may be speci ed by creating an inlet where the temperature is below the solidus temperature. The inlet may have a normal velocity pointing into or out of the domain i.e., either pushing" or pulling" is possible. Multiple pull rates may be speci ed by using more than one such inlet. Rotation of the pulled material can also be included by input of an angular velocity de ning the rotation. To determine which pull rate is to be associated with which newlysolidi ed material and with what velocity the solid should move, a Laplace equation is solved for the pull velocity:
r ru = 0
p;i
8.3-5
The coe cient is similar to viscosity and determines whether the solid slips along a boundary. As mentioned above, by default all walls are slip; therefore, is 0. At inlets, the default is no-slip and FLUENT sets to 1. Thus, it is possible to pull the solid at a pull velocity, V , as shown in Figure 8.3.2, without having it retarded by the stationary walls.
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Mushy Zone
Solid
Wall
Figure 8.3.2: Pulling" a Solid in Continuous Casting Equation 8.3-5 is a vector equation; the pull rate may have all three components. Thus, three Laplace equations are solved in three dimensions. These equations are not underrelaxed. They are solved using the line-by-line solver in FLUENT. To activate the solution of the pull velocities, you must set a nonzero number of sweeps in the SWEEPS-OF-LGS-SOLVER menu or in the Line Gauss Parameters panel:
Solve ,! Controls ,!Line Gauss...
MAIN ,! EXPERT ,! LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVER SOLVER
,! SWEEPS-OF-LGS-
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LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVERSW NUMBER OF SWEEPS SWEEP DIRECTION 5 PRESSURE-CORRECTION 1 U-VELOCITY 1 V-VELOCITY 10 LATENT-HEAT-ITERATIONS 0 PULL-U-VELOCITY 0 PULL-V-VELOCITY 1 ENTHALPY 1 SWEEP DIRECTION I=1, J=2 YES ALTERNATE SWEEP DIRECTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Additional Sources of Heat and Momentum Momentum Sources
Energy Source
When the number of sweeps is set equal to zero, FLUENT will not calculate the corresponding component of the pull velocity vector. In this case, you may specify the desired value of the pull vector using the PATCH command. The pull velocities are PULL-U-VELOCITY, PULL-V-VELOCITY and PULL-W-VELOCITY. Angular velocity can also be patched. It is possible to specify additional sources of momentum and heat within the domain. For example, the simulation of a plasma melting process may require the speci cation of a force eld and heat generation in the domain. Another example is the use of magnetic force elds to damp the velocities in crystal growth processes. You can specify additional momentum sources in each control volume for each momentum equation by patching the values SOURCE-XMOM, SOURCE-Y-MOM and SOURCE-Z-MOM. The patched values remain in e ect throughout the simulation. These momentum sources have the units force volume. Thus, patching of these quantities is to be distinguished from patching of the absolute force quantities using EXCHANGE-X, EXCHANGE-Y, and EXCHANGE-Z. You can specify an additional energy source in each control volume by patching the values of SOURCE-HEAT. The patched values remain in e ect throughout the simulation. The sign convention is that a positive value of SOURCE-HEAT represents heat added to the uid. This source has the units energy volume-time and so is analogous to patching of EXCHANGE-HEAT. Note the di erence in sign convention, however.
8.4 Solution Strategies for Phase Change Problems
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8.4 Solution Strategies for Phase Change Problems

In phase change problems, the momentum, energy, and liquid fraction equations are tightly coupled, presenting a very nonlinear set of equations to be solved. In most cases, a transient solution approach is recommended, even if the desired solution is steady-state, but phase change problems can also be simulated as steady in FLUENT. Specifying proper initial conditions is important for phase change problems, most importantly for the temperature eld. In many cases, simply patching a uniform temperature eld may su ce. In more complex cases, it may be easier to solve a steady conduction problem in the domain. To do this, turn o time dependence in the Models panel or EXPERT menu if the phase change problem has been de ned as unsteady. In the EXPERT SELECT-VARIABLES table or the Select Equations panel, turn o the solution of all quantities except PROPERTIES TEMPERATURE and ENTHALPY. Set the underrelaxation factors for temperature and enthalpy to 1, and the steady temperature eld can be obtained quickly. Now, the coupled uid ow and heat transfer problem can be computed. Many phase change problems involve unsteady natural convection in enclosed cavities. When solving such a problem, FLUENT may encounter di culty in reducing the normalized pressure residual to the convergence criterion. This is because the pressure residual is normalized by the residual or continuity imbalance at the second iteration. For an unsteady ow in a closed cavity no inlet outlet, the pressure residual at the second iteration is often very small. This in turn causes the normalized pressure residual to appear quite large and may prevent FLUENT from reaching the convergence criterion. In this case, you can gauge convergence at each time step by checking the residuals for the momentum and enthalpy equations. You should then periodically check the unnormalized pressure residual for convergence. To automate the time-stepping procedure, you can set the number of iterations per time step to a value that is adequate for the convergence of the momentum and energy equations. Care should be taken when de ning the reference temperature for enthalpy. Potentially misleading residuals for the enthalpy equation can arise if the reference temperature is the same as the initial temperature in the domain. If the two temperatures are the same, the enthalpy is zero or very small everywhere in the domain. Since the enthalpy residual is normalized by the sum of A h see Section 16.3, it can be quite large. In this case, de ne the reference
P P
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temperature for enthalpy to be a value di erent from the initial temperature of the problem. For pure melting problems i.e., Tliquidus = Tsolidus , the melt front should be one cell thick i.e., the liquid fraction should be between 0 and 1 only in a line of single cells representing the position of the melt front. If the melt front is not one cell thick, it indicates that the solution of the liquid fraction Equation 8.2-5 is not converged. The number of sweeps for LATENT-HEAT-ITERATIONS should therefore be increased in the SWEEPS-OF-LGS-SOLVER table or in the Line Gauss Parameters panel:
NUMBER OF SWEEPS SWEEP DIRECTION 10 PRESSURE-CORRECTION 1 U-VELOCITY 1 V-VELOCITY 1 W-VELOCITY 10 LATENT-HEAT-ITERATIONS 20 PULL-U-VELOCITY 20 PULL-V-VELOCITY 20 PULL-W-VELOCITY 5 ENTHALPY 1 SWEEP DIRECTION I=1, J=2 YES ALTERNATE SWEEP DIRECTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
The suggested value for the underrelaxation factor for Equation 8.2-5 and the enthalpy equation is 0.5.
Chapter 9.
The Eulerian Multiphase Model
The Eulerian multiphase model in FLUENT allows for the modeling of multiple separate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or solids in nearly any combination. An Eulerian treatment is used for each phase, in contrast to the Eulerian-Lagrangian treatment that is used for the dispersed phase model. Information about the Eulerian multiphase model is divided into the following sections: Section 9.1: Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT Section 9.2: Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model Section 9.3: Examples of Eulerian Multiphase Capabilities Section 9.4: Eulerian Multiphase Theory Section 9.5: Solution Method in FLUENT Section 9.6: Eulerian Multiphase Flow Modeling Strategies Section 9.7: Using the Eulerian Multiphase Model in FLUENT Section 9.8: Postprocessing Eulerian Multiphase Results
9.1 Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT

A large number of ows encountered in nature and technology are a mixture of phases. Physical phases of matter are gas, liquid, and solid, but the concept of phase in a multiphase ow system is applied in a broader sense. In multiphase ow, a phase can be de ned as an identi able class of material that has a particular inertial response to and interaction with the ow and the potential eld in which it is immersed. For example, di erent-sized solid particles of the same material can be treated as di erent phases because each collection of particles with the same size will have a similar dynamical response to the ow eld.
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Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model Examples of Some examples of complex multiphase systems are listed below: Multiphase Systems Fluid- uid multiphase systems
Gas-liquid droplet systems: atomizers, scrubbers, dryers, absorbers, combustors, gas cooling, evaporation, cryogenic pumping Liquid-gas bubble systems: absorbers, evaporators, scrubbers, air lift pumps, cavitation, otation, aeration, nuclear reactors Liquid-gas systems: boiling and nuclear reactor safety, surface waves of air over water Liquid-liquid systems: extraction, emulsi cation, separators, homogenization Fluid-solid multiphase systems Gas-solid particle systems: cyclones, pneumatic conveyors, dust collectors, uidized bed reactors, circulating bed reactors, uid catalytic cracking, metallized propellant rockets, xerography, air classiers, biomedical and physiochemical uid systems, silos, dust-laden environmental ows Liquid-solid particle systems: slurry transport, sedimentation, otation, suspension, and some powder milling
9.1.1 Approaches to Multiphase Modeling

Advances in computational uid mechanics have provided the basis for further insight into the dynamics of multiphase ows. Currently there are two approaches for the numerical calculation of multiphase ows: the Euler-Lagrange approach and the Euler-Euler approach. The Lagrangian The Lagrangian dispersed phase model in FLUENT see Chapter 11 Dispersed Phase follows the Euler-Lagrange approach. The uid phase is treated as Model a continuum by solving the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations, while the dispersed phase is solved by tracking a large number of particles, bubbles, or droplets through the calculated ow eld. The dispersed phase can exchange momentum, mass, and energy with the uid phase. A fundamental assumption made in this model is that the dispersed second phase occupies a low volume fraction, even though high mass loading mparticles m uid is acceptable. _ _
9.1 Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT
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The Euler-Euler Approach
The VOF Model
The Eulerian Multiphase Model
The particle or droplet trajectories are computed individually at speci ed intervals during the uid phase calculation. This makes the model appropriate for the modeling of spray dryers, coal and liquid fuel combustion, and some particle-laden ows, but inappropriate for the modeling of liquid-liquid mixtures, uidized beds, or any application where the volume fraction of the second phase is not negligible. In the Euler-Euler approach, the di erent phases are treated mathematically as interpenetrating continua. Since the volume of a phase cannot be occupied by the other phases, the concept of phasic volume fraction is introduced. These volume fractions are assumed to be continuous functions of space and time and their sum is equal to one. Conservation equations for each phase are derived to obtain a set of equations which have similar structure for all phases. These equations are closed by providing constitutive relations which are obtained from empirical information, or, in the case of granular ows, by application of kinetic theory. In FLUENT, two di erent Euler-Euler multiphase models are available: the VOF Volume of Fluid Model and the Eulerian Multiphase Model. In the VOF model described in Chapter 10 a single set of transport equations is solved, and the phases do not mix. The interface between phases is de ned by solution of a transport equation and di usion across the interface is prevented. Applications of the VOF model include strati ed ows, free-surface ows, lling, sloshing, and jet breakup surface tension. The Eulerian multiphase model solves a set of n momentum, enthalpy, continuity and m species for each phase. Coupling is achieved through the pressure and interphase exchange coe cients. The manner in which this coupling is handled depends upon the type of phases involved; granular uid-solid ows are handled di erently than nongranular uid- uid ows. For granular ows, the properties are obtained from application of kinetic theory. Momentum exchange between the phases is also dependent upon the type of mixture being modeled. FLUENT's user-de ned subroutine capability allows customization of the calculation of the momentum exchange and heat exchange.
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Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model
9.2 Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model

With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases is limited only by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any number of secondary phases can be modeled, provided that sufcient memory is available. For complex multiphase ows, however, you may nd that your solution is limited by convergence behavior. See Section 9.6 for multiphase modeling strategies. Fluid-Fluid Flows If all of the phases are uids liquids, gases, or vapors, the ow is characterized as uid- uid. For this class of ows, the FLUENT solution is based on the following: A single pressure is shared by all phases. Momentum, enthalpy and continuity equations are solved for each phase. The gas law can be used for the primary phase. Temperature-dependent properties are available for all phases. A simple interphase drag coe cient is obtained for spherical droplets or bubbles in a bubbly regime. You can modify the interphase drag coe cient through user-de ned subroutines see Chapter 20. m species can be solved for each phase. Homogeneous reactions are allowed for each phase. Mass transfer is allowed between the phases. The k- turbulence model is available for each phase.
Granular If one phase is a uid and one or more of the phases is a solid, Fluid-Solid Flows the ow is characterized as granular. For this class of ows, the
FLUENT solution is based on the following:
The uid is represented by the primary phase. All secondary phases are solids i.e., you cannot model a granular ow that involves more than one uid phase. The uid pressure eld is shared by all phases. A solids pressure eld is calculated for each solid phase.
9.2 Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model
9-5
Momentum, enthalpy, and continuity equations are solved for each phase. The gas law can be used for the primary phase. Granular temperature solids uctuating energy can be calculated for each solid phase. Solid-phase shear and bulk viscosities are obtained from application of kinetic theory to granular ows. Simple and uid-solid granular interphase drag coe cients are used for spherical particles. You can modify the interphase drag coe cient through user-de ned subroutines see Chapter 20. m species can be solved for each phase. Homogeneous reactions are allowed for each phase. Mass transfer is allowed between the phases. The k- turbulence model is available for each phase.
Limitations All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction
with the Eulerian multiphase model, except for the following limitations: The RNG k- and Reynolds Stress models for turbulence cannot be used. Particle tracking using the Lagrangian dispersed phase model interacts only with the primary phase. Speci ed periodic mass ow is not allowed. Compressible ow is not allowed. The Eulerian multiphase model cannot be used with sliding or deforming meshes. Phase change melting, freezing is not allowed. Heterogeneous reactions i.e., reactions between phases are not allowed, except via user-de ned subroutines.
9-6
Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model Stability and The process of solving a multiphase system is inherently di cult, Convergence and you may encounter stability or convergence di culties. In gen-
eral, mixtures involving phases with large density di erences e.g., water and air may require more computational e ort than mixtures where the densities are closer in magnitude. There are physical limitations when the volume fraction of a secondary phase increases to its maximum possible value i.e., the packing limit for a solid phase or 1.0 for a uid phase. In such cases the momentum exchange law may not be valid and convergence problems may appear. Strati ed ows of immiscible uids can be solved more e ciently with the VOF model see Chapter 10. Some problems involving small volume fractions can be solved more e ciently with the Lagrangian dispersed phase model see Chapter 11. Granular ows, solved in a transient manner, are usually stable and well behaved, whether in combination with a liquid or a gas. Many stability and convergence problems can be minimized if care is taken during the setup and solution processes see Section 9.6. Below are two examples of problems that have been solved using FLUENT. Brief problem descriptions are followed by gures illustrating the results. A tutorial that illustrates the setup and solution process in more detail is included in the FLUENT Tutorial Guide.
9.3 Examples of Eulerian Multiphase Capabilities
9.3.1 Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction

In the following example, an air-water mixture ows upwards in a duct, then splits at a tee-junction. This problem is similar to the work of Issa and Oliveira 51 . In this 2D simulation, the ducts are 25 mm in width. The inlet section of the duct is 125 mm long, and the top and side ducts are 250 mm long. There are 3200 live control volumes, with 20 control volumes spanning each of the three arms. Figures 9.3.1 and 9.3.2 show the geometry outline and a close-up of the grid in the vicinity of the junction. The water and air are assigned densities of 1000 and 1.2 kg m3, respectively. The air is assumed to form bubbles with an average diameter of 1 mm. The viscosities of water and air are 9 10,4 and 2 10,5 kg ms, respectively. The incoming mixture is composed of 2 air by volume. Most of the water 80 is removed through the side arm of the junction. Velocity vectors for water are shown in Figure 9.3.3, and contours of stream function for air are shown in Figure 9.3.4. The
9-7
lower momentum of the air causes it to collect in the recirculating region just downstream of the junction. Figure 9.3.5 shows the volume fraction of air in the duct.
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Outline
Dec 06 1994 Fluent 4.30 Fluent Inc.
Figure 9.3.1: Outline of the Tee-Junction Geometry
9-8
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Grid (91 X 91)
Figure 9.3.2: Grid for the Tee-Junction, Showing the Junction Area
2.52E+00 2.43E+00 2.34E+00 2.26E+00 2.17E+00 2.08E+00 2.00E+00 1.91E+00 1.82E+00 1.74E+00 1.65E+00 1.56E+00 1.48E+00 1.39E+00 1.30E+00 1.22E+00 1.13E+00 1.04E+00 9.57E-01 8.70E-01 7.83E-01 6.97E-01 6.10E-01 5.23E-01 4.37E-01 3.50E-01 2.64E-01 1.77E-01 9.02E-02 3.53E-03
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Water Velocity Vectors (M/S) Max = 2.517E+00 Min = 3.533E-03
Figure 9.3.3: Water Velocity Vectors in the Tee-Junction
9-9
3.22E-06 -1.15E-04 -2.34E-04 -3.52E-04 -4.71E-04 -5.89E-04 -7.08E-04 -8.26E-04 -9.45E-04 -1.06E-03 -1.18E-03 -1.30E-03 -1.42E-03 -1.54E-03 -1.66E-03 -1.77E-03 -1.89E-03 -2.01E-03 -2.13E-03 -2.25E-03 -2.37E-03 -2.48E-03 -2.60E-03 -2.72E-03 -2.84E-03 -2.96E-03 -3.08E-03 -3.20E-03 -3.31E-03 -3.43E-03 -3.55E-03
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Stream Function (M2/S) Max = 3.222E-06 Min = -3.551E-03
Figure 9.3.4: Contours of Stream Function for Air in the TeeJunction

9.86E-01 9.53E-01 9.20E-01 8.87E-01 8.54E-01 8.22E-01 7.89E-01 7.56E-01 7.23E-01 6.90E-01 6.57E-01 6.24E-01 5.92E-01 5.59E-01 5.26E-01 4.93E-01 4.60E-01 4.27E-01 3.94E-01 3.61E-01 3.29E-01 2.96E-01 2.63E-01 2.30E-01 1.97E-01 1.64E-01 1.31E-01 9.86E-02 6.57E-02 3.29E-02 1.00E-06
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 9.859E-01 Min = 1.000E-06
Figure 9.3.5: Air Volume Fraction in the Tee-Junction
9-10
9.3.2 Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed

The uidization of an initially stationary granular bed is modeled as a time-dependent problem in this example, which follows work done by Gidaspow and Ettehadieh 38 and Gidaspow, Lin, and Seo 39 . A rectangular domain, 0.4 m wide and 0.6 m high is modeled with a 41 41 grid 42 42 cells. The region contains air at a density of 1.2 kg m3, and is lled halfway with a granular bed. The average particle diameter in the bed is 5 10,4 m, and the material density is 2610 kg m3. The air viscosity is 1.7 10,5 kg m-sec. The grid and the initial con guration of the bed are shown in Figure 9.3.6.
6.00E-01
3.00E-01
1.00E-06
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Grid (left) and Solids Volume Fraction (right) Lmax = 5.999E-01 Lmin = 1.000E-06 Time = 0.000E+00
Figure 9.3.6: Grid and Initial Bed Con guration in white At t = 0, a uniform vertical air ow of 0.284 m s passes from the lower boundary through the bed. At t 0, a narrow, vertical jet of air, 0.03 m wide, is injected at the center of the bottom boundary. The velocity of the jet is 3.55 m sec. A laminar solution is performed, using a time step of 10,3 sec. As the jet begins to penetrate the bed, it displaces the solids. This is illustrated in Figures 9.3.7a and 9.3.7b, where the air and solids velocities, respectively, are displayed at t = 0:1 sec.
9-11
3.73E+00 3.62E+00 3.50E+00 3.38E+00 3.26E+00 3.14E+00 3.02E+00 2.91E+00 2.79E+00 2.67E+00 2.55E+00 2.43E+00 2.32E+00 2.20E+00 2.08E+00 1.96E+00 1.84E+00 1.73E+00 1.61E+00 1.49E+00 1.37E+00 1.25E+00 1.13E+00 1.02E+00 8.98E-01 7.80E-01 6.62E-01 5.44E-01 4.26E-01 3.07E-01
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Air Velocity Vectors (M/S) Lmax = 3.734E+00 Lmin = 3.074E-01 Time = 1.000E-01
a Air Velocity Vectors

5.21E-01 5.03E-01 4.85E-01 4.67E-01 4.49E-01 4.31E-01 4.13E-01 3.95E-01 3.77E-01 3.59E-01 3.41E-01 3.23E-01 3.05E-01 2.87E-01 2.69E-01 2.51E-01 2.33E-01 2.15E-01 1.98E-01 1.80E-01 1.62E-01 1.44E-01 1.26E-01 1.08E-01 8.98E-02 7.18E-02 5.39E-02 3.59E-02 1.80E-02 0.00E+00
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Solids Velocity Vectors (M/S) Lmax = 5.208E-01 Lmin = 0.000E+00 Time = 1.000E-01
b Solids Velocity Vectors
Figure 9.3.7: Velocity Vectors for Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed
9-12

As time passes, the air jet forms a bubble that rises through the bed, as illustrated in Figure 9.3.8, where the development of the bubble can be seen. As the bubble rises in the bed, the distortion of the upper surface of the bed is evident. Also evident is the formation of the second bubble behind the rst in the lower left frame.
1.00E+00 9.80E-01 9.60E-01 9.40E-01 9.20E-01 9.00E-01 8.80E-01 8.60E-01 8.40E-01 8.20E-01 8.00E-01 7.80E-01 7.60E-01 7.40E-01 7.20E-01 7.00E-01 6.80E-01 6.60E-01 6.40E-01 6.20E-01 6.00E-01 5.80E-01 5.60E-01 5.40E-01 5.20E-01 5.00E-01 4.80E-01 4.60E-01 4.40E-01 4.20E-01 4.00E-01
Y Z X
Bubble formation at (clockwise from upper left) t=0.05,0.1,0.2, and 0.3 sec Dec 06 1994 Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Fluent 4.30 Lmax = 1.000E+00 Lmin = 4.001E-01 Fluent Inc.
Figure 9.3.8: Bubble Formation in a Fluidized Bed The e ect of the bed on the air jet is evidenced by the time it takes for the top of the bubble to reach the top of the bed roughly 0.3 sec. An unimpeded uid element in the air jet would take 0.3 m 3.55 m sec or 0.0845 seconds to reach the same height. The work required to displace the solids in the bed slows the air jet, which in turn leads to the spreading of the jet which can be seen in Figure 9.3.8.
9.4 Theory
To change from a single-phase model, where a single set of conservation equations for momentum and continuity is solved, to a multiphase model, additional sets of conservation equations must be introduced. In the process of introducing additional sets of conservation equations, the original set must also be modi ed. The modi cations involve, among other things, the introduction of the
9.4 Theory
9-13
volume fractions 1; 2; : : : n for the multiple phases, as well as a mechanism for the exchange of momentum between the phases.
9.4.1 Volume Fractions

The description of multiphase ow as interpenetrating continua incorporates the concept of phasic volume fractions, denoted here by q . Volume fractions represent the space occupied by each phase. The laws of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy are satised by each phase individually. The derivation of the conservation equations can be done by ensemble averaging the local instantaneous balance for each of the phases 3 or by using the mixture theory approach 10 . The volume of phase q, Vq , is de ned by
Vq =
where
n X q=1
q dV
9.4-1
=1
9.4-2
The e ective density of the phase q is ^q =

q q
9.4-3
where q is the physical density of phase q, which, in the case of a gas, can obey the local gas law.
9.4.2 Conservation Equations

The conservation equations from which the equations solved by FLUENT for uid- uid and granular ows are derived are presented in this section in general form. Below, in Sections 9.4.3 and 9.4.4, the equations solved by FLUENT will be explicitly presented. Conservation of The continuity equation for phase q is
Mass
@ @t
q +r
u q~ q =
n X p=1
mpq _
9.4-4
9-14

where ~ q is the velocity of phase q and mpq characterizes the mass u _ transfer from the pth to qth phase. From the mass conservation one can obtain
mpq = ,mqp _ _
and mpp = 0 _ Conservation of The momentum balance for phase q yields
9.4-5
Momentum
@ @t
u u q q~ q + r q q~ q
~ q = , q rp + r q + u n X~ Rpq + mpq~ pq _ u
p=1
~ q q Fq +
9.4-6
where q is the qth phase stress-strain tensor q = 2 q q S q + q q , 2 q r ~ q I u 3 and S q = 1 r~ q + r~ q T u 2 u 9.4-7 9.4-8
~ Here q and q are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q, Fq is an ~ external body force, Rpq is an interaction force between phases, is a dyadic product, and p is the pressure shared by all phases. ~ pq is the interphase velocity, de ned as follows. If mpq 0 i.e., u _ phase p mass is being transferred to phase q, ~ pq = ~ p; if mpq 0 u u _ i.e., phase q mass is being transferred to phase p, ~ pq = ~ q ; and u u ~ pq = ~ qp. u u Equation 9.4-6 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the ~ interphase force Rpq . This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion, and other e ects, and is subject to the conditions that ~ ~ ~ Rpq = ,Rqp and Rqq = 0. FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the form
p=1 n n X~ X Rpq = Kpq ~ p , ~ q u u p=1
9.4-9
9.4 Theory
9-15
where Kpq = Kqp is the interphase momentum exchange coe cient described in Sections 9.4.3 and 9.4.4. Conservation of To describe the conservation of energy in multiphase applications, Energy a separate enthalpy equation can be written for each phase:
@ @t
u q q hq + r q q ~ q hq
dpq + : r~ , r ~ + S qq q dt q uq n X + Qpq + mpq hpq 9.4-10 _

q p=1
where hq is the speci c enthalpy of the qth phase, ~q is the heat ux, q Sq is a source term that includes sources of enthalpy e.g., due to chemical reaction or radiation, Qpq is the intensity of heat exchange between the pth and qth phases, and hpq is the interphase enthalpy e.g., the enthalpy of the vapor at the temperature of the droplets, in the case of evaporation. The heat exchange between phases must comply with the local balance conditions Qpq = ,Qqp and Qqq = 0. Conservation of the The closure of the equation set is completed by conservation equaith Species in the tions for the prediction of the mass fraction of the ith species in the qth Phase qth phase:
@ @t
i i i u i _i q q mq + r q q ~ q mq = r q q Dq rmq + mq 9.4-11
i where miq is the mass fraction of the ith species in the qth phase, Dq th species in the mixture of the q th phase, is the di usivity of the i and miq is the rate of production destruction of the ith species. In _ addition, an equation of state for the uid mixture and expressions for the thermodynamic properties are needed.
9.4.3 Description of Fluid-Fluid Multiphase Flow

The equations for uid- uid multiphase ow, as implemented in FLUENT, are presented here for the general case of an n-phase ow.
The Momentum Equations

The conservation of momentum for a uid phase q is
9-16
@ @t
u u q q~ q + r q q~ q
~ q = , q rp + r q + q q ~ + u g n X Kpq ~ p , ~ q + mpq~ pq + u u _ u
p=1
~ Fq
9.4-12
~ Here ~ is the acceleration due to gravity and Fq represents additional g momentum sources. The stress-strain tensor q ij in component form is given by
q;ij
= q q @uq;i + @uq;j , 2 q q ij @uq;l @xj @xi 3 @xl
The Volume The momentum equations are subject to the constraint that the Fraction volume fractions add to unity:
n X q=1 q
=1
9.4-13
The volume fraction of each phase is calculated from a continuity equation:

n @ r +r r ~ = 1 Xm _ pq q q uq @t q q q;ref p=1
9.4-14
where rq = q = q;ref and q;ref is a constant reference density. The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the condition given by Equation 9.4-13, allows for the calculation of the primary-phase volume fraction. This treatment is common to uid- uid and granular ows. The Exchange It can be seen in Equation 9.4-12 that momentum exchange between Coe cient the phases is based on the value of the exchange coe cient, Kpq . For uid- uid ows, each secondary phase is assumed to form droplets or bubbles. This has an impact on how each of the uids is assigned to a particular phase. For example, in ows where there are unequal amounts of two uids, the predominant uid should be modeled as the primary uid, since the sparser uid is more likely to form droplets or bubbles. The exchange coe cient for these types of bubbly liquid-liquid or gas-liquid mixtures is 13 :
9.4 Theory
3 Kpq = 4 CD
9-17
u u p q j~ p , ~ q j dp
9.4-15
where q is the density of the primary phase q, dp is the droplet or bubble diameter of the secondary phase p, j~ p , ~ q j is the relative u u phase velocity, and CD is a drag function based on the relative Reynolds number. The drag function is obtained from
for Re 1000, and CD = 0:44 for Re 1000, where the relative Reynolds number for the primary phase q and secondary phase p is obtained from
24
CD = Re 1 + 0:15Re0:687
9.4-16
u ,u Re = q j~ p ~ q jdp q
9.4-17
The exchange coe cient for secondary phases p and r is assumed to be symmetric, with the following form: 3 u u Krp = 4 CD rpj~dr , ~ pj rp 9.4-18
where rp = p p + r r is the mixture density of the two secondary phases, drp = 1 dr + dp is the averaged particle diameter, and 2 j~ p , ~ r j is the relative velocity. The drag coe cient is obtained u u from Equation 9.4-16 but with a relative Reynolds number of the form
Re =
u u rp j~ r , ~ pjdrp rp
9.4-19
where rp = pp + r r is the mixture viscosity of the phases p and r. These exchange coe cients are suited for the bubbly or droplet ow regimes, in which the primary phase dominates. Application of Equations 9.4-15 and 9.4-18 to slug or annular regimes, for example, reduces the accuracy of Eulerian multiphase simulations. For these ow regimes, the exchange coe cients must be modi ed or replaced. Numerous models for the exchange term are present in
9-18

the literature. With user-de ned subroutines, you can customize the calculation of the exchange coe cient if necessary. Disabling the It is possible to choose a value of zero for the exchange coe cient, Exchange as discussed in Section 9.7.11. When this is done, the ow elds Coe cients for the uids will be computed independently, with the only interaction" being their complementary volume fractions within each computational cell. Setting the exchange coe cient to zero can be a useful tool in initiating a calculation, but is generally not recommended for the nal solution, where interaction between the uids is usually important.
9.4.4 Description of Granular Multiphase Flow

Following the work of 2 , 18 , 30 , 40 , 73 , 80 , 92 , and 127 , FLUENT uses a multi- uid granular model to describe the ow behavior of a uid-solid mixture. The solid-phase stresses are derived by making an analogy between the random particle motion arising from particle-particle collisions and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into account the inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of the particle velocity uctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and pressure of the solid phase. The kinetic energy associated with the particle velocity uctuations is represented by a pseudothermal" or granular temperature which is proportional to the mean square of the random motion of particles. The equations for granular multiphase ow are presented in this section for the case of an n-phase ow.
The Momentum Equations

The conservation of momentum for the primary uid phase, f , is
@ @t
u u f f~f + r f f~f
~ f = , f rp + r f + f f ~ + u g n X Ksf ~ s , ~ f + msf ~ sf u u _ u s=1 ~ +Ff 9.4-20
and that for the sth solid phase is
@ @t
u u s s~ s + r s s ~ s
~ s = , srp , rps + r s + u
c
g s s~ +
9.4 Theory
M X
9-19
~ Kls~ l , ~ s + mls~ ls + Fs + u u _ u
l=1 Kfs~ f u
, ~ s + mfs~ fs 9.4-21 u _ u
where ps is the sth solids pressure, Kfs = Ksf is the uid-solid momentum exchange coe cient, Kls is the solid-solid momentum exchange coe cient between solid phases l and s, and M is the total number of solid phases. The sth solids stress-strain tensor sij in component form is given by
s;ij
= ss @us;i + @us;j + ss , 2 ss ij @us;l @xj @xi 3 @xl
9.4-22
exchange coe cient Ksf = Kfs and the solid-solid exchange coefcient Kls. The Fluid-Solid The uid-solid exchange coe cient Ksf has a form derived by SyamExchange lal and O'Brien 126 127 , and is based on measurements of the Coe cient terminal velocities of particles in uidized or settling beds, with correlations that are a function of the volume fraction and relative Reynolds number 105
The Exchange It can be seen in Equations 9.4-20 and 9.4-21 that momentum exCoe cients change between the phases is based on the value of the uid-solid
u u Res = f dsj~ s , ~ f j 9.4-23 f where the subscript f is for the uid phase, s is for the sth solid phase, and ds is the diameter of the sth solid phase particles. The uid-solid exchange coe cient has the form 3 s f f C Res j~ , ~ j Ksf = 4v2 d D v us uf 9.4-24 rs rs s
where vrs is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase s 35 :
vrs = 0:5 A , 0:06Res+

2 + 0:12Re
s 2B , A + A2
0:06Res
9.4-25
9-20
with and for
f

A=
4:14 f 1:28 f
9.4-26 9.4-27 9.4-28
0:85, and
B = 0:8 B=
for f 0:85. The drag coe cient has a form derived by Dalla Valle 26 :
2:65 f
12 0 4:8 A CD = @0:63 + q Res=vrs
9.4-29
The Solid-Solid The solid-solid exchange coe cient Kls has the following form 125 : Exchange Coe cient Kls =
3 1 + els
2 s s l l dl + ds go ls 2 + Cf;ls 8 j~ l , ~ sj 9.4-30 u u 2 l d3 + sd3 s l

2
els is the coe cient of restitution described later in this section Cf;ls is the coe cient of friction between the lth and sth solid-phase particles Cf;ls = 0 dl is the diameter of the particles of solid l gols is the radial distribution coe cient described below The Solids Pressure For granular ows in the compressible regime i.e., where the solids volume fraction is less than its maximum allowed value, a solids pressure is calculated independently and used for the pressure gradient term, @Pjs , in the granular phase momentum equation. Because @x a Maxwellian velocity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids pressure and viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic term and a second term due to particle collisions: Ps =
2 s s s + 2 s 1 + ess s go ss s
where
9.4-31
where ess is the coe cient of restitution for particle collisions, goss is the radial distribution function, and s is the granular temperature. FLUENT uses a default value of 0.8 for ess, but the value can be
9.4 Theory
9-21
adjusted to suit the particle type. The granular temperature s is proportional to the kinetic energy of the uctuating particle motion, and will be described later in this section. The function goss described below in more detail is a distribution function that governs the transition from the compressible" condition with s;max , where the spacing between the solid particles can continue to decrease, to the incompressible" condition with = s;max, where no further decrease in the spacing can occur. A value of 0.6 is the default for s;max. This can be changed by the user. Radial Distribution The radial distribution function go is a correction factor that modiFunction es the probability of collisions between grains when the solid granular phase becomes dense. This function may also be interpreted as the nondimensional distance between spheres:
go = s + dp s
9.4-32
where s is the distance between grains. From Equation 9.4-32 it can be observed that for a dilute solid phase s ! 1, and therefore go ! 1. In the limit when the solid phase compacts, s ! 0 and go ! 1. The radial distribution function is closely connected to the factor of Chapman and Cowling's 18 theory of nonuniform gases. is equal to unity for a rare gas, and increases and tends to in nity when the molecules are so close together that motion is not possible. In the literature there is no unique formulation for the radial distribution function. FLUENT employs Syamlal et al. 127 expressions when the number of solid phases is greater than or equal to 1. For collisions between grains of phase l and grains of phase m, the following expression is used:
golm = 1 +
f
M 3dmdl X k 2 f dl + dm k=1 dk
9.4-33
For collisions involving only grains of phase l, Equation 9.4-33 reduces to

M 3lX goll = 1 + 2 d2 d k f f k=1 k
9.4-34
These equations were derived theoretically by Lebowitz 73 and do not approach in nity near the packing limit. FLUENT can also use
9-22

the Ding and Gidaspow expression 30 for the radial distribution function: 3 go = 5 41 ,
s s;max
! 3,1 5
1 3
9.4-35
This equation is that proposed in 92 and corrected by a factor of 3 5 to match the measured data of 2 . When the number of solid phases is greater than 1, Equation 9.4-35 is extended to 3 goll = 5 41 , with
l;max
l l;max
! 3,1 5
1 3
9.4-36
max ,
M X k=1;k6=l
9.4-37
and
l golm = dmgodll + ddgomm + m l
9.4-38
Shear Stresses for The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising the Granular Phase from particle momentum exchange due to translation and collision.
The collisional and kinetic parts are added to give the solids shear viscosity:
s = s;col + s;kin
4 d g 1 + e s 1=2 s;col = 5 s s s oss ss FLUENT uses two expressions for the kinetic part. The default, from Syamlal et al. 127 , is:
9.4-39
The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as 40 127 9.4-40
9.4 Theory
9-23
p 2 s s;kin = 6 3 , e 1 + 5 1 + ess 3ess , 1 sgoss 9.4-41 ss
s ds s
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. 40 is also available:
2 10 sds s 1 + 4 g s;kin = 96 1 + e g 5 oss s 1 + ess s ss o ss
9.4-42
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular particles to compression and expansion. It has the following form:
1=2 dsgoss1 + ess s 9.4-43 s s The Granular The granular temperature for the sth solids phase is proportional Temperature to the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. The transport equation derived from kinetic theory takes the form 30
4 s = 3 3 @ 2 @t
"
u s ss + r s s~ ss
= ,psI + s : r~ s u
r ks rs ,
fs + ls
s
+ 9.4-44
,psI + s : r~ s is the generation of energy by the u solid stress tensor ks rs is the di usion of energy ks is the di usion coe cient s is the collisional dissipation of energy fs is the energy exchange between the uid and the sth solid phase ls is the energy exchange between the lth and the sth solid phases Equation 9.4-44 contains the term ks rs describing the di usive ux of granular energy. When the default Syamlal et al. model 127 is used, the di usion coe cient for granular energy, ks is given by
where
9-24

15ds s s s 1 + 12 24 , 3 g + = 441 , 33 s o ss 5 16 41 , 33 g 9.4-45 s o ss 15 1 = 2 1 + ess
FLUENT uses the following expression if the optional model of Gi-
ks
where
daspow et al. 40 is enabled:
ks
2 150 sds 1 + 6 sgoss1 + es + = 3841 + essgoss 5 s 9.4-46 2 s s2ds1 + essgoss s
The collisional dissipation of energy, s , represents the rate of energy dissipation within the sth solids phase due to collisions between particles. This term is represented by the expression derived by Lun et al. 80 121 ,pssgoss e m = d
2
2 3=2 s s s
9.4-47
You can also use the expression given by 40

m
= 31 , e2 ss
2 s
2 s 3 4 s , r ~ 5 us s go sss 4 ds
9.4-48
The transfer of the kinetic energy of random uctuations in particle velocity to the uid phase is represented by fs 40 :
fs
= ,3Kfss
9.4-49
The last term of Equation 9.4-44, ls, accounts for the transfer of energy between the lth and sth solids phases and has been neglected in FLUENT.
9.4 Theory 9.4.5 Description of Heat Transfer in Multiphase
9-25
The internal energy balance for phase q is written in terms of the phase enthalpy, Equation 9.4-10. In general, phase q can be a mixture of species i; i = 1; m and its enthalpy is de ned by
hq =
where
m X i=1
miq hiq
9.4-50
dhiq = cpiq dTq
9.4-51
and cpiq is the speci c heat at constant pressure of species i in phase q. The thermal boundary conditions used with multiphase ows are the same as those for a single phase ow. See Chapter 14 for details. The Heat Exchange The rate of energy transfer between phases is assumed to be a funcCoe cient tion of the temperature di erence
Qpq = Hpq Tp , Tq
9.4-52
where Hpq = Hqp is the heat transfer coe cient between the pth phase and the qth phase. The heat transfer coe cient is related to the pth phase Nusselt number Nup:
Hpq = 6q dp2Nup

p
9.4-53
Here q is the thermal conductivity of the qth phase. The Nusselt number is typically determined from one of the many correlations reported in the literature. In the case of uid- uid multiphase FLUENT uses the correlation of Ranz and Marshall 102 103 :
Nup = 2:0 + 0:6Rep Pr

1 2
1 3
9.4-54
where Rep is the relative Reynolds number based on the diameter of the pth phase and the relative velocity j~ p , ~ q j, Equation 9.4-17, u u th phase: and Pr is the Prandtl number of the q
9-26

c q Pr = p q q
9.4-55
In the case of granular ows where p = s, FLUENT uses a Nusseltnumber correlation by Gunn 43 , applicable to a porosity range of 0.35 1.0 and a Reynolds number of up to 105:
2 Nus = 7 , 10 f + 5 f 1 + 0:7Re0:2 Pr + s 2 Re0:7 Pr 1:33 , 2:4 f + 1:2 f s 9.4-56
1 3 1 3
the Granular Phase
The Prandtl number is de ned as above with q = f . Thermal The conductive heat ux for the qth phase is described by Fourier's Conductivity for law:
~q = , q q rTq q
et al. 66 , the solid phase conductivity s is as follows:
FLUENT uses a similar law for the granular model. Following Kuipers
p1 , s = f 1 , f !A + 1 , ! f
9.4-57
where 2 A , 1 B ln A , B , 1 , 1 B + 1 = 1 , B=A 1 , B=A 2 1 , B=A2 A B 9.4-58 and A = s;o f
"
B = 1:25 1 ,
f f
10 9
! = 7:26 10,3
9.4 Theory
9-27
Here ! is the contact area fraction between the solid phase s and the primary phase f , and s;o is the physical thermal conductivity of the solid material. Solid Phase E ects As in the Euler-Lagrange approach see Chapter 11, it is possible to in the P-1 include the e ect of radiation between the uid and granular phases Radiation Model using the P-1 radiation model. This modi cation is limited to dilute ows only. When the P-1 model and the granular multiphase model are active, the equation for radiation temperature R for the uid has an extra source term of the following form:
SR = 1:5
m X p=1
emp pTp4 , 4 R
9.4-59
where emp is the particle emissivity. The enthalpy equation for the granular phase q also contains a source term of the form
Shq = 1:5emq
4 , Tq4 R
9.4-60
where is the Boltzmann's constant.
9.4.6 Description of Mass Transfer in Multiphase

The continuity equations for the pth phase contain the source term
n X p=1
mpq _
which characterizes the amount of mass transfer from the pth to the qth phase per unit volume of mixture per unit time. A similar term appears in the momentum and enthalpy equations. There are numerous kinds of mass transfer processes and these can be modeled with user-de ned subroutines. FLUENT models are limited to two types: unidirectional mass transfer evaporation-condensation
Unidirectional The unidirectional mass transfer model de nes a positive mass ow Mass Transfer rate per unit volume from phase p to phase q:
9-28

mpq = max 0; pq , max 0; ,pq _
where 9.4-61
pq = r _
p q
9.4-62
and r is a constant rate of particle shrinking or swelling, such as _ the rate of burning of a uid droplet. In the case of granular ow, when mass transfer is from the solid phase s to the uid phase f , pq is modi ed as _ sf = r6d s
s s
9.4-63
and r can represent the rate of volatilization of a particle. _ The term appearing in the momentum equation is modi ed as
mpq~ pq = max 0; pq ~ p , max 0; ,pq ~ q _ u u u
9.4-64
Evaporation- FLUENT also contains a simple phenomenological model for a mixCondensation ture of two phases liquid and vapor 75 . The evaporation rate mv _ Model and the condensation rate ml are determined from _
mv = rv _ = ml = rl _ =
l l Tl , Tsat =Tsat
Tl Tsat Tl Tsat Tv Tsat Tv Tsat
9.4-65
v v Tsat , Tv =Tsat
9.4-66
where rv and rl are time relaxation parameters with default values of 0.1. The momentum equation for the liquid contains a term due to mass transfer, ml~ v , mv ~ l. In the momentum equation for the vapor, _ u _ u the negative of this term, mv ~ l , ml~ v , is used. _ u _ u The Shadow In multiphase with mass transfer, it is necessary to calculate the Method change of the size of the particulate phase. In many problems the size of the particles determines the interphase coe cients mass,
9.4 Theory
9-29
momentum, enthalpy. FLUENT uses the Spalding 123 shadow" method to calculate the change in particle size. This method entails the calculation of a shadow" volume fraction. For the sth phase undergoing mass transfer, for example, the shadow volume fraction would be that of the sth phase had mass transfer not been included. Using this method, the diameter of a particle of this phase, ds, can be updated because of mass transfer according to the following expression:
ds = ds;o
s s;o
1 3
9.4-67
where ds;o is the initial diameter, s is the volume fraction of the sth phase calculated with mass transfer, and s;o is the volume fraction calculated without mass transfer. Multiphase- The mass balance equations for the prediction of the mass fracMulticomponent tion of species for each phase do not contain a mass transfer model between phases. Thus heterogeneous reactions involving multiple species and multiple phases are not permitted. Homogeneous reactions are allowed within each phase, however, so that the total contribution to the qth phase continuity equation is zero. With userde ned subroutines, you can expand the capabilities of interphase exchange, if desired.
9.4.7 Turbulence in Multiphase

To describe the e ects of turbulent uctuations of velocities and scalar quantities in a single phase, FLUENT uses various types of closure models, as described in Section 6.3. In comparison to singlephase ows, the number of terms to be modeled in the momentum equations in multiphase ows is large, and this makes the modeling of turbulence in multiphase simulations extremely complex. FLUENT provides two methods for modeling turbulence in multiphase ows within the context of the k- model: Dispersed turbulence model default Secondary turbulence model The choice of model depends on the importance of the secondaryphase turbulence in your application.
9-30 Dispersed Turbulence Model
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the concentration of the secondary phase is dilute. In this case, interparticle collisions are negligible and the dominant process in the random motion of the secondary phase is the in uence of the primary-phase turbulence. Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phase can therefore be given in terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of the particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time. The conditions for which the dispersed turbulence model is valid are summarized below: The number of phases is limited to two: the continuous primary phase and the dispersed secondary phase. The secondary phase must be dilute. That is, the domain must not have large regions where the volume fraction for the secondary phase approaches its maximum value.
Assumptions The dispersed method for modeling turbulence in FLUENT involves

the following assumptions: A modi ed k- model for the continuous phase: Turbulent predictions for the continuous phase are obtained using the standard k- model supplemented with extra terms that include the interphase turbulent momentum transfer. Tchen-theory correlations for the dispersed phase: Predictions for turbulence quantities for the dispersed phase are obtained using the Tchen theory of dispersion of discrete particles by homogeneous turbulence 47 . Interphase turbulent momentum transfer: In turbulent twophase ows, the momentum exchange term contains the correlation between the instantaneous distribution of the dispersed phase and the turbulent uid motion. FLUENT includes a model which takes into account the dispersion of the dispersed phase transported by the turbulent uid motion. A phase-weighted averaging process: The choice of averaging process has an impact on the modeling of dispersion in turbulent two-phase ows. A two-step averaging process leads to the appearance of uctuations in the phase volume fractions.
9.4 Theory
9-31
When the two-step averaging process is used with a phaseweighted average for the turbulence, however, turbulent uctuations in the volume fractions do not appear. FLUENT uses phase-weighted averaging, so no volume fraction uctuations are introduced into the continuity equations.
Turbulence in the The eddy viscosity model is used to calculate averaged uctuating Continuous Phase quantities. The Reynolds stress tensor takes the following form:
00 = , 2 q kq + t r Uq I + t rUq + rUq T ~ q ~ ~ 9.4-68 q q 3 The turbulent viscosity qt is written in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy of phase q:
qt = C
2 kq
9.4-69
and a characteristic time of the energetic turbulent eddies is de ned as

t q
3 = 2 C kq
q
9.4-70
where q is the dissipation rate. The length scale of the turbulent eddies is
Ltq
= 3 C kq 2 q
3 2
9.4-71
Turbulent predictions are obtained from the modi ed k- model:
@ @t
and
q kq + r
q ~ q Uq kq = r q q rkq + k kq q q
t
q q P
, q +
9.4-72
9-32
@ @t
q q q + r q
~ q Uq q = r
q
q q q
r q + q q C1 P , C2 q + k
q q q
qt
9.4-73
Here kq and q represent the in uence of the dispersed phase p on the continuous phase q. All other terms have the same meaning as in the single-phase k- model. The term kq can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the continuous phase and takes the following form: kq = Kpq u00 u00 , u00 u00 +Up;i , Uq;iVdr;i 9.4-74 q;i p;i q;i q;i
q q
which can be simpli ed to
~ ~ kq = Kpq kpq , 2kq + Vpq Vdr

q q
9.4-75
where kpq is the covariance of the continuous and dispersed phase ~ velocities calculated from Equation 9.4-83 below, Vpq is the relative ~ velocity, and Vdr is the drift velocity de ned by Equation 9.4-88 below. q is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. 32 : q = C3 kq kq q 9.4-76
where C3 = 1:2. Turbulence in the Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to Dispersed Phase evaluate dispersion coe cients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic energy of the dispersed phase. The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial e ects acting on the particulate phase is de ned as
F pq
,1 p p p Kpq q
+ CV
9.4-77
9.4 Theory
9-33
The Lagrangian integral time scale calculated along particle trajectories, mainly a ected by the crossing-trajectory e ect 25 is de ned as
t pq
= qt 1 + C 2,
1 2
9.4-78
where
~ jVpq j t = Lt q q
and
9.4-79
C = 1:8 , 1:35 cos2
9.4-80
and where is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean relative velocity. The ratio between these two characteristic times is written as
r =
t pq F pq
9.4-81
Following Simonin 117 FLUENT writes the turbulence quantities for the dispersed phase as follows:
kp = kpq =
t Dpq =
p = b =
! b2 + r kq 1 + r! b 2kq 1 + r + r 1k t 3 pq pq 2 t F Dpq + 3 kp , b 1 kpq pq 3 ,1 p 1 + CV + CV

q
9.4-82 9.4-83 9.4-84 9.4-85 9.4-86
and CV = 0:5 is the added-mass coe cient. Interphase The turbulent drag term in FLUENT in two-phase ows is modeled Turbulent as follows where p is the dispersed phase and q is the continuous Momentum phase:
Transfer
9-34

~ ~ Kpq ~ p ,~ q = Kpq Up ,Uq +Kpq p r p , q r q 9.4-87 u u
pq p pq q
~ ~ Here Up and Uq are phase-weighted velocities, p and q are di usivities, and pq is a turbulent Schmidt number. When using Tchen t theory in two-phase ows, FLUENT assumes p = q = Dpq and the default value for pq is 0.67. The second term of the above equation contains the drift velocity: ~ Vdr = , p r p , q r q
pq p pq q
9.4-88
The drift velocity results from turbulent uctuations in the volume fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coe cient Kpq , it serves as a correction to the momentum exchange term for turbulent ows.
Secondary Turbulence Model

For turbulent multiphase ows involving more than two phases or a non-dilute secondary phase, the secondary turbulence model is the appropriate choice. When this model is used, FLUENT will solve k and transport equations Equations 9.4-72 and 9.4-73 for all phases. Limitations The secondary turbulence model in FLUENT will not, by default, account for the e ect of the turbulence eld of one phase on the others. Thus, the kq and q terms will not appear in Equations 9.4-72 and 9.4-73 and interphase turbulent momentum transfer is neglected. If the interaction of the multiple turbulence elds and interphase turbulent momentum transfer are important in your problem, you can supply these terms using user-de ned subroutines. Note also that, since FLUENT is solving two additional transport equations for each secondary phase, the secondary turbulence model is more computationally intensive than the dispersed turbulence model.
9.5 Solution Method in FLUENT

The di culties of solving single-phase ow using the primitive variable approach are well known. Because there is no explicit equation for pressure, the SIMPLE algorithm 95 is adopted to obtain a pressure correction equation. Pressure and velocities are then corrected
9.5 Solution Method in FLUENT
9-35
so as to satisfy the continuity constraint. In multiphase ow, this is further complicated by the following facts: i there are n continuity equations and usually a single pressure eld, ii phasic volume equations are a new unknown in the set of governing equations, and iii the momentum equations are strongly coupled through the interphase momentum exchange coe cient. The Pressure FLUENT uses an extension of the SIMPLE algorithm SIMPLECorrection PEA to solve for multiphase ow. The momentum equations are Equation decoupled by using the Partial Elimination Algorithm PEA 122 . Using SIMPLE-PEA, the variables for each phase are eliminated from the momentum equations for all other phases. For uid- uid ows, with a single pressure eld, the pressure correction equation is obtained from the sum of all the normalized n-phase continuity equations. For incompressible multiphase ow in Cartesian tensor notation, this equation takes the form
9.5-1 where rk = k = ref ;k , ~ 0k;i is the velocity correction and ~ is the u uk;i value of ~ k;i at the present iteration. The velocity corrections are u themselves expressed as functions of the pressure corrections. Volume Fractions The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations. In discretized form, the equation of the kth volume fraction is
n n X @ 0 , 1 Xm = 0 rk k + r rk k~ k + r rk k~ k u u _ lk ref;k l=1 k=1 @t
ap;k k =
X
nb
anb;k
nb;k + bk
= Rk
9.5-2
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to one,
n X k=1 k
=1
9.5-3
the solution of k is obtained from the coupling of all phase continuity equations. From Equation 9.5-2,
k
R =ak
p;k
9.5-4
9-36
so that
n X Ri =1 i=1 ap;i
9.5-5
It follows that the central coe cient ap;k can be expressed in terms of all of the other volume fraction equations:
ap;k = Rk + ap;k
n X Ri i 6= k i=1 ap;i
9.5-6
Pressure Correction for Granular Flows
Summary of Solution Algorithms
The resulting equation for k implicitly satis es Equation 9.5-3. In granular multiphase ows, the shared pressure correction is obtained from the uid continuity equation, as described above. When s s;max 0.6 by default, the solid is treated as a compressible uid and the solids pressure is obtained as a direct function of the solid-phase volume fraction. In the incompressible regime where s = s;max , the solids pressure is obtained from a pressure correction equation in the same way that the uid pressure is obtained. The solution algorithms followed by FLUENT for uid- uid ows and for granular ows are summarized below: Fluid-Fluid Multiphase Algorithm 1. Get initial conditions and boundary conditions. 2. Perform time-step iteration. 3. Calculate primary uid velocity use PEA. 4. Calculate secondary uid velocities use PEA. 5. Calculate pressure correction from all normalized continuity equations. 6. Correct all velocities and uxes. 7. Calculate phasic volume fractions and update properties. 8. Calculate other scalar quantities. If not converged, go to 3. 9. Advance time step and go to 2. Granular Multiphase Algorithm 1. Get initial conditions and boundary conditions. 2. Perform time-step iteration.
9.6 Eulerian Multiphase Flow Modeling Strategies
9-37
3. Calculate primary uid velocity use PEA. 4. Calculate pressure correction from uid continuity equation and correct uid velocity, pressure, and uid uxes. 5. Calculate phasic volume fractions. 6. Calculate solid velocities. 7. Calculate solid pressure corrections and correct solid velocities, uxes, and solid volume fractions. Update properties and calculate granular temperature. 8. Calculate other scalar quantities. If not converged, go to 3. 9. Advance time step and go to 2.
9.6 Eulerian Multiphase Flow Modeling Strategies
9.6.1 Problem Setup Model Selection Before you begin to solve a problem using the Eulerian multiphase
Computational E ort
Simplifying the Problem Statement
model, you should determine that this model is appropriate for your particular problem. Remember that for strati ed or free surface ows you should use the VOF model, and for ows in which particle volume fractions are less than or equal to 10 you should use the Lagrangian dispersed phase model. When phases mix and or particle volume fractions exceed 10 you should use the Eulerian multiphase model. The required computational e ort depends strongly on the number of transport equations being solved and the degree of coupling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a large number of highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high. Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to the simplest form possible. Instead of trying to solve your multiphase ow in all of its complexity on your rst solution attempt, you should start with simple approximations and work your way up to the nal form of the problem de nition. Some suggestions for simplifying a multiphase ow problem are listed below: Use a simpli ed geometry. Begin with a 2D approximation. Solve a single-phase problem, using a composite density.
9-38

Reduce the number of phases. You may nd that even a very simple approximation will provide you with useful information about your problem.
9.6.2 Convergence and Stability

Even a simpli ed approximation of a multiphase ow problem may still require signi cant computational e ort, so you will need to be patient during the solution process. If you have di culty obtaining a converged solution, you can try one or more of the following suggestions: Patch an initial guess for all variables. Increase the sweeps on the momentum equations for all phases. Lower the underrelaxation factors. Solve as a pseudo-transient to approach steady- ow solution, rather than attempt a steady-state calculation. Lower the density ratio; increase it in stages. Temporarily suppress the exchange coe cient or begin a granular simulation with a non-granular model, switching after partial convergence is obtained. See Section 9.7.11 for additional information about solution strategies.
9.7 Using the Eulerian Multiphase Model in FLUENT

This section describes the steps necessary to set up and run a variety of multiphase problems. Information is divided into the following sections: Section 9.7.1: Section 9.7.2: Section 9.7.3: Section 9.7.4: Turning on the Eulerian Multiphase Model Specifying the Phases Setting Boundary Conditions Setting Physical Properties
9-39
Section 9.7.5: Models for Granular Flows Section 9.7.6: Time-Dependent Simulations Section 9.7.7: Modeling Turbulence Section 9.7.8: Species Transport Section 9.7.9: Modeling Interphase Heat Transfer Section 9.7.10: Modeling Interphase Mass Transfer Section 9.7.11: Solution Strategies for Eulerian Multiphase Calculations Section 9.7.12: Starting from a Case File Created by an Earlier Release of FLUENT Section 9.7.13: Eulerian Multiphase Options
9.7.1 Turning on the Eulerian Multiphase Model

The Eulerian multiphase model can be enabled in the Models panel or in the DEFINE-MODELS menu. Using the GUI To select the Eulerian multiphase model through the graphical user interface, select the De ne Models... menu item to open the Models panel, and then select Eulerian for uid- uid ows, such as airwater separation or Eulerian Granular for uid-solid ows, such as slurries and uidized beds in the Model drop-down list under Multiphase. De ne ,!Models...
9-40
Using the Text In the SETUP-1 text menu, select DEFINE-MODELS. Then select MULInterface TIPLE-PHASES and turn on EULERIAN-EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW
for uid- uid ows or uid-solid ows.
EULERIAN-EULERIAN GRANULAR FLOW SETUP-1 ,! DEFINE-MODELS
for
,!MULTIPLE-PHASES
SETUP1DEFINE-MODELS

COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM DEFINE-MODELS: W-VELOCITY HEAT-TRANSFER TURBULENCE NON-NEWTONIAN RADIATION SPECIES-AND-CHEMISTRY MULTIPLE-PHASES QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. DEFINE-MODELSMP MULTIPHASE MODEL SELECT ONLY ONE NO EULERIAN-EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW YES EULERIAN-EULERIAN GRANULAR FLOW NO VOF FREE SURFACE D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM MULTIPHASE: DEFINE-PHASES MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. MULTIPHASEQUIT
9-41
If you have already turned on the Eulerian multiphase model for uid- uid ows, it is possible to enable granular ow in the EXPERT SOLUTION-PARAMETERS table.
9.7.2 Specifying the Phases

You can specify the number of phases and assign a name to each phase using the DEFINE-PHASES command in the SETUP1 menu or in the MULTIPHASE menu that appears after you turn on the multiphase model with the MULTIPLE-PHASES command.
SETUP-1 ,!DEFINE-PHASES SETUP-1 ,! DEFINE-MODELS
,! MULTIPLE-PHASES
9-42
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM MULTIPHASE: DEFINE-PHASES MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. MULTIPHASEDP I- NUMBER OF SECONDARY PHASES I- ++DEFAULT 1++ 1 PHASE NAMES WATER SAND D NOTE : PHASE NAMES CANNOT CONSIST OF A SINGLE CHARACTER C OR X PRIMARY PHASE PHASE 2 ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
QUIT
9.7.3 Setting Boundary Conditions

Once you have selected the multiphase option, the Phase selection drop-down list will become active in the upper left of the GUI panels for setting boundary conditions:
9-43
Select a phase from this list, set the appropriate boundary conditions, and then click Apply and go on to the next phase. In the text interface, a PHASE-SELECTION menu will appear when you select a variable for which you wish to set boundary conditions.
9-44
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: NORMAL-VELOCITY U-VELOCITY V-VELOCITY VOLUME-FRACTION QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSUV COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
Note that you will only be asked for the secondary phase volume fractions. FLUENT will compute the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your input for the secondary phases. Also, a normal velocity can be speci ed only for the primary phase. For example, consider an inlet supplying a slurry consisting of 25 sand to a domain. Both sand and water have an x-directed velocity of 5 m s. The appropriate boundary condition inputs are as shown below. Note that the uid phase must be modeled as the primary phase in all granular ows, as discussed in more detail in Section 9.7.4 below. First, enter the U velocity for WATER, as shown in the panel below, and click Apply.
9-45
Then select SAND in the Phase drop-down list, enter the sand U velocity and Volume Fraction, and click Apply again.
9-46
In the text interface, inputs are as follows:

COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONS: NORMAL-VELOCITY U-VELOCITY V-VELOCITY VOLUME-FRACTION QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSUV COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONSAND R- U-VELOCITY OF SAND R- UNITS= M S ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 5 PHASE-SELECTIONWATER R- U-VELOCITY OF WATER R- UNITS= M S ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ 5 PHASE-SELECTIONQ I1-ZONE-BOUNDARY-CONDITIONSVF R- VOLUME FRACTION OF SAND R- UNITS= DIM ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ .25 HELP
9-47
It is not necessary to set the volume fractions for both phases; FLUENT will compute the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your input for the secondary phase. If your problem includes more than two phases, a PHASE-SELECTION menu for volume fraction will appear when you select the VOLUME-FRACTION command in the text interface, and you will specify the fractions for all phases except the primary phase. In the GUI, the Volume Fraction will be grayed out for the primary phase, but available for all secondary phases. If you de ne any volume fractions as pro le functions, you must be sure that the sum of all volume fractions will not exceed 1.0 at any position in the domain or at any time during the calculation. FLUENT will not rescale the volume fractions if the fractional sum
9-48 Turbulence Parameters at Inlets

exceeds 1.0. If you are not modeling secondary turbulence i.e., if you have not enabled the Secondary Turbulence or ENABLE SECONDARY TURBULENCE option, you will set turbulence boundary conditions at inlets only for the primary phase. If secondary turbulence is being modeled, you can set di erent turbulence boundary conditions for each phase, but you can choose only one type of turbulence parameter speci cation. That is, turbulence boundary conditions at a given inlet for all phases must be de ned either as intensity and length scale or as k and ; you cannot choose di erent speci cation methods for di erent phases. Pressure boundary conditions are allowed for multiphase ows, subject to the following restrictions: If you specify a nonzero gravitational acceleration, you should specify a user-de ned reference density. See Section 6.4.3 for details on setting an appropriate value. Convergence di culties may arise if you have di erent phases going in opposite directions through the pressure boundary.
Pressure Boundary Condition Restrictions
to set them for the secondary phases. Listing Boundary The boundary conditions can be checked using the LIST-BOUNDARIES Conditions command. The FLOW-VARIABLES command lists the velocities of both phases:
Limitations on Note that wall boundary conditions for secondary phases cannot Wall Boundary be set using the GUI. You can use the GUI to set wall boundary Condition Inputs conditions for the primary phase, but you must use the text interface

COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM LIST-BOUNDARIES: ALL FLOW-VARIABLES QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. LIST-BOUNDARIESFL - VELOCITY BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ZONE PHASE ------- -------W1 WATER SAND I1 WATER SAND U-VEL. -------0.00E+00 0.00E+00 5.00E+00 5.00E+00 V-VEL. NORMAL -------- -------0.00E+00 N A 0.00E+00 N A 0.00E+00 N A 0.00E+00 N A
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VOLUME-FRACTIONS
The VOLUME-FRACTION command lists the volume fraction information:

LIST-BOUNDARIESVF - VOLUME FRACTION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ZONE SAND ---------- ---------W1 LINK CUT I1 2.50E-01
9.7.4 Setting Physical Properties

When you enable the multiphase model, you must set the properties for each phase using the SETUP1 PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS menu.
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS: DENSITY VISCOSITY QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSOPERATING-PRESSURE
Other properties will appear in the menu, depending upon the overall problem scope. Note that for granular ows the solids viscosity is obtained from application of kinetic theory. You can disable
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this calculation in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Then you will be asked to input constant viscosities for the solids as well.
Setting Constant Densities

When you select the DENSITY command, you will be asked to supply information about each of the phases. Underlying assumptions exist regarding the modeling of the phases, and depend upon the kind of mixture that is being modeled. To clarify these assumptions, the di erent combinations of phase types will be considered separately. For nongranular constant-density ows, such as liquid-liquid ows or gas-liquid ows where the gas law is not being used, the primary uid is assumed to be the predominant, or most plentiful phase. In the case of roughly equal overall volume fractions of the uids, the primary phase should be used for the densest uid. The reason for this is that the momentum exchange coe cient depends upon the typical size of a bubble that would be formed by the secondary uid as it interacts with the primary uid. The formation of bubbles of the secondary phase in the primary phase would most often occur in the con gurations cited above. For granular ows, the primary phase is always the nongranular phase, independent of the density di erence between the phases or the relative volume fractions of the phases. Consider, for example, a water-sand mixture with the water and sand densities being 1000 and 1500 kg m3, respectively. The inputs are for the densities and normalizing densities of the primary phase, water, and the secondary phase, sand. The NORMALIZING DENSITY is used to normalize the density as it appears in the continuity equation, and the best value to use for each phase is the density of that phase at constant temperature.
Nongranular Fluid-Fluid Constant-Density Flows
Granular Flows Example

PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSDE COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONWA L- USE GAS LAW FOR WATER? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ N R- DENSITY OF WATER R- UNITS= KG M3 ++DEFAULT 1.0000E+03++ 1000 R- NORMALIZING DENSITY FOR WATER R- UNITS= KG M3 ++DEFAULT 1.2930E+00++ 1000 PHASE-SELECTIONSAN R- DENSITY OF SAND R- UNITS= KG M3 ++DEFAULT 1.2930E+00++ 1500 R- NORMALIZING DENSITY FOR SAND R- UNITS= KG M3 ++DEFAULT 1.2930E+00++ 1500 HELP
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After you input the densities, FLUENT will ask for the mean diameter of the secondary phase. This input should be the average size of a particle of the secondary phase in the primary uid sand in water in this example, to be used in the momentum exchange term. In the dialog below, a diameter of 1 mm is chosen.
R- MEAN DIAMETER FOR SAND R- UNITS= M ++DEFAULT 2.0000E-04++ 1e-3
If you are calculating changes in particle diameter due to mass transfer as described in Section 9.7.10, you will be prompted for the INITIAL DIAMETER rather than the MEAN DIAMETER. For a granular phase, you must also specify the coe cient of restitution. In this case, the default value for the RESTITUTION COEFFICIENT
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FOR SAND

0.8 is retained. For perfect elastic collisions the coe cient of restitution is 1.0.
R- RESTITUTION COEFFICIENT FOR SAND R- UNITS= DIM ++DEFAULT 8.0000E-01++ X R- DEFAULT ASSUMED
Multicomponent For multicomponent multiphase ows, you will specify the densities Constant-Density for each species in each phase: Flows
PHYSICAL-CONSTANTSDE COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR WATER QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONWAT L- USE GAS LAW FOR WATER? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++ N COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM SPECIES-SELECTION: SPECIES-1 SPECIES-2 QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. SPECIES-SELECTIONHELP
HELP
Using the Gas Law

For gas-liquid or gas-solid ows where the gas law is to be used, the gas must be modeled as the primary uid. Note that you do not have to have the calculation of temperature or species enabled for the gas law option to appear; however, the densities will be constant throughout the domain if calculation of temperature or species is not enabled.
Setting Constant Viscosities Fluid-Fluid Flows In the absence of temperature or species dependence, the setting of
the viscosities is straightforward. You can select each uid from the PHASE-SELECTION menu and enter its viscosity. Granular Flows For granular ows, the viscosity is input only for the primary phase.
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The solids bulk and shear viscosities are computed by Equations 9.4-40 9.4-43. However, when you turn o the Kinetic Theory Viscosity option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or answer NO to the option USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13, FLUENT will ask you to input constant solids viscosities, as described above for uids.
Temperature- and or Species-Dependent Properties

When the calculation of temperature is active, the properties of all phases can be input as polynomial, piecewise-linear, or harmonic functions of temperature. When multiple species are present in a phase, the temperature dependence of the properties can be specied for the individual species. De nition of temperature-dependent properties for multiphase ows is similar to the de nition for singlephase ows. See Chapter 15 for details. Composition-dependent property inputs for multiphase ows are discussed below. Composition- When multiple species are used for one or more of the phases, Dependent the option to use composition-dependent as well as temperatureProperties dependent properties is available. To activate this option, begin with the PROPERTY-OPTIONS command in the PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS menu. For composition-dependent viscosity, for example, respond YES to this option in the table.
PHYSICAL-CONSTANTS
,!PROPERTY-OPTIONS
PROPERTY CALCULATION OPTIONS YES COMPOSITION DEPENDENT VISCOSITY FOR AIR NO COMPOSITION DEPENDENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR AIR NO COMPOSITION DEPENDENT SPECIFIC HEAT FOR AIR NO IS ANY PROPERTY TO BE COMPUTED USING KINETIC THEORY NO ENABLE THERMALLY DRIVEN MASS DIFFUSION SORET EFFECT D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
If you have enabled the multicomponent multiphase model in order to de ne multiple species for secondary phases, additional lines will appear in the table to allow you to enable composition-dependent properties for the secondary phases. When the viscosity is set, FLUENT will prompt you for the viscosity of each species in each multicomponent phase and, for nongranular ows, for the viscosity of each single-component secondary phase.
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For granular ows, the solids viscosities are obtained from application of kinetic theory. You can disable this calculation in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Then you will be asked to input viscosities for the solids as well.
9.7.5 Models for Granular Flows

Two models for granular ows have been implemented in FLUENT. One is based on Syamlal et al. 127 and the other is based on Ding and Gidaspow 30 40 . The default model is Syamlal et al. To activate the second model, turn on the Gidaspow Model option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or respond YES to the option ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. The main di erences between the models are the expressions for the radial distribution function, the kinetic part of the solids viscosity, and the di usion coe cient of the granular temperature. The expressions used by each of these models are presented in Section 9.4.4. Fixing the Value of In some cases e.g., a fully developed granular ow with constant Granular shear you may wish to turn o solution of the granular temperature Temperature and set it to a xed value. You can disable the solution of the granular temperature equation in the SELECT VARIABLES table or in the Select Equations panel Solve Controls Equations....
EXPERT ,!SELECT-VARIABLES
SELECT VARIABLES YES PHASE 1 U-VELOCITY YES PHASE 1 V-VELOCITY YES PHASE 1 W-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 U-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 V-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 W-VELOCITY YES PHASE 2 VOL. FRAC. YES PRESSURE NO GRANULAR TEMPERATURE YES PROPERTIES TEMPERATURE D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Then set the appropriate value for Granular Temperature in the Multiphase Parameters panel opened from the Models panel or GRANULAR TEMPERATURE in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table:
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EXPERT ,!EULERIAN-MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS
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EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS NO ENABLE MASS TRANSFER YES STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E 1.0000E-01 FALSE TIME STEP FOR UNDER-RELAXATION DIM YES ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT 1.0000E-07 LOWER LIMIT FOR ALL VOFs DIM NO ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL YES USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY NO USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION 6.0000E-01 PACKING LIMIT FOR SOLID FRACTION DIM 1.0000E-04 GRANULAR TEMPERATURE M2 S2 D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the default value for granular temperature is 110,5 m2 s2 . Drag-Cluster Cluster formation i.e., the formation of large, dense regions of Correction maximally-packed granular phase particles has been observed in circulating uidized beds. When a cluster appears, it grows larger and denser and then sinks. Wall clusters join together creating a down ow region core-annular" regime. FLUENT can include a modi cation to the gas-particle drag correlation, introduced by O'Brien and Syamlal 91 , to account for this phenomenon. When the drag-cluster correction option is enabled, the computed drag will be modi ed to account for the size of the cluster rather than the size of the individual particles. To enable this option, turn on Drag-Cluster Correction in the Multiphase Parameters panel or USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13.
9.7.6 Time-Dependent Simulations

FLUENT can solve time-dependent Eulerian multiphase ows, and
in the special case of granular ows, a time-dependent simulation is strongly recommended. In some cases, the steady-state solution is all that is of interest, while in others, it is the evolution of the process that is important. A choice between these two solution techniques should be made at the start of the problem so as to govern the time-dependent model parameters. To enable time dependence, open the Models panel and turn on the Time Dependent Flow option: De ne ,!Models...
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Click Apply, and then click on Time Parameters... to open the Time Dependent Flow Parameters panel:
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Here you can enter the time-dependent solution parameters. The transient model performs a certain number of iterations at each time step, and then moves to the next time step, and so on. The criterion that causes the code to advance to the next time step is either that a level of convergence has been reached, based upon your input to the Minimum Residual Sum value, or that the Max Iterations per Time Step maximum number of iterations has been performed. See Section 6.9 for details about time-dependent simulations. For problems in which a steady-state solution is of primary importance, it is not necessary to obtain a converged solution for each time step. Progression to the next time step can be accelerated by choosing fewer iterations per time step than are required to get a well converged result. Alternatively, the size of the time step can be increased. As a rule of thumb, if the anticipated time for a process to reach steady state can be approximated, a time step that is 1 100th of this value might be chosen. The number of iterations selected should result in a partially converged solution where the residuals are in the 1 10,2 to 1 10,3 range and decreasing. In cases where the details of the transient process are important, a converged solution for each step should be obtained. It may be necessary to compute the rst time step several times, trying di erent inputs for the time step and the number of iterations per time step for each trial. Solution parameters such as underrelaxation factors and sweeps of the solver can also be adjusted in the trial runs of the rst time step so as to obtain a converged solution in the fewest number of iterations. In some instances, the pressure residual at the end of the rst time step may not meet the convergence
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criterion, even though the remaining ow variables do. This occurs when there are very low ow rates, because the normalization of the pressure residual is related to the mass ow at the start of the time step. In some cases, the calculation can continue nonetheless, and the convergence criterion for pressure will be met within the next few time steps. When solving any transient analysis, data les can be saved periodically by turning on the Auto Save Data Files option. When you turn on this option, the Time Steps Between Saves can be speci ed:
The Autosave Files are ordinary Data Files containing ow- eld and other data for both of the phases. By default, the Autosave Files are unformatted binary les, but you can request formatted text les by enabling Formatted Auto Saves. Note that the time-dependence parameters can also be set with the EXPERT TIME-DEPENDENCE command.
9.7.7 Modeling Turbulence

If your turbulent multiphase ow involves only two phases and the concentration of the secondary phase is dilute i.e., there are no large regions where the volume fraction for the secondary phase approaches its maximum value, the default dispersed turbulence model is acceptable and no special inputs are required. If your problem does not meet these criteria, you can enable the Secondary Turbulence option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the
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ENABLE SECONDARY TURBULENCE option in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. FLUENT will then solve k and
transport equations for each phase. See Section 9.4.7 for details about these two turbulence modeling options, including inherent assumptions and limitations. When the default dispersed turbulence model is used, it is possible to modify the value of pq in Equation 9.4-87 DISPERSION PRANDTL in the EXPERT PHYSICAL-MODELS table and the value of C3 in Equation 9.4-76 C3M TWO-PHASE TERM in the same table, but this is generally not recommended.
9.7.8 Species Transport

When the calculation of species is enabled in the Models panel or the DEFINE-MODELS menu, the assumption is made that the multiple species are in the primary phase only, unless you enable the option for multicomponent multiphase to allow multiple species in the secondary phases as well. If your problem de nition requires multiple species in the secondary phases, you must turn on the Multicomponent-Multiphase Model option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or answer YES to ENABLE MULTICOMPONENT-MULTIPHASE in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. When the multicomponent multiphase model is active, you will be able to de ne multiple species for any of the phases. Note, however, that the maximum number of species per phase is limited to the number of species in the primary phase. When you are using the multicomponent multiphase model, the de nition of species will proceed as follows. In the De ne Species panel opened with the De ne Species... menu item, select the phase for which you are going to de ne species in the Phase drop-down list. This list is accessible only after you have turned on the multicomponent multiphase model. Then specify the number of species and the species names in the usual manner as described in Section 7.1.3. When the species de nition for the selected phase is complete, click Apply. Then choose the next phase in the Phase list and repeat the process. Remember to click Apply after you nish the species de nition for each phase. In the text interface, you will specify the NUMBER-OF-SPECIES in each phase:
Enabling Multiple Species in Secondary Phases
De ning the Species in Each Phase

TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES PER PHASE 2 NUMBER OF SPECIES IN AIR 2 NUMBER OF SPECIES IN WATER NO ENABLE MOLE FRACTION INPUTS OTHERWISE MASS FRACTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
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Then you can specify the species names for each phase with the DEFINE-SPECIES command:
SPECIES NAMES NOTE : SPECIES NAMES CANNOT CONSIST OF A SINGLE CHARACTER C OR X SPECIES 1 SPECIES 1 IN WATER SPECIES 2 SPECIES 2 IN WATER SSPEC 11 SPECIES 1 IN AIR SSPEC 12 SPECIES 2 IN AIR ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
See Section 7.1.3 for details about these inputs.
9.7.9 Modeling Interphase Heat Transfer

If you want to include heat transfer between phases in your multiphase calculation, turn on Heat-Exchange Coe cient in the Multiphase Parameters panel or ENABLE HEAT-EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. FLUENT will calculate interphase heat transfer using the equations presented in Section 9.4.5. Do not confuse the Heat-Exchange Coe cient option with the Exchange Coe cient option, which is described in Section 9.7.11. To activate interphase mass transfer calculations, turn on the Mass Transfer option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the ENABLE MASS TRANSFER option in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. After you enable this option, you can set the related parameters using the MASS-TRANSFER command in the MULTIPHASE menu that appears after you turn on the multiphase model with the MULTIPLE-PHASES command. See Section 9.7.11 for important advice related to interphase mass transfer calculations.
SETUP-1 ,! DEFINE-MODELS
9.7.10 Modeling Interphase Mass Transfer
,!MULTIPLE-PHASES
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DEFINE-MODELSMP
MULTIPHASE MODEL SELECT ONLY ONE YES EULERIAN-EULERIAN MULTIPHASE FLOW NO EULERIAN-EULERIAN GRANULAR FLOW NO VOF FREE SURFACE D ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM MULTIPHASE: DEFINE-PHASES MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. MULTIPHASEMT
MASS-TRANSFER
Choosing the Mass First you will choose which of the two mass transfer models deTransfer Model scribed in Section 9.4.6 you want to use. The unidirectional mass
transfer model computes a mass ow rate from the primary phase to each secondary phase and from each secondary phase to subsequent secondary phases. The evaporation-condensation model computes evaporation and condensation rates between the primary and secondary phases. The evaporation-condensation model can compute mass transfer for only two uid phases. To use the unidirectional mass transfer model select CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER, and to use the evaporation-condensation model select TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION.
MASS-TRANSFER: SELECT ONE OPTION ONLY NO CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER NO TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Note that the TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION option will not appear if granular ow is active or if you have not enabled heat transfer calculations. Enabling Particle As discussed in Section 9.4.6, FLUENT uses the shadow" method Diameter to calculate the change in the size of the secondary-phase particles Calculations due to mass transfer for either mass transfer model. If you wish to include these particle size calculations, answer YES to the question CALCULATE PARTICULATE DIAMETER? that appears after you choose the mass transfer model:

MASS-TRANSFER: SELECT ONE OPTION ONLY L- CALCULATE PARTICULATE DIAMETER? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-NO++
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where ds;o is your input for the INITIAL DIAMETER during the de nition of density see Section 9.7.4. If the diameter of the particles will not change during the mass transfer e.g., if you have particles of coal being converted to ash, answer NO to this question to suppress the particle diameter calculation. The secondary-phase particles will have a constant diameter equal to the MEAN DIAMETER you specify during the density de nition. Parameters for If you choose the CONSTANT MASS FLOW RATE TRANSFER option, you Unidirectional will next see the following table:
FLUENT will compute the particle diameter using Equation 9.4-67,
Mass Transfer
MASS TRANSFER FLOW RATE COEFFICIENTS 0.0000E+00 MASS FLOW RATE COEFFICIENT FROM WATER TO VAPOR S ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
Your entry for MASS FLOW RATE COEFFICIENT speci es the rate of shrinking or swelling of the particle due to mass transfer r in Equa_ tion 9.4-62 or 9.4-63. For example, this value may be the rate of burning of a uid droplet or the rate of volatilization of a particle. FLUENT will compute the mass ow rate from the primary phase to the secondary phase or from one secondary phase to another using Equations 9.4-61 and 9.4-62 for uid- uid ows, or Equations 9.4-61 and 9.4-63 for granular ows. Parameters for If you choose the TWO-PHASE EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION option, Evaporation- you will next see the following table:
Condensation
EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION COEFFICIENTS 1.0000E-01 EVAPORATION TIME RELAXATION S 1.0000E-01 CONDENSATION TIME RELAXATION S 3.7300E+02 SATURATION TEMPERATURE K ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
EVAPORATION TIME RELAXATION, CONDENSATION TIME RELAXATION are the relaxation parameters rv and rl in Equations 9.4-65
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and 9.4-66. These parameters represent the inherent time of phase transitions and are usually determined by experiment. Both are set to 0.1 by default. For most cases you can retain these default values. SATURATION TEMPERATURE speci es the temperature at which mass transfer calculations will be triggered i.e., Tsat in Equations 9.4-65 and 9.4-66. When the temperature in a given computational cell exceeds or drops below this saturation temperature, FLUENT will compute the evaporation or condensation rate in that cell.
9.7.11 Solution Strategies for Eulerian Multiphase Calculations

This section contains some general procedures for controlling the solver during a multiphase calculation, as well as speci c recommendations for calculations involving additional multiphase options. Setting Solver For many multiphase problems, most of the default solver settings Parameters in FLUENT will be adequate for the initial calculations performed. These settings include an alternating sweep direction and the default underrelaxation factors, as shown below:
UNDERRELAX 1 2.0000E-01 AIR VELOCITIES DIM 2.0000E-01 WATER VELOCITIES DIM 2.0000E-01 WATER VOL. FRAC. DIM 5.0000E-01 PRESSURE DIM 2.0000E-01 VISCOSITY DIM 2.0000E-01 AIR ENTHALPY DIM 2.0000E-01 WATER ENTHALPY DIM 3.0000E-01 TEMPERATURE DIM ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
The volume fraction for the secondary phases can be underrelaxed. Based on the updated value for the secondary-phase volume fractions, a complementary value will be used for the primary-phase volume fraction. A recommended modi cation to the default solver settings is an increase in the number of sweeps of the LGS solver for the variables for all phases. This is accomplished in the SWEEPS-OF-LGSSOLVER table, accessed in the EXPERT LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVER menu. The default inputs for this table are shown below.

NUMBER OF SWEEPS SWEEP DIRECTION 5 PRESSURE-CORRECTION 1 U-VELOCITY 1 V-VELOCITY 1 U VELOCITY WATER 1 V VELOCITY WATER 1 VOL. FRAC. WATER 1 SWEEP DIRECTION I=1, J=2 YES ALTERNATE SWEEP DIRECTION ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
9-65
For the pressure-correction equation, the number of sweeps should be increased to 20 or 30, depending upon the problem size. Sweeps on the velocities for each phase can be increased to 5. Patching an Initial Supplying an initial guess for the ow eld and volume fractions is Guess recommended for all multiphase calculations. This can be accomplished with the PATCH command in the MAIN menu. For transient simulations, the PATCH facility can be used to supply the initial conditions. For steady-state problems, an initial guess will lead to added stability in the early stages of the solution. As an example, consider the uidized bed example presented in Section 9.3.2. In this example, air is the primary phase, and the solids constitute the secondary phase. The solids occupy the lower half of the 42 42 grid, with a maximum packing fraction of 0.6. At the start of the problem, there is a uniform vertical velocity of air at 0.284 m sec throughout the domain. To patch the air velocity, the entire domain is selected, and a velocity value for the primary phase is set. In the y direction, this corresponds to the V-VELOCITY.
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*MAIN*PA I- ENTER 1ST II- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND II- ++DEFAULT 42++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 1ST JI- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND JI- ++DEFAULT 42++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED VARIABLE-SELECTIONVV
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR SOLIDS QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONAIR R- ENTER VALUER- UNITS= M S ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ .284 VARIABLE-SELECTIONQ
HELP
To create the bed region, the lower half of the domain is selected, and the volume fraction for the secondary phase SOLIDS is set at 0.598. Note that patching an initial volume fraction of 0.6, which is the packing limit for the problem, is not recommended because this can cause some instability in the rst few time steps of a uidized bed calculation. A value of 0.598 is patched instead to eliminate this problem. In this example, since there is only one secondary phase, you will
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not need to specify the phase for which you are setting the VOLUMEFRACTION. The volume fraction speci ed is for the solids. If there were additional secondary phases, you would specify a volume fraction for each of them. FLUENT always determines the volume fraction of the primary phase based on your inputs for the secondary phases.
*MAIN*PA I- ENTER 1ST II- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND II- ++DEFAULT 44++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 1ST JI- ++DEFAULT 1++ X I- DEFAULT ASSUMED I- ENTER 2ND JI- ++DEFAULT 62++ 31 VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF PATCHING VOLUME FRACTION OF SOLIDS R- ENTER VALUER- UNITS= DIM ++DEFAULT 0.0000E+00++ .598 VARIABLE-SELECTIONQ
The results of these patches are shown in Figure 9.7.1. The highvelocity air jet is assumed to begin penetrating the bed at t 0. The velocity of the jet is set as a boundary condition, and will take e ect as soon as the calculation begins. There is no need for additional patching to incorporate the presence of the jet in the simulation.
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6.00E-01
3.00E-01
1.00E-06
Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Air Velocity Vectors (left) and Solids Volume Fraction (right) Lmax = 5.999E-01 Lmin = 1.000E-06 Time = 0.000E+00
Figure 9.7.1: Patching Initial Conditions for Primary-Phase Velocity and Secondary-Phase Volume Fraction
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Copying Phase If you want to calculate a multiphase ow starting from a singleVelocities and phase ow solution, you can copy and patch the primary-phase veTemperature locities and temperature, if appropriate to the secondary phases
to be used as an initial guess. COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command: To copy velocities, use the
*MAIN*PA X X X X X X VARIABLE-SELECTIONCOPY-PHASE-VELOCITY WHICH PHASE WILL VELOCITY BE COPIED FROM COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: PHASE-1 PHASE-2 PHASE-3 ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONP1 WHICH PHASE WILL VELOCITY BE COPIED TO COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: PHASE-1 PHASE-2 PHASE-3 ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONP2 QUIT HELP
QUIT
HELP
All velocity components of PHASE-1 will be copied and patched as an initial guess for PHASE-2. To copy the primary-phase velocities to the third phase, you would select the COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command again. The COPY-PHASE-TEMPERATURE command works the same way as the COPY-PHASE-VELOCITY command. Disabling the Stability problems which sometimes occur in the early stages of Exchange steady-state simulations can be reduced by temporarily disabling Coe cient the calculation of the momentum exchange term. To do so, turn o the Exchange Coe cient option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or respond NO to the option ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Once the solution starts to converge, this term can be reintroduced to the calculation.
9-70 Disabling the Primary Phase Mass Correction at Outlets
At an outlet, the uxes of the primary phase are corrected by performing a global continuity check for extra mass creation or destruction in the domain. In some multiphase systems there is no net out ow of primary phase going through the outlet of the domain, so this action will create some spurious results. For example, for a bubble column in which only gas passes through the outlet, you would disable the mass correction for the primary phase water. To disable the correction of the primary phase, turn o the Primary Phase Mass Correction option in the Multiphase Parameters panel or respond NO to the option INCLUDE PRIMARY PHASE MASS CORRECTION in the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13. Time-Dependent When FLUENT calculates an unsteady granular ow with only one Granular Flows solid phase, it will report the accumulated mass of solids inside the domain in the header for the residual report:
*- FLUID PHASE CALCULATION NTIME = 3 NITER = 125 MASS = 0.10E+00 TIME = 3.000E-03 S .................NORMALIZED RESIDUALS............... NTIME P U V H PH2 3 5.106E-01 2.216E-10 5.278E-09 2.359E-05 V2 0.000E+00 3 3.520E-01 4.310E-04 2.651E-03 4.000E+00VF2 4.520E-08
Interphase Mass For time-dependent problems in which a secondary phase is created Transfer solely due to interphase mass transfer and no other sources of that Calculations phase exist, you must ensure that some secondary-phase mass is cre-
ated within the rst time step. This can be accomplished either by manipulating the time step, or by patching a small secondary-phase volume fraction in the computational domain before beginning the calculation.
9.7.12 Starting From a Case File Created by an Earlier Release of FLUENT V4.3 Case Files If you wish to start your multiphase calculation from an existing
i cations that may a ect your solution:
FLUENT V4.3 Case File, you should be aware of the following mod-
The default dispersed turbulence model now contains in uence from the dispersed secondary phase. For this reason, turbulent multiphase solutions may di er from those obtained with Version 4.3.
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The calculation of turbulent viscosity for the secondary phase has been improved. The default value for the false time step described in Section 9.7.13 was the same as the real time step in Version 4.3. The default value is now 0.1 and this may have an e ect on the convergence rate. The default minimum value for phase volume fractions is now 1 10,7. In V4.3 it was 1 10,6.
V4.24 Case Files If you wish to start your multiphase calculation from an existing
modi cations that may a ect your solution:
FLUENT V4.24 Case File, you should be aware of the following
The default coe cient of restitution in FLUENT V4.24 was 0.6111, and the current default is 0.8. To reproduce a V4.24 solution, you should set the coe cient of restitution to 0.6111. In V4.24, only the Gidaspow model was available for calculation of the radial distribution function, the kinetic part of the solids viscosity, and the exchange coe cient. Since the current default model is that of Syamlal et al., you will need to enable the Gidaspow model in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table see Section 9.7.13 if you want to reproduce a V4.24 solution. In V4.24, the granular temperature was set to a xed value of 1 10,4. To reproduce a V4.24 solution, you must turn o the solution of the granular temperature and set the value yourself see Section 9.7.5.
9.7.13 Eulerian Multiphase Options

Several optional features are available for use with the Eulerian multiphase model. You can control them in the Multiphase Parameters panel or the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table. The Multiphase Parameters panel is opened by clicking on the Multiphase Parameters... button in the Models panel:
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The EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table can be reached from the EXPERT menu or from the MULTIPHASE menu that appears after you select the multiphase model with the DEFINE-MODELS MULTIPLEPHASES command.
EXPERT ,!EULERIAN-MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS MULTIPHASE
,!MULTIPHASE-OPTIONS

EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS NO ENABLE MASS TRANSFER NO ENABLE MULTICOMPONENT-MULTIPHASE YES STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E 1.0000E-01 FALSE TIME STEP FOR UNDER-RELAXATION DIM YES ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT 1.0000E-07 LOWER LIMIT FOR ALL VOFs DIM NO ENABLE HEAT-EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT NO ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL YES USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY NO USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION 6.0000E-01 PACKING LIMIT FOR SOLID FRACTION DIM ACTION TOP,DONE,QUIT,REFRESH
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The contents of the EULERIAN MULTIPHASE OPTIONS table and the accessible items in the Multiphase Parameters panel will depend on the current model settings. All items that may appear in this table panel are explained below:
ENABLE MASS TRANSFER
Mass Transfer allows you to model interphase mass transfer in the multiphase calculation, using the shadow" technique described in Section 9.4.6. See Section 9.7.10 for details. ENABLE SECONDARY TURBULENCE Secondary Turbulence enables or disables the solution of k and transport equations for each secondary phase. See Section 9.7.7 for details. This option appears in the table only for turbulent ows. ENABLE MULTICOMPONENT-MULTIPHASE Multicomponent-Multiphase Model enables disables the modeling of multiple species in secondary phases. When this option is turned o the default, only the primary phase can contain multiple species. When it is turned on, you can specify multiple species for any phase. See Section 9.7.8 for details. This option appears in the table only for ows involving species calculations. STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E. Stability Term in P.D.E. enables or disables extra underrelaxation in the momentum equations. In multiphase ows it is possible to get a singular matrix when solving the linear discretized equations for momentum. This is due to the fact that a phase volume fraction can have a zero or near-zero value in some region, making the coe cients of the matrix tend to zero. To avoid this problem FLUENT introduces extra underrelaxation using a false time step". This
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method adds to both sides of the discretized equation a term similar to the time-dependent term, with a modi able false time step. The smaller the false time step the more underrelaxation is added, slowing down the solution and preventing divergence. This option is turned on by default, and you should generally not turn it o . FALSE TIME STEP FOR UNDER-RELAXATION False Time Step for Underrelaxation sets the value of the false time step to be used in the underrelaxation method described above for STABILITY TERM IN P.D.E.. The default value is 0.1. In general, you should not need to change this value, but if you do lower it, you should be sure to decrease the convergence criteria as well. ENABLE EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT Exchange Coe cient allows you to temporarily turn o the exchange coe cient to reduce stability problems that can occur in the early stages of a steadystate simulation. Once the solution starts to converge, you can turn the exchange coe cient back on again to reintroduce it to the calculation. Leave the check button turned on or answer YES the default to include the exchange coe cient in the calculation, and turn the button o or answer NO to temporarily disable it. LOWER LIMIT FOR ALL VOFs Lower Limit for all VOF's sets the lower limit for all phase volume fractions. A value of zero is not advisable due to round-o errors, so the default value is 1 10,7. ENABLE HEAT-EXCHANGE COEFFICIENT Heat Exchange Coe cient allows you to model interphase heat transfer in the multiphase calculation, using the equations in Section 9.4.5. See Section 9.7.9 for details. ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL Gidaspow Model allows you to use the Ding and Gidaspow 30 40 model to calculate the radial distribution function and the kinetic part of the solids viscosity. The default response of NO indicates that the model of Syamlal et al. 127 is used. The expressions used by each of these models are presented in Section 9.4.4. If you prefer to use the Ding and Gidaspow model, turn on the Enable Gidaspow Model check button or answer YES to ENABLE GIDASPOW MODEL. This option appears in the table only for granular ows.

USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY
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Kinetic Theory Viscosity, when turned o , allows you to specify constant viscosities for solid phases. By default, FLUENT calculates the solids viscosity from kinetic theory. If you want to set a constant viscosity instead e.g., if you are modeling inviscid granular ow and need to set viscosity to a xed small value, you can turn o the viscosity calculation by turning o the Kinetic Theory Viscosity check button or answering NO to USE VISCOSITY FROM KINETIC THEORY. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. USE DRAG-CLUSTER CORRECTION Drag-Cluster Correction allows you to turn on drag-cluster correction to account for the size of large, dense regions of maximally-packed granular phase particles. See Section 9.7.5 for details. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. PACKING LIMIT FOR SOLID FRACTION Packing Limit for Solid Fraction sets the maximum volume fraction for the solid phases s;max. For monodispersed spheres the packing limit is about 0.63, and FLUENT uses a default value of 0.6. In polydispersed cases, however, smaller spheres can ll the small gaps between larger spheres, so the maximum packing limit may increase. This option appears in the table only for granular ows. GRANULAR TEMPERATURE Granular Temperature allows you to set a xed value for the granular temperature. This option will appear in the table only if you have turned o solution of the granular temperature equation in the SELECT-VARIABLES table or the Select Equations panel see Section 9.7.5. The default value for granular temperature is 1 10,5 m2 s2. REVERSE THE MOMENTUM EXCH. COEFFICIENT Reverse the Momentum Exch. Coe cient allows you to reverse the drag law, effectively switching the primary and secondary phases. This is useful if you want to use one of the models that is restricted to the primary phase e.g., gas law or non-Newtonian ow models for the secondary phase. This option appears in the table only for two-phase nongranular ows. INCLUDE PRIMARY PHASE MASS CORRECTION Primary Phase Mass Correction allows you to turn o the primary phase mass correction. At the outlet, the uxes of the primary phase are corrected by performing a global continuity check for extra mass creation or destruction in the domain. In some multiphase systems there is no net out ow of primary phase going through
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the outlet of the domain, so this action will create some spurious results. For example, for a bubble column in which only gas passes through the outlet, you would disable the mass correction for the primary phase water. To disable the correction of the primary phase, turn o the Primary Phase Mass Correction check button or respond NO to the option INCLUDE PRIMARY PHASE MASS CORRECTION. This option appears in the table only for nongranular ows.
9.8 Postprocessing Eulerian Multiphase Results

There is a wide selection of options available for postprocessing with the Eulerian multiphase model. The options can be accessed from the Display or Plot pull-down menu or the VIEW-GRAPHICS text menu, or from selections in VIEW-ALPHA. In the GUI, if you select a variable in the variable selection drop-down list that can be plotted for multiple phases, the Phase drop-down list below the variable selection list will become active, and you can choose the desired phase. When you select a variable in the VARIABLE-SELECTION text menu, if it can be plotted for multiple phases, FLUENT will ask you to select the phase from a PHASE-SELECTION menu. Below is an outline of some of the capabilities, along with some examples. Velocity Vectors Velocity vectors can be plotted using the Velocity Vectors panel or the VELOCITY-VECTORS command. To open the Velocity Vectors panel, select the Display Vectors... menu item: Display ,!Vectors...
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Select the phase for which you want to plot vectors in the Phase drop-down list located directly below the Scale Factor on the left side of the panel. The other Phase list on the right side of the panel, below the Color By drop-down list is used if you choose to color the vectors by a variable that can be plotted for more than one phase. For example, you could plot the primary-phase velocity vectors and color them by a secondary-phase volume fraction. By default, the Color By eld is set to be the velocity magnitude of the primary phase. If you choose to plot the secondary-phase velocity vectors and you would like them to be colored by the magnitude of the secondary-phase velocity, remember to change the phase selection in both Phase drop-down lists. Once you have speci ed the desired phases and options, click on Display to plot the velocity vectors. In the text interface, the VELOCITY-VECTORS command is available in the VIEW-GRAPHICS menu. When you select this command, you will be prompted in the PHASE-SELECTION menu to specify the phase for which you want to plot vectors.
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VIEW-GRAPHICS
,!VELOCITY-VECTORS
VIEW-GRAPHICSVV COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: SAND AIR QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
If you have enabled the option to color the vectors by a scalar either in the VECTOR-PARAMETERS table or by modifying the default Color By selection in the Velocity Vectors panel, you will next be prompted to select a variable in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. If you select a variable that can be plotted for more than one phase, you will see yet another PHASE-SELECTION menu:
VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR SAND QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
In Figure 9.8.1, velocity vectors for air top and sand bottom are plotted for an example in which an air-sand mixture enters a duct through an inlet centered on the left wall. On the right side of the gures, it can be seen that the air velocity vectors have a slight upward component, while the sand vectors have a slight downward component, as expected.
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1.50E+00 1.45E+00 1.39E+00 1.34E+00 1.29E+00 1.24E+00 1.19E+00 1.14E+00 1.08E+00 1.03E+00 9.82E-01 9.30E-01 8.78E-01 8.27E-01 7.75E-01 7.24E-01 6.72E-01 6.21E-01 5.69E-01 5.17E-01 4.66E-01 4.14E-01 3.63E-01 3.11E-01 2.60E-01 2.08E-01 1.56E-01 1.05E-01 5.33E-02 1.72E-03
Y Z X
Velocity Vectors for Air (top) and Sand (bottom) Time = 1.210E+00 Lmax = 1.497E+00 Lmin = 1.719E-03 Time = 1.210E+00
Aug 29 1994 Fluent 4.30 Fluent Inc.
Figure 9.8.1: Velocity Vectors for Air top and Sand bottom
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contours to get an idea of the overall ow patterns as well as mass ow rates in di erent regions of the domain. For a multiphase ow, stream function contours can be plotted for any of the phases. To plot contours of stream function using the GUI, open the Contours panel: Display ,!Contours...
Stream Function In 2D simulations, it is often very useful to examine stream function
Select Velocity... and Stream Function in the Contours Of drop-down lists, and choose the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. Click Display to plot the contours. In the text interface, the choice of phases is made in the PHASE-SELECTION menu when a plot of contours or pro les, or an alphanumeric display of stream function is requested from the VARIABLESELECTION menu, as shown below.
VIEW-GRAPHICS
,!CONTOURS

VIEW-GRAPHICSCON VARIABLE-SELECTIONSF COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: AIR SAND QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONHELP
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Volume Fraction One of the most useful tools in the evaluation of a two phase ow
is the display of volume fraction for each of the uids. In the GUI, Volume Fraction is available in the Multiphase... category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in the panels opened from the Display and Plot pull-down menus. In the Contours panel, for example, you can select Multiphase... and Volume Fraction, and then choose the phase for which you want to plot the volume fraction in the Phase drop-down list.
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In the text interface, VOLUME-FRACTION is found in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu, and it can be accessed from the VIEW-ALPHA and VIEW- GRAPHICS menus.
COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM VARIABLE-SELECTION: DENSITY EXCHANGE-MASS EXCHANGE-X EXCHANGE-Y MACH-NUMBER MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY STATIC-PRESSURE-REL STATIC-PRESSURE-ABS STREAM-FUNCTION TOTAL-PRESSURE-REL TOTAL-PRESSURE-ABS U-VELOCITY V-VELOCITY VELOCITY-MAGNITUDE VOLUME-FRACTION MULTIPHASE-CONCENTRATION SOLIDS-PRESSURE GRANULAR-TEMP XMOM-SOURCE YMOM-SOURCE XTENDED-XOPTIONS QUIT HELP ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. VARIABLE-SELECTIONVF
Figures 9.8.2 and 9.8.3 show volume fraction plots for the separationtee example of Section 9.3.1. In Figure 9.8.2, lled contours of the primary phase water volume fraction are presented, and mark the bubble region where very little water is present. In Figure 9.8.3, lled contours of the secondary phase air volume fraction are shown. This gure is the inverse of Figure 9.8.2, since the bubble region is now shown to be the region where the volume fraction is greatest. Solids Pressure For granular ows, the solids or granular pressure as well as the uid pressure can be displayed using graphics or alphanumerics. This is accomplished in the GUI by selecting Solids Pressure in the Multiphase... category of the variable selection drop-down list that appears in the panels opened from the Display or Plot pull-down menu. In the text interface, select the SOLIDS-PRESSURE command in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. As an example, consider a square tank with an inlet on the upper left wall and outlet on the upper right wall. The inlet mixture carries a 30 solids-water slurry into the domain, and the solids settle on the bottom of the tank as time increases. In Figure 9.8.4, 5 seconds after the start of the lling process, velocity vectors for the water phase are shown, indicating the general ow pattern for the slurry. The build-up of the granular phase on the tank bottom is shown in
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1.00E+00 9.67E-01 9.34E-01 9.01E-01 8.69E-01 8.36E-01 8.03E-01 7.70E-01 7.37E-01 7.04E-01 6.71E-01 6.39E-01 6.06E-01 5.73E-01 5.40E-01 5.07E-01 4.74E-01 4.41E-01 4.08E-01 3.76E-01 3.43E-01 3.10E-01 2.77E-01 2.44E-01 2.11E-01 1.78E-01 1.46E-01 1.13E-01 7.99E-02 4.70E-02 1.41E-02
Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Water Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 1.000E+00 Min = 1.414E-02
Figure 9.8.2: Water Volume Fraction in a Tee-Junction

Y Z X
Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Air Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 9.859E-01 Min = 1.000E-06
Figure 9.8.3: Air Volume Fraction in a Tee-Junction
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1.16E+00 1.12E+00 1.08E+00 1.04E+00 9.99E-01 9.59E-01 9.19E-01 8.79E-01 8.39E-01 7.99E-01 7.59E-01 7.20E-01 6.80E-01 6.40E-01 6.00E-01 5.60E-01 5.20E-01 4.80E-01 4.40E-01 4.00E-01 3.60E-01 3.20E-01 2.80E-01 2.40E-01 2.00E-01 1.60E-01 1.20E-01 8.00E-02 4.00E-02 3.72E-05
Y Z X
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Water Velocity Vectors (M/S) Max = 1.159E+00 Min = 3.721E-05 Time = 5.000E+00
Figure 9.8.4: Water Velocity Vectors for a Granular Settling Tank Figure 9.8.5. The solids pressure, having a maximum at the bottom of the tank where the concentration of solids is greatest, can be seen in Figure 9.8.6. Shear Viscosity for For granular ows, a bulk and shear viscosity are computed, acthe Solid Phase cording to the kinetic theory approach. For laminar ows, a report of the shear viscosity for the solid phase is available from both the alphanumerics and graphics menus. In the GUI graphics panels, select Molecular Viscosity in the Properties... category of the variable selection drop-down list. Then select the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list. In the text interface, use the MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY command in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. FLUENT will ask you to specify the phase in the resulting PHASE-SELECTION menu. For the case of the uidized bed described in Section 9.3.2, the shear viscosity for the solid phase is plotted in Figure 9.8.7. Additional Features Additional postprocessing capabilities are available for alphanumeric and graphical reporting for the individual phases. Some of these are listed below. As mentioned earlier, when you select a variable that can be plotted or reported for more than one phase, FLUENT will prompt you to select a phase in the Phase drop-down list or the PHASE-SELECTION menu.
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Y Z X
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Sand Volume Fraction (Dim) Max = 5.999E-01 Min = 1.843E-02 Time = 5.000E+00
Figure 9.8.5: Sand Volume Fraction in a Granular Settling Tank

3.61E+02 3.49E+02 3.37E+02 3.25E+02 3.13E+02 3.01E+02 2.89E+02 2.77E+02 2.65E+02 2.53E+02 2.41E+02 2.29E+02 2.17E+02 2.05E+02 1.93E+02 1.81E+02 1.69E+02 1.56E+02 1.44E+02 1.32E+02 1.20E+02 1.08E+02 9.63E+01 8.43E+01 7.22E+01 6.02E+01 4.81E+01 3.61E+01 2.41E+01 1.20E+01 3.88E-04
Y Z X
Transient Filling of a Tank with Solids Sand Solids Pressure (Pa) Max = 3.611E+02 Min = 3.878E-04 Time = 5.000E+00
Figure 9.8.6: Sand Solids Pressure in a Granular Settling Tank
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Y Z X
Bubbly Flow in a Fluidized Bed Molecular Viscosity Of Solids (Kg/M-S) Max = 5.987E-02 Min = 5.103E-10 Time = 2.000E-01
Figure 9.8.7: Shear Viscosity for the Solid Phase in a Fluidized Bed The following parameters are available in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu in the text interface. The category in which you will nd them in the GUI is listed in parentheses. Note that this is not a complete list of the parameters in the VARIABLE-SELECTION menu. See Section 18.1 for information about parameters not listed below.
VELOCITY-MAGNITUDE Velocity Magnitude in the Velocity...
egory: Velocity magnitudes for any phase. U-, V-, and W-VELOCITY U, V, and W Velocity in the Velocity... category: Velocity components for any phase. DENSITY Density in the Density... category: The density of any phase. MULTIPHASE-CONCENTRATION Multiphase Concentration in the Multiphase... category: E ective density density volume fraction for any phase. MOLECULAR-VISCOSITY Molecular Viscosity in the Properties... category: The molecular viscosity of any uid phase or the shear viscosity computed by FLUENT for any solid phase.
cat-
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Not available for turbulent ows. See e ective viscosity, below. EFFECTIVE-VISCOSITY E ective Viscosity in the Properties... or Turbulence... category: The e ective viscosity of any phase. The following parameters are found in the XTENDED-XOPTIONS text menu:
I-, J-,
and K-FACE-FLOW-RATE I, J, and K Face Flow Rate in the Mass Fluxes... category: Face uxes in SI units of kg s in the 3 grid directions for any phase.
SELECT-VARIABLE:
In VIEW-ALPHA
Integral reports based on either the primary phase, or one of the secondary phases. In the sample report below, the integrated quantities reported in the rst ve columns are described in Section 18.4. The nal column reports the volume of the speci ed phase in each cell, determined by multiplying the volume fraction by the cell volume. The sum at the end of the report gives the total volume of the speci ed phase.
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VARIABLE-SELECTIONINTEGRALS-I-DIRECTION
BOUNDS. L- PRINT CELL-BY-CELL INFO OTHERWISE SUMMARY ONLY? L- Y OR N ++DEFAULT-YES++ X L- DEFAULT ASSUMED *- SELECT PHASE FOR INTEGRALS COMMANDS AVAILABLE FROM PHASE-SELECTION: WATER SAND QUIT ENTER HELP COMMAND FOR MORE INFORMATION. PHASE-SELECTIONWATER INTEGRATED QUANTITIES FOR CELL ZONE ' .' I-DIRECTION COMPONENTS, WATER AREA VELOCITY VOL. FLOW MASS FLOW DELTA P PH.- VOL. I, J, K M2 M S M3 S KG S PA M3 ----------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------2, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.959E-01 9.959E-03 7.030E+00 -2.527E+00 7.059E-05 3, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.940E-01 9.940E-03 7.106E+00 -5.267E+00 7.149E-05 4, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.932E-01 9.932E-03 7.197E+00 -3.381E+00 7.247E-05 5, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.921E-01 9.921E-03 7.290E+00 -2.615E+00 7.348E-05 6, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.908E-01 9.908E-03 7.380E+00 -1.935E+00 7.448E-05 7, 51, 1 1.000E-02 9.893E-01 9.893E-03 7.467E+00 -1.520E+00 7.547E-05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -4.994E-01 -4.994E-03 -3.378E+00 4.075E+01 6.763E-05 48, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -4.503E-01 -4.503E-03 -3.064E+00 4.763E+01 6.805E-05 49, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -3.834E-01 -3.834E-03 -2.618E+00 4.944E+01 6.827E-05 50, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -2.819E-01 -2.819E-03 -1.931E+00 5.859E+01 6.852E-05 51, 2, 1 1.000E-02 -1.127E-01 -1.127E-03 -7.531E-01 7.742E+00 6.681E-05 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------TOTALS 2.500E+01 2.474E+00 1.923E+03 2.060E-01 HELP

In VIEW-ALPHA
SELECT-VARIABLE XTENDED-XOPTIONS:
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You can use the TOTAL-MASS command to compute the total mass of each phase:
VARIABLE-SELECTIONXX EXTENDED-OPTIONSTOTAL-MASS *** TOTAL MASS SUMMARY *** SOLIDS AIR : : 1.5593E-01 KG 2.1752E+03 KG
This command is useful for determining the mass accumulated at a given point in time for a time-dependent multiphase calculation. When you use the TOTAL-ZONE-INTEGRALS command described in detail in Section 18.1 for a multiphase calculation, all information in the report will be listed separately for each phase.
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Phase Change Simulation

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Phase Change Simulation

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Chapter 8.

Phase Change Simulations

8.1 Overview of Phase Change Modeling in FLUENT

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

8.2 Phase Change Modeling Theory

8.2 Phase Change Modeling Theory

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Tliquidus T Tliquidus 8.2-3

8.2 Phase Change Modeling Theory

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

MAIN ,! EXPERT ,! OPTIONS

8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Wall Near-wall Control Volume TW

Figure 8.3.1: Circuit for Contact Resistance

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

Next, de ne the LIQUIDUS

Then specify the LATENT Equation 8.2-3:

for the material, L in

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

In this initial dialog, you are asked three questions:

8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Modeling Continuous Casting Using the Pull Velocity

FLUENT computes the pull velocities using a Laplace equation de-

8.3 User Inputs for the Phase Change Model

MAIN ,! EXPERT ,! LINEAR-EQN.-SOLVER SOLVER

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Additional Sources of Heat and Momentum Momentum Sources

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

8.4 Solution Strategies for Phase Change Problems

8.4 Solution Strategies for Phase Change Problems

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 8 | Phase Change Simulations

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

The Eulerian Multiphase Model

9.1 Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT

9.1.1 Approaches to Multiphase Modeling

9.1 Overview of Multiphase Modeling in FLUENT

The Euler-Euler Approach

The VOF Model

The Eulerian Multiphase Model

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model

9.2 Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model

9.2 Features of the Eulerian Multiphase Model

Limitations All other features available in FLUENT can be used in conjunction

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

9.3 Examples of Eulerian Multiphase Capabilities

9.3.1 Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction

9.3 Examples of Eulerian Multiphase Capabilities

Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Outline

Dec 06 1994 Fluent 4.30 Fluent Inc.

Figure 9.3.1: Outline of the Tee-Junction Geometry

Fluent Inc. May 10, 1997

Chapter 9 | The Eulerian Multiphase Model

Air-Water Separation in a Tee-Junction Grid (91 X 91)

Tliquidus T Tliquidus 8.2-3

FLUENT computes the pull velocities using a Laplace equation de-

a Air Velocity Vectors

b Solids Velocity Vectors

dpq + : r~ , r ~ + S qq q dt q uq n X + Qpq + mpq hpq 9.4-10 _

= q q @uq;i + @uq;j , 2 q q ij @uq;l @xj @xi 3 @xl

~ f = , f rp + r f + f f ~ + u g n X Ksf ~ s , ~ f + msf ~ sf u u _ u s=1 ~ +Ff 9.4-20

= ss @us;i + @us;j + ss , 2 ss ij @us;l @xj @xi 3 @xl

vrs = 0:5 A , 0:06Res+

9.4-26 9.4-27 9.4-28

2 s s l l dl + ds go ls 2 + Cf;ls 8 j~ l , ~ sj 9.4-30 u u 2 l d3 + sd3 s l

M 3dmdl X k 2 f dl + dm k=1 dk

The collisional part of the shear viscosity is modeled as 40 127 9.4-40

2 10 sds s 1 + 4 g s;kin = 96 1 + e g 5 oss s 1 + ess s ss o ss

Qpq = Hpq Tp , Tq

Hpq = 6q dp2Nup

where 2 A , 1 B ln A , B , 1 , 1 B + 1 = 1 , B=A 1 , B=A 2 1 , B=A2 A B 9.4-58 and A = s;o f