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2.0 Resources
Callister, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, Chapter 6.1-6.8 and Chapter 13.713.8 Links on Tensile Test and Properties: http://www.shodor.org/~jingersoll/weave/tutorial/tutorial.html Online Tensile Test Experiment: [this link to be updated]. http://www.menet.umn.edu/~klamecki/Forming/tensileexercise.html
Tensile Test
LN 9-1
Technology 25
LabNotes
Tensile Test
LN 9-2
Technology 25
LabNotes
= x = y z z
where is Poisson's ratio, y and x are the lateral strain, and z is the longitudinal strain. The negative sign is present in the equation because the lateral strain under tensile load is compressive.
Technology 25
LabNotes
material. Under elastic loading, dislocations remain motionless, and deformation occurs at the interatomic level only. When loading is sufficient to "move" dislocations, slip is said to have taken place and plastic deformation begins. As slip begins, dislocations will start to move in certain favorably oriented crystal planes in polycrystalline metals. The dislocations will eventually begin to pile-up at the grain boundaries and, in order for slip to continue, dislocations must move in less favorably oriented slip planes in adjacent crystals. A greater stress is required for this to happen, and so the material is said to become harder, or to strain-harden (see Figure 2). The stress at which plastic deformation begins is of particular importance. When properly defined, it gives a useful indication of allowable deformation for certain engineering structures. The most commonly used term for this stress is the yield stress (or yield strength), which is defined as the stress at which a certain small amount of plastic deformation takes place. This strain is typically taken to be 0.2% and the yield strength is then termed to be the 0.2% offset yield strength, sy. To obtain the value of yield strength from a stress-strain curve, one may draw a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve at the point of 0.2% offset on the strain axis. The yield stress (strength) is determined by the intersection of this line with the plotted curve (Figure 3). There are other measures of departure from elastic behavior, such as the elastic limit (EL) or the proportional limit (PL), but they are not ordinarily used in commercial testing of metals as they are very difficult to measure accurately. The value PL is the stress value at which the stress-strain curve becomes non-linear. This is, of course, difficult to ascertain as the curve only gradually changes to non-linear behavior (see Figure 3). The elastic limit (EL) is the stress value at which the stress-strain behavior is no longer fully elastic. Fully elastic behavior does not necessarily imply a linear stress-strain response, so the value of EL is usually slightly greater (or equal) to PL. In some materials, most particularly in certain types of "mild" structural steel, plastic yielding occurs very suddenly rather than gradually (see Figure 4). The result is that a rather large plastic deformation is observed without any increase in stress such as would be encountered with strainhardening. Occasionally, yielding is followed by a sharp drop in stress. The theoretical reason usually advanced for this discontinuous plastic flow (generally referred to in steels as the yield point slip phenomenon) is that it represents a tearing away of dislocations from an atmosphere of impurity atoms, which at lower stresses had anchored the dislocations against movement. The dislocations available to accommodate slip are not all "freed" at one initial stress value. The release of the dislocations from the impurity atom atmospheres is a sequential process. This may result in a rather substantial strain accumulation at a lower stress than that initially involved in releasing the first dislocations. After some time (or strain) at this lower stress, work-hardening will
Tensile Test LN 9-4
Technology 25
LabNotes
begin again and the stress value will start to climb. The stress at which dislocations are first released is called the Upper Yield Point (Suy): The strain-independent stress value is the Lower Yield Point (siy).
Figure 1: The stress-strain behavior of: (1) a material that fails after exhibiting only a small elastic deformation (graphite fiber/epoxy composite); (2) a material showing elastic response over an extensive range of strain (rubber); and (3) a material exhibiting elastic/plastic deformation (most polycrystalline commercial metal alloys).
Figure 2. The manner by which the 0.2% offset yield strength (Sy) of a material showing continuous plastic flow is determined, and graphic representations of the proportional and elastic limits, PL and EL, respectively.
Tensile Test LN 9-5
Technology 25
LabNotes
Figure 3. The yield point slip phenomenon - discontinuous deformation. The tensile properties previously discussed (strain-hardening, the yield strength, and the yieldpoint slip phenomenon) describe the early stages of plastic behavior in polycrystalline metals. Let us now consider events that occur near (just before) the final fracture of a specimen tested in uniaxial tension. Eventually a point of plastic instability is reached in the stress-strain curve. At plastic instability (and as a result of eccentricities of loading, points of local weakness, or other stress concentrations in the specimen) a highly localized straining event, called necking-down, occurs. The cross-sectional area starts to decreases rapidly at some point along the gage section of the specimen. Since the original cross-sectional area Ao is used for calculating stress, this point represents a peak in the stress-strain curve (Figure 4, below). The associated "maximum" stress is called the ultimate tensile strength (su), where u=Fmax/Ao This is sometimes called the UTS. Note that the engineering stress-strain diagram is based on the original length and the original cross-sectional area of the test specimen. A practical and direct measurement of the diameter, once necking-down occurs, is usually not available. Nevertheless, the concepts of "true" stress and strain, which are based on instantaneous measurements of specimen geometry, are fundamental. The concept of true stress is fairly simple, and will be used at the fracture point after the tests are concluded. However, true strain and how it applies to the mechanical behavior of materials is beyond the scope of this introductory course.
Tensile Test LN 9-6
Technology 25
LabNotes
Figure 4. Stress-Strain diagram showing the ultimate tensile strength, where necking begins, and the percent elongation at that point.
Other mechanical properties of engineering interest include measures of ductility. The most common measure of ductility is the percent elongation to failure, % EL: % EL = [(Lf - Lo)/Lo] x 100] where Lf is the final length of the specimen at fracture and Lo is the original gage length (the length of the reduced, uniform load-bearing area of the specimen). The percent reduction-ofarea, %RA, at the necked region of the specimen, measured after fracture, is another measure of ductility. The applicable relation is: % RA = [(Ao -Af)/Ao] x 100 Where Ao is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the reduced area at the neck. Toughness is another measure of the durability of a material when plastically deformed. It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracture. It is usually measured by calculating the area under the stress-strain curve in a tensile test or by the energy absorbed in a notch-impact test. Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range and is measured by the area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve.
Tensile Test
LN 9-7
Technology 25
LabNotes
Tensile Test
LN 9-8
Technology 25
LabNotes
upper fulcrum. At some point, the specimen breaks and the load to break the specimen is recorded.
= 3 PL2
2 wt
where ... is the applicable stress P is the maximum load to break the specimen t is the thickness of the beam specimen (in M) w is the width of the beam specimen (in M) and L is the distance (in M) between the lower pair of knife-edges
Figure 5 The three-point bend testing of a glass microscope slide or flat plate. As can be seen from the formula, the thickness of such a sample is much more important than its width, in this kind of loading.
Tensile Test LN 9-9
Technology 25
LabNotes
P f = 1 - exp -V 0
[ ( ) ]
*
where ... V is the volume of the part bearing the load m is the Weibull modulus is the stress of interest o is a `characteristic' strength of the material and Pf is the probability of failure at a given strength level, . For the simplified Weibull method, the material parameters we will focus on are the Weibull modulus and the characteristic strength. The Weibull modulus is a measure of the degree of scatter of the breaking strength data. When the Weibull modulus is low (~5), there is much scatter; and this statistical method must be applied. When the Weibull modulus is high (~50), there is little scatter in the data, and the normal distribution (average value and standard deviation) can be used to characterize the data. The typical strength values for metals and alloys, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths, follow the normal distribution. The Weibull modulus for some engineering materials is tabulated in Table 1. Material Glass SiC Si3N4 Graphite Cast Iron Weibull Modulus, m 2 to 3 4 to 10 6 to 15 12 38
Technology 25
LabNotes
The characteristic strength from the Weibull analysis can be taken to be a measure of the horizontal displacement on what is called the `Weibull plot' (see Figure 6). A plot of failure data for two materials that differ only in Weibull modulus are plotted in Figure 8a. A logarithmic plot of similar data is schematically illustrated in Figure 8b. This is the Weibull plot. The slope of this best straight-line fit to the data is m, the Weibull modulus; and the horizontal position of the line is proportional to the characteristic strength. Materials exhibiting a higher Weibull modulus (steeper slope) and/or a greater characteristic strength (line shifted to the right) are `best' from a design standpoint!
Technology 25
LabNotes
test glass microscope slides in a simple 3-point bend test, then calculate the stress necessary to break the slides, and then apply Weibull statistics to the data to arrive at an appropriate and meaningful breaking strength parameter. After all, it is a strength parameter on which the design allowable must be based. 1. Position a glass slide over the two lower knife edges on the three-point bend fixture as indicated below (see also figure 5). . Reading P : L L = 2.54 cm P(N) = reading (in kgF) x 9.81 (N) 2. Turn on the testing unit (switch in back, NOT on the left side front). Important system parameters will be set for you by the laboratory instructor. 3. Set the loading rate knob on the testing unit to maximum. The rate must remain fixed for a given evaluation. 4. Press the start button. The upper fulcrum will lower at a given rate until the specimen breaks. The bending load increases until the slide breaks. The load given by the machine is in kg. You must multiply by 9.81m/s2 to obtain the force in Newtons. 5. Record the actual peak-load (in Kgf) as read in the liquid crystal display on the control panel of the Sebastiani V. 6. Remove all major broken glass pieces, using tweezers, that may interfere with motion of the 3-point fixture on a subsequent test. 7. Return to step 1a, and continue testing the rest of the slides. Twenty glass slides are needed for a `good' Weibull plot for a given condition. :
Tensile Test
LN 9-12
Technology 25
LabNotes
8.0 Report
Your written report should include the following sections (see instructor, if a modified version of either of these tests was performed): 1. Title Page 2. Abstract 3. Introduction: Explain why mechanical testing is important to materials design. Discuss the theory behind tensile and fracture tests.. 4. Procedure: Explain what you did in your own words. Include sketches. Be very careful not to plagiarize the lab notes! 5. Data Analysis and Results: Include all your data collection, calculations, and plots specified on the lab bluesheets. 6. Discussion of results: Determine whether the results of your data are appropriate, i.e. whether the values make sense. 7. Summary/ conclusions: Summarize what you did and your results. Comment on the importance/ relevance of the experiment. 8. References See the grading criteria on the next page.
Tensile Test
LN 9-13
Technology 25
LabNotes
Grading Guidelines for Laboratory Report Tensile & Fracture Tests Student Name Score Writing Style & Structure Sentence structure Spelling &Neatness Paragraph structure, logical flow Clarity of writing (Gives ideas directly, does not complicate ideas) Voice (Creativity, Originality) (uses original voice, text not copied from outside source) Technical Content & Structure Abstract Introductory (Background) Section [Overall] Theory on tensile test Theory on fracture test (6) Weak (7) (8) Total: /50 (9) (10) Effective
Total:
/120
Results [Overall]: Figures (use appropriate Graphics, Labels, etc) Distinguishes data from results and shows all plots mentioned in Bluesheets Shows all calculations and how data is analyzed Discussion [Overall] Makes some attempt to determine whether results are correct or sensible, links results to theory presented earlier Conclusion References Total Report Score = Sum of above/170
Tensile Test
LN 9-14
Technology 25
LabNotes
______________ ______________
Property
Youngs Modulus, E (GPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength, (MPa) Yield Stress, (MPa) Percent Elongation, % True Stress at fracture, (MPa)
Experimental Value
______________ ______________
Property
Youngs Modulus, E (GPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength, (MPa) Yield Stress, (MPa) Percent Elongation, % True Stress at fracture, (MPa)
Experimental Value
Tensile Test
LN 9-15
Technology 25
LabNotes
______________ ______________
Property
Youngs Modulus, E (GPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength, (MPa) Yield Stress, (MPa) Percent Elongation, % True Stress at fracture, (MPa)
Experimental Value
______________ ______________
Property
Youngs Modulus, E (GPa) Ultimate Tensile Strength, (MPa) Yield Stress, (MPa) Percent Elongation, % True Stress at fracture, (MPa)
Experimental Value
Tensile Test
LN 9-16
Technology 25
LabNotes
For each run: 1. Using the data tabulation sheet attached, transfer the respective load data for the test condition of interest. You must record the load data in order of increasing load to break. This is important in the determination of the probability of failure, Pf. The `n' in the data table is the total number of specimens tested for a given condition (it should normally be 20). Record the load to failure in Kgf and then convert it to (N) by multiplying by 9.81. 2. Calculate in Pa (or Mpa = 106 Pa) by using:
3 PL 2 wt 2
Where w = width of slide, and t = thickness of slide To simplify calculate the constant part of the formula first:
3 L = 2 wt 2
3. Then calculate Ln ()
(all in meters)
ln ln 11 P f
and make a linear plot of that quantity vs. Ln (). Determine the slope, m.
Tensile Test
LN 9-17
Technology 25
LabNotes
LOAD (Kg)
i
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
FORCE (N)
f (MPa)
ln f
Pf
i n+ 1
1 (1 Pf )
In{In(1/1-Pf)}
Tensile Test
LN 9-18