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(1) Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high -pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. This force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The first functioning internal combustion engine was created by tienne Lenoir. The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described. The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler. A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with a variety of different strengths and weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense fuel (which is very frequently gasoline, a liquid derived from fossil fuels). While there have been and still are many stationary applications, the real strength of internal combustion engines is in mobile applications and they dominate as a power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.

Diagram of jet engine showing the combustion chamber.

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The hot gases produced by the combustion occupy a far greater volume than the original fuel, thus creating an increase in pressure within the limited volume of the chamber. This pressure can be used to do work, for example, to move a piston on a crankshaft or a turbine disc in a gas turbine. The energy can also be used to produce thrust when directed out of a nozzle as in a rocket engine.

(2) Gas turbine Engines

2.1 Introduction:
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between. Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas. Gas turbines accept most commercial fuels, such as petrol, natural gas, propane, diesel, and kerosene as well as renewable fuels such as E85, biodiesel and biogas. However, when running on kerosene or diesel, starting sometimes requires the assistance of a more volatile product such as propane gas - although the new kero-start technology can allow even microturbines fuelled on kerosene to start without propane.
Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or thrust or any combination of these and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, or even tanks.

The combustion chamber in gas turbines and jet engines (including ramjets and scramjets) is called the combustor. The combustor is fed high pressure air by the compression system, adds fuel and burns the mix and feeds the hot, high pressure exhaust into the turbine components of the engine or out the exhaust nozzle.

2.2 Gas turbine as an external combustion engine:

Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine. Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine). External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a heat exchanger is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine. The thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion; however, the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality (and therefore cheaper) fuels are able to be used. Indirectly fired systems are now commercially available. BTOLA, an Australian based company is now marketing 250 kW - 2MW units. Closed-cycle gas turbines based on helium or supercritical carbon dioxide also hold promise for use with future high temperature solar and nuclear power generation.

2.3 History:

1899: Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas turbine engine in the USA ("Apparatus for generating mechanical power", Patent No. US635,919). 1900: Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines. In 1903, Dr. Moss became an engineer for General Electric's Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts. While there, he applied some of his concepts in the development of the turbo supercharger. His design used a small turbine wheel, driven by exhaust gases, to turn a supercharger.

1903: A Norwegian, Egidius Elling, was able to build the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components, which was considered an achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited. Using rotary compressors and turbines it produced 11 hp (massive for those days). His work was later used by Sir Frank Whittle.

In 1930, having found no interest from the RAF for his idea, Frank Whittle patented the design for a centrifugal gas turbine for jet propulsion. The first successful use of his engine was in April 1937.

1934: Ral Pateras de Pescara patented the free-piston engine as a gas generator for gas turbines. 1939: First 4 MW utility power generation gas turbine from BBC Brown, Boveri & Cie. for an emergency power station in Neuchtel, Switzerland.

2.4 Theory of operation:

Process 1-2:
Isentropic compression in the compressor

Process 2-3:
Addition of heat at constant pressure

Process 3-4:
Isentropic expansion of air

Process 4-1:
Rejection of heat at constant pressure

Isentropic process:
In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isoentropic process ( = "equal" (Greek); entropy = "disorder"(Greek)) is one in which for purposes of engineering analysis and calculation, one may assume that the process takes place from initiation to completion without an increase or decrease in the entropy of the system, i.e., the entropy of the system remains constant. It can be proven that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process

Mechanism:
Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic processes. These are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and isentropic expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle. In a practical gas turbine, gases are first accelerated in either a centrifugal or axial compressor. These gases are then slowed using a diverging nozzle known as a diffuser, these processes increase the pressure and temperature of the flow. In an ideal system this is isentropic. However, in practice energy is lost to heat, due to friction and turbulence. Gases then pass from the diffuser to a combustion chamber, or similar device, where heat is added. In an ideal system this occurs at constant pressure (isobaric heat addition). As there is no change in pressure the specific volume of the gases increases. In practical situations this process is usually accompanied by a slight loss in pressure, due to friction. Finally, this larger volume of gases is expanded and accelerated by nozzle guide vanes before energy is extracted by a turbine. In an ideal system these are gases expanded isentropically and leave the turbine at their original pressure. In practice this process is not isentropic as energy is once again lost to friction and turbulence. If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gases. In the case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.

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As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for greater efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To combat this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems. As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be to maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example large Jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm. Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one moving part: the shaft/compressor/turbine/alternativerotor assembly (see image above), not counting the fuel system. However, the required precision manufacturing for components and temperature resistant alloys necessary for high efficiency often make the construction of a simple turbine more complicated than piston engines. More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers. Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These bearings are being surpassed by foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units.

2.5 Gas Turbine Components:

There are three components of a gas turbine engine viz: compressor, combustor and turbine.

1). Compressor:
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

Types of Compressor:
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below

The gas turbine, which is different from the gasoline engine found in most cars, mixes pressurized air with fuel to power devices. It has three main components. The first is the compressor, which pressurizes the gas by reducing its volume and sends it to the combustion chamber. After the gas and fuel leaves the combustion chamber, it goes to the turbine. The turbine takes in energy produced in the combustion chamber and turns, which causes other parts of the machine to turn.

2). Combustor:
In gas turbines, the combustion chamber is called the "combustor." High-pressure air from the compressor shoots into the diffuser of the combustor, where it slows down to be mixed inside the liner. Various-size holes mix the air with the fuel, which is delivered by the fuel injector, in a very precise combination. The air-fuel mixture is then ignited by the igniter, producing tremendous heat and pressure. The combustor has a thick case built to withstand this pressure. The heated air and fuel feeds into the turbine.

Combustion is what takes place in the combustion chamber. More specifically, it is the process of burning: the series of chemical reactions between fuel and oxidant -- any chemical that transfers oxygen -- that produces heat and chemical byproducts, such as carbon and gases. Fuel, oxygen and an ignition source are essential to the combustion process. In complete combustion, a fuel source burns and produces byproducts. In incomplete combustion, such as that which occurs in combustion engines, the fuel source does not receive enough oxygen to produce byproducts. The fuel instead undergoes pyrolysis -- the fuel particles separate -- and unburned particles are released through the exhaust

Types of Combustors:
Different types of combustors exist, mainly:

Can type: Can combustors are self contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each "can" has its own fuel injector, liner,interconnectors,casing. Each "can" get an air source from individual opening. Cannular type: Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common air casing. Annular type: Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).

3). Turbine:
.

A steam turbine with the case opened A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels. Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer Sir Charles Parsons (18541931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval (18451913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

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A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse, i.e., driven, is a compressor or pump. The axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example. Here again, both reaction and impulse are employed and again, in modern axial compressors, the degree of reaction and impulse typically vary from the blade root to its periphery. The word "turbine" was coined in 1822 by the French mining engineer Claude Burdin from the Latin turbo, or vortex, in a memoir, "Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires grande vitesse" (Hydraulic turbines or high-speed rotary machines), which he submitted to the Acadmie royale des sciences in Paris. Benoit Fourneyron, a former student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine

2.6 Types of Gas Turbines:

Following are the types of gas turbine engines:

1). Turbojet:
Turbojet engines continuously suck air in and send it to a compressor, which acts like an electric fan and pumps high-pressure air into the burner. The burner ignites and combines small amounts of fuel and air to produce exhaust. Hot exhaust from this reaction exits the engine through the turbine. The turbine has spinning blades that force the exhaust through a nozzle. The exhaust speeds out of the nozzle and creates thrust because the exit velocity is faster than the free-stream velocity, according to NASA.

A typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the J85, sectioned for display.

11 Afterburning Turbojet:
The majority of modern fighter aircraft use afterburning turbojet engines, according to NASA. Regular turbojet engines take some of the energy of the exhaust from the burner to spin the turbine. Afterburning turbojets have an afterburner that puts back some of this energy back by injecting fuel directly into the hot exhaust stream of the turbojet. The injected fuel is burned, which creates additional thrust. When an afterburner is turned off, the engine works like a regular turbojet. Afterburners use significant quantities of fuel and are only used on fighter jets (though they used to be used as well in the Concorde SST).

2). Turbofan Engine:

The majority of airliners use turbofan engines because they have good fuel efficiency and high thrust, according to NASA. Turbofan engines have one fan in front and one fan in the back of the core engine. Some of the incoming air comes through the engine's inlet, passes through the fan, into the core compressor and then into the burner. Fuel and air are combined in the burner, and their combustion produces hot exhaust, which passes through the core and fan turbines and then out the nozzle. The other portion of the incoming air comes through the front fan, bypasses the engine and then exits through the back fan. Turbofan engines get some thrust from the core engine and some from the fan.

3). Turboprop Engine:

Turboprop engines are mainly used by small commuter aircraft and low-speed transports like cargo planes. The two main parts of a turboprop system are the propeller and the core engine. The core engine is similar to a turbojet, but uses the majority of the energy from the exhaust to spin the turbine instead of exiting through the nozzle to produce thrust. Sometimes another turbine is present that's connected to the drive shaft which is connected to a propeller. Most of the thrust in a turboprop engine comes from the propeller. A turboprop engine is a type of turbine engine which drives an external aircraft propeller using a reduction gear. Turboprop engines are generally used on small subsonic aircraft, but some large military and civil aircraft, such as the Airbus A400M, Lockheed L-188 Electra and Tupolev Tu95, have also used turboprop power.

4). Turboshaft Engines:

Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. The first shaft bears the compressor and the high speed turbine (often referred to as "Gas Generator" or "Ng"), while the second shaft bears the low speed turbine (or "Power Turbine" or "Nf" - the 'f' stands for 'free wheeling turbine' on helicopters specifically due to the fact that the

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gas generator turbine spins separately from the power turbine). This arrangement is used to increase speed and power output flexibility.

5). Radial gas turbines:

In 1963, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Vpenfabrikk in Norway. Various successors have made good progress in the refinement of this mechanism. Owing to a configuration that keeps heat away from certain bearings the durability of the machine is improved while the radial turbine is well matched in speed requirement.

6). Microturbines:
Also known as:

Turbo alternators Turbo generator

Microturbines are touted to become widespread in distributed power and combined heat and power applications. They are one of the most promising technologies for powering hybrid electric vehicles. They range from hand held units producing less than a kilowatt, to commercial sized systems that produce tens or hundreds of kilowatts. Basic principles of microturbine are based on micro combustion. Part of their claimed success is said to be due to advances in electronics, which allows unattended operation and interfacing with the commercial power grid. Electronic power switching technology eliminates the need for the generator to be synchronized with the power grid. This allows the generator to be integrated with the turbine shaft, and to double as the starter motor. Microturbine systems have many claimed advantages over reciprocating engine generators, such as higher power-to-weight ratio, low emissions and few, or just one, moving part. Advantages are that microturbines may be designed with foil bearings and air-cooling operating without lubricating oil, coolants or other hazardous materials. Nevertheless reciprocating engines overall are still cheaper when all factors are considered. Microturbines also have a further advantage of having the majority of the waste heat contained in the relatively high temperature exhaust making it simpler to capture, whereas the waste heat of reciprocating engines is split between its exhaust and cooling system. However, reciprocating engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in output power requirement and are usually slightly more efficient, although the efficiency of microturbines is increasing. Microturbines also lose more efficiency at low power levels than reciprocating engines. When used in extended range electric vehicles the static efficiency drawback is irrelevant, since the gas turbine can be run at or near maximum power, driving an alternator to produce electricity either for the wheel motors, or for the batteries, as appropriate to speed and battery state. The

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batteries act as a "buffer" (energy storage) in delivering the required amount of power to the wheel motors, rendering throttle response of the GT completely irrelevant. There is, moreover, no need for a significant or variable-speed gearbox; turning an alternator at comparatively high speeds allows for a smaller and lighter alternator than would otherwise be the case. The superior power-to-weight ratio of the gas turbine and its fixed speed gearbox, allows for a much lighter prime mover than those in such hybrids as the Toyota Prius (which utilised a 1.8 litre petrol engine) or the Chevrolet Volt (which utilises a 1.4 litre petrol engine). This in turn allows a heavier weight of batteries to be carried. The weight can be made up of more batteries, which allows for a longer electric-only range. Alternatively, the vehicle can use heavier types of batteries such as lead acid batteries (which are cheaper to buy) or safer types of batteries such as Lithium-Iron-Phosphate. When gas turbines are used in extended-range electric vehicles, like those planned by LandRover/Range-Rover in conjunction with Bladon, or by Jaguar also in partnership with Bladon, the very poor throttling response (their high moment of rotational inertia) does not matter, because the gas turbine, which may be spinning at 100,000 rpm, is not directly, mechanically connected to the wheels. It was this poor throttling response that so bedevilled the 1960 Rover gas turbine-powered prototype motor car, which did not have the advantage of an intermediate electric drive train. Microturbine designs usually consist of a single stage radial compressor, a single stage radial turbine and a recuperator. Recuperators are difficult to design and manufacture because they operate under high pressure and temperature differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water heating, space heating, drying processes or absorption chillers, which create cold for air conditioning from heat energy instead of electric energy. Typical microturbine efficiencies are 25 to 35%. When in a combined heat and power cogeneration system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly achieved. MIT started its millimeter size turbine engine project in the middle of the 1990s when Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Alan H. Epstein considered the possibility of creating a personal turbine which will be able to meet all the demands of a modern person's electrical needs, just as a large turbine can meet the electricity demands of a small city. Problems have occurred with heat dissipation and high-speed bearing in these new microturbines. Moreover, their expected efficiency is a very low 5-6%. According to Professor Epstein, current commercial Li-ion rechargeable batteries deliver about 120-150 Wh/kg. MIT's millimeter size turbine will deliver 500-700 Wh/kg in the near term, rising to 1200-1500 Wh/kg in the longer term.

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2.7 Applications:
The gas turbine engines are most commonly used in:

1). Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes and buses)

2). Trains

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3). Tanks

4). Marine applications

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5). Air Planes:

2.8 Advancements in technology:

Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve; research is active in producing ever smaller gas turbines. Computer design, specifically CFD and finite element analysis along with material advances, has allowed higher compression ratios and temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts. On the emissions side, the challenge in technology is increasing turbine inlet temperature while reducing peak flame temperature to achieve lower NOx emissions to cope with the latest regulations. In May 2011, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 C on a 320 megawatt gas turbine, 460 MW in gas turbine combined-cycle power generation applications in which gross thermal efficiency exceeds 60%. Additionally, compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. They can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and eliminated the need for an oil system. On another front, microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled commercially viable micro turbines for distributed and vehicle power.

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2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of Gas Turbine Engines:

Advantages of gas turbine engines:

Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines; Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating. Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines. Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high temperature exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration. Low operating pressures. High operation speeds. Low lubricating oil cost and consumption. Can run on a wide variety of fuels.

Disadvantages of gas turbine engines:

Cost is very high Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed Longer startup than reciprocating engines Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating engines

2.10 The Difference Between Steam & Gas Turbines:

Many different types of turbines exist throughout the nation, such as nuclear turbines, wind turbines, gas turbines and steam turbines. The steam and gas turbines turn the turbine with heat, but the heat is produced in different ways. Of the two types of turbines, the steam turbine was invented long before the gas turbine.

Steam Turbines:
Steam turbines create energy by heating water in a boiler. The water heats to a steam, which expands. The high-pressure steam causes the turbine blades to rotate on a generator creating electricity. The steam condenses back into water and goes back to the boiler so it can be heated again.

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Gas Turbines:
Gas turbines are best known for their use for aircraft engines. Air goes into a compressor, which flows into a combustion chamber. From the combustion chamber, the air mixes with a gas and is then ignited. The ignition of air and gas creates a high-pressure exhaust. The expansion of this high-pressure exhaust turns the turbine and an air compressor.

Fuels:
The biggest difference between steam and gas turbines is the fuel each turbine uses. Steam turbines use water, but gas turbines can use different gases: natural gas, gasoline, propane, diesel fuel and kerosene. The steam from the water can be recycled back into the boiler, while the exhaust from the gas can be used again, but not for the same purpose.

Cycles:
Another major difference between steam and gas turbines is the type of cycles each uses. The steam turbine uses the Rankine cycle for the thermodynamic cycle, while the gas turbine uses the Brayton cycle for the thermodynamic cycle. The Rankine cycle basically converts heat into work. The Brayton cycle has air ingested into an engine, which ignites with a fuel.

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(3) Gas Turbine Power Plants

3.1 Electrical Power Generation:

In electricity generating applications the turbine is used to drive a synchronous generator which provides the electrical power output but because the turbine normally operates at very high rotational speeds of 12,000 r.p.m or more it must be connected to the generator through a high ratio reduction gear since the generators run at speeds of 1,000 or 1,200 r.p.m. depending on the AC frequency of the electricity grid.

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3.2 Turbine Configurations:

Gas turbine power generators are used in two basic configurations

Simple Systems consisting of the gas turbine driving an electrical power generator.

Combined Cycle Systems which are designed for maximum efficiency in which the
hot exhaust gases from the gas turbine are used to raise steam to power a steam turbine with both turbines being connected to electricity generators.

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3.3 Turbine Performance:

3.3.1 Turbine Power Output
To minimise the size and weight of the turbine for a given output power, the output per pound of airflow should be maximised. This is obtained by maximising the air flow through the turbine which in turn depends on maximising the pressure ratio between the air inlet and exhaust outlet. The main factor governing this is the pressure ratio across the compressor which can be as high as 40:1 in modern gas turbines. In simple cycle applications, pressure ratio increases translate into efficiency gains at a given firing temperature, but there is a limit since increasing the pressure ratio means that more energy will be consumed by the compressor.

3.3.2 System Efficiency

Thermal efficiency is important because it directly affects the fuel consumption and operating costs.

Simple Cycle Turbines

A gas turbine consumes considerable amounts of power just to drive its compressor. As with all cyclic heat engines, a higher maximum working temperature in the machine means greater efficiency (Carnots Law), but in a turbine it also means that more energy is lost as waste heat through the hot exhaust gases whose temperatures are typically well over 1,000C . Consequently simple cycle turbine efficiencies are quite low. For heavy plant, design efficiencies range between 30% and 40%. (The efficiencies of aero engines are in the range 38% and 42% while low power microturbines (<100kW) achieve only 18% to 22%). Although increasing the firing temperature increases the output power at a given pressure ratio, there is also a sacrifice of efficiency due to the increase in losses due to the cooling air required to maintain the turbine components at reasonable working temperatures.

Combined Cycle Turbines

It is however possible to recover energy from the waste heat of simple cycle systems by using the exhaust gases in a hybrid system to raise steam to drive a steam turbine electricity generating set . In such cases the exhaust temperature may be reduced to as low as 140C enabling efficiencies of up to 60% to be achieved in combined cycle systems. In combined-cycle applications, pressure ratio increases have a less pronounced effect on the efficiency since most of the improvement comes from increases in the Carnot thermal efficiency resulting from increases in the firing temperature.

Thus simple cycle efficiency is achieved with high pressure ratios. Combined cycle efficiency is obtained with more modest pressure ratios and greater firing temperatures.

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3.4 Fuels:
One further advantage of gas turbines is their fuel flexibility. They can be adapted to use almost any flammable gas or light distillate petroleum products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel and kerosene (paraffin) which happen to be available locally, though natural gas is the most commonly used fuel. Crude and other heavy oils and can also be used to fuel gas turbines if they are first heated to reduce their viscosity to a level suitable for burning in the turbine combustion chambers.

3.5 Applications:
Gas turbines can be used for large scale power generation. Examples are applications delivering 600 MW or more from a 400 MW gas turbine coupled to a 200 MW steam turbine in a cogenerating installation. Such installations are not normally used for base load electricity generation, but for bringing power to remote sites such as oil and gas fields. They do however find use in the major electricity grids in peak shaving applications to provide emergency peak power. Low power gas turbine generating sets with capacities up to 5 MW can be accommodated in transportation containers to provide mobile emergency electricity supplies which can delivered by truck to the point of need.

3.6 Environmental Issues :

Almost all gas turbine installations use fossil fuels