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Cuiture in istanbui as seen iiy Western Eurepeans^

Alain Servantie""

1. European Capitals of Culture^ This year 2010, the EU institutions celebrated the 25"' anniversary of the European capital of culture action, a high profile cultural event for cities in Europe. Since 1985, more than 40 cities have been designated European Capitals of Culture, from Stockholm to Genoa, Athens to Glasgov^f, Cracow to Porto. For this year 2010, the cities of Istanbul, Essen in Germany, Pecs in Hungary were chosen European Capital of Culture. 25 years ago in December 1984, during the first Greek Presidency of the European Community, the Greek Minister for Culture, the famous actress Melina Mercouri, who had played a major role in the movie Topkapi (1964) shot in Istanbul- invited her colleagues to a meeting foreseen at the European Cultural Centre based in the historical site of Delphi, on the north shore of the Corinth gulf. The Centre was placed in 1962 under the auspices of the Council of Europe and aimed to "develop common cultural principles that will unite the peoples of Europe" through the "publication of studies on European culture, the organization of cultural assemblies and other artistic activities. In the Antiquity, Delphi was a religious center famous for the worship of the god Apollo, a worship imported from the region of Xanthos in Southern Anatolia. A Sybil, called the pythia, was delivering oracles on life and political issues, praised in the whole Greek world. Greek cities were offering statues and treasuries to the sanctuary. Thus a tripod was made from a part of the spoils taken from the Persian army after the battle of Plataea (479 BC). It consisted of a golden basin, supported by a bronze statue of three serpents intertwined, with a list of the States that had taken part in the war inscribed on the coils of the serpent. The statue was brought by the Roman emperor Constantine to his newly chosen capital, which was going to bear his name Constantinople, in 324, and put it in the middle of the then brand new hippodrome, the Atmeydani. One of the heads of the serpents is still on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.
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Thus there is a direct cultural connection between Istanbul and this old Greek place. However the conference planned by Melina Mercouri did not take place in Delphi: the Cultural Centre was not enough equipped for interpretation into the various languages used by the Ministers, and hotels were not offering the same level of comfort than in Athens, where they finally met at the Zappion palace. There Melina Mercouri and the Erench culture minister Jack Lang had the opportunity to discuss the suggestion of launching the idea for the "European city of culture", which was endorsed by the EU Culture Ministers in a resolution of 1985, designating Athens as the first Cultural Capital. Decisions of the Culture Ministers and of the European Parliament on 25 May 1999 and 13 April 2005 have precised the objectives of the programme and the organisation of the choice of the European Capitals of Culture. The programme should foster cooperation between cultural operators, artists and cities from host country and other EU countries in any cultural sector; raise the interest of their own inhabitants for culture and boost tourism; it should highlight the richness of cultural diversity in Europe, stress the common bonds and provide a space where mutual understanding between European citizens could grow; it should be sustainable and an integral part of the long-term development of the cultural life in the city. Candidate cities, introduced by their national government, must present the role they have played in European culture, their links with Europe, their European identity. They must also demonstrate current involvement in European artistic and cultural life, alongside their own specific features. In practice, some cities have emphasized international relations and participation in cultural events (Athens, Cork), some promoted crossborder cultural cooperation (Luxembourg, Pecs in Hungary), some showed more cultural historical past and wealth (Elorence), some focussed on cultural elites (Berlin), while in big cities like Paris, new activities got somewhat lost in the generalflowof cultural activities (1989: 200"' anniversary of the Erench Revolution). In Linz, 7700 events were generated, involving 5000 artists. Public sector intervention run between 100 million (Copenhagen), 300 million (Thessaloniki, Liverpool, Linz), and 442 million (Vilnius). Erom the beginning, the European Commission gave financial support to the events. Cultural events have increased theflowsof visitors by 12 % in Copenhagen and Stockholm, multiplied three times in Antwerp, brought 10 million people to Liverpool. Madrid 1992 attracted tourists who also went to visit Seville EXPO 92 and the Olympic Games in Barcelona. Years passing, the concept of European Capital of Culture has become a vehicle for regional economic development through the financing of new infrastructure, the restoration of
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historical or old industrial buildings (Lille- refurbishment of the opera-, Liverpool) and places for the organisation of huge events to attract audiences. In fact, cultural economy appeared more and more to be strategic in post industrial societies, contributing to 2.6% of EU GDP, more than car industry, ICT manufacturing or food and beverage manufacturing sector'. The event can be used as a catalyst for the cultural development and the transformation of a city^. The average population of Capitals has been declining from major cities - 1.5 million population as an average between 1985-1994, to just over 200,000 since 2005. European Capitals of Culture have already been chosen for the next four years: 2011 Turku (Finland) and Tallinn (Estonia); 2012 Guimares (Portugal) and Maribor (Slovenia); 2013 Marseille (France) and Kosice (Slovakia); 2014 Umea (Sv^^eden) and Riga (Latvia).

2. What does Istanbul culture means for Western Europeans?

The KEA study tries to delineate the activities of the cultural & creative sector: visual arts (Paintings - Sculpture -Photography), performing arts (Theatre - Dance - Circus - Festival), heritage (Museums, Libraries, Archaeological sites. Archives); cultural industries aimed at massive reproduction (Film and Video, Television and radio. Music, Books and press; creative industries and activities (Design Fashion design, graphic design, intedor design, product design. Architecture, Advertising). Cuisine art is not mentioned, although Southern European countries have a different appraisal of the cultural impact of cooking (as shovm the movie Political cuisine). The choice of medium size cities like Cork in Ireland, Sibiu in Romania, Pecs in Hungary, Turku in Finland brings European citizens to get more aw^are of the diversity of European population centres and culture, and discover local original aspects. Everybody has heard of Istanbul, with one of its names. The size itself and the rich history of Istanbul may bringfiowsvisitors more with the idea of discovering a city of splendour both Byzantine and Ottoman, as well having a touch with new activities. This article will try to identify the shaping of the concepts westerners may have of Istanbul culture, whatever are cultural activities actually carried.

1. Byzantium
When Byzantium was chosen by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in 324^, the emperor intended clearly to consider the city as the centre of the Roman world, as the place from where the whole
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empire under his control could be better ruled. In Tilsitt in 1807, Napoleon, when the tsar Alexander 1^' discussed to divide the Ottoman Empire, refused to let Istanbul - the "key of the world"- falling into Russian hands. The first known Western pilgrim travelled in 330 from Bordeaux to the holy city of Jerusalem through Constantinople; there, he feels at home: he could meet teachers coming from Gallia to educate the emperor's nephews. The pilgdm's Itirenarium mentions that at that time "Europe" designated just a province, covering the present provinces of Istanbul and Tekirdag. Two centuries later, while the western empire was falling and disbanded following German invasions, in Byzantium, the reign of Justinian could be considered as the apogee of the Roman Empire with models of architecture which still are considered as chef d'oeuvres like Aya Sofia, Aya Irene, Kk Aya Soya, the wall of Theodosius, or the now disappeared church of the Holy Apostles, the hippodrome. Furthermore Justinian ordered a codification of the empire's laws in Latin, which was carded on in Constantinople in the 6"" century. The codification, called Digesta, Pandecta and Institutiones, was elaborated by 39 lawyers, accumulating and ordering all the regulations of ancient Rome including the edicts of the emperors. It became the basis for law teaching in the law schools, nourished again among Western lawyers in 11-12"' centuries who drafted codes of written law. It can fairly be said that the intellectual work to formalize law conceptualisation and codification in the Roman Empire actually took place in Byzantium. The Turkish nickname of Suleiman, Kann, may be considered as a hint to the continuation of Justinian (we know that Suleiman wanted that his mosque, built by Sinan, be bigger than the Aya Sofia of Justinian). The extraordinary marvels of architecture - churches and palaces-, the splendours of the Byzantine emperors were astonishing all western travellers , who considered impossible to exceed or even to reach the wealth of the Byzantine emperors in the 8-13"" centuries*". Liutprand of Cremona, ambassador of the Western Emperor in Constantinople in 946, 968 and 971 - remains stupefied in front of the complex working of the automates around the imperial throne in the palace then on the Hippodrome^. Such amazement is reflected in reports written by Odon de Deuil in 1147 "Constantinople is richer than its fame"- , by Bertrandon de la Broquire in the first half of the 15"" century, by a Jewish traveller like Benjamin of Tudela, who had come from Spain and met the Jewish community in Galata in 1173**, by Russian or Ukrainian pilgrims specially interested in religious places - churches, monasteries,
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relies^. Religious modes in architecture (cupolas, mosaics) were copied from Venice to Angoulme or Prigueux; luxury jewellery objects made in Constantinople enjoyed a tremendous success among the western European aristocracy (enamels, goldsmith art, etc.) In modern French, the expression "it's Byzantium" still means an extremely luxurious and easy life. The fourth Crusade, in 1204-1205, the occupation of Byzantium by Frank crusaders and their temporary rule gave the opportunity of admirers like Geoffrey of Villehardouin or Robert of Clari"'. The looting and plundering of Byzantium and its monasteries led to the transfer to Western castles, churches and monasteries of innumerable pieces of art, objects of luxury, and relics. The deep conflict between the Orthodox Church and the Catholics apparently prevented intellectual and cultural exchanges during this period, andfinallythe Latins were expelled from Constantinople. The capture of Constantinople by Fatih Mehmed II led to multiple reports in all western languages and interest to the changes; historians quickly translated into Latin, Italian" or French. A curious cultural movement in the duchy of Burgundy led to composition of music by Guillaume Dufay, in 1454 - Lamentation on thefall of Constantinople - while the duke was dreaming of a Crusade to retake Constantinople, which never materialised; the Lamentation was performed at a banquet called of the Pheasant, hold in Lille in 1454, gathering the whole aristocracy and clerics of Burgundy and Low Countries, where the members of the newly created Order of the Golden Fleece, referring to the Argonauts, who according to the Greek legends had sailed through the Bosporus to Georgia. The members of the Order swore to take part in the envisaged Crusade. The first western visitors- tourists, sent by the French king, Francis 1", ally to Suleiman were more interested in Byzantine remains or Greek manuscripts. One of them who stayed in the years 1545-1549, Pierre Gilles, described what was remaining of the old capital, area by area, hill by hill, inspired from old descriptions of the city dating from the 7-9"' centuries; he had read everything written in Latin or Greek. He depicts how the population growth in one century had changed the city, ten times more populous than what Fatih had conquered it, with its various components - Greeks, Jews, Armenians, Muslims coming from all provinces of the Empire. His Topography of Constantinople and his description of the Bosporus, first comprehensive guides on the city, were still used three centuries later by travellers like Chateaubriand. The fist guides published end of the 19"' century like "Guide Bleu", Murray or Baedeker give more room to Byzantine remains than to Ottoman'^
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Paradoxically, in the middle Ages, the Greek ancient lore passed to Western academics mainly through the Arabic adaptations translated in Spain and Sicily. Greek old literature was mainly kept by Byzantine intellectuals (imperial and monasteries' libraries, intellectuals like Photius and Psellos, hand copying at the Studion monastery- now the mined Imrahor mosque). After the conquest in 1453, several Greek intellectuals like John Lascaris, who worked with the Medicis, emigrated to Italy where they arose the interest of Renaissance intellectuals for ancient Greek culture, at a time when the discovery of the pdnting technology encouraged publishing old books, particularly in cities like Venice, Antwerp or Basel. This growing interest led to the search of old manuscripts; Istanbul thus became a centre for the trade of manuscdpts carded by western intellectuals in Istanbul like Pierre Gilles or Guillaume Postel in the years 1545-48. A hundred fifty years later, the French embassy secretary Antoine Galland gathered a library of Arabic and Turkish books for the Royal Library, visiting all bookshops in the city - one famous Mahmud Paa-, or buying the whole library of Mustafa Haci Kalfa, at his death in 1682- he wrote a catalogue of Haci Kalfa. He writes in his journal when he buys the Glistan and the Bostan and describes the miniatures; he is shown chess books. A few years later, around 1728, Abbot Franois Sevin is charged to gather manuscripts. He rehes on the patriarch of Constantinople, and the voyvod of Valachia, Nicholas Mavrocordato. Sevin considers the price of this later's books excessive - they may reach 400-500 piasters-. He finally mainly buys Armenian manuscripts - he finds a library of 160 Armenian manuscripts in Constantinople, 'more than all Armenian works you can find in all European libraries'. He drafted the first catalogue of odental and Greek manuscripts of the French Royal Library" Although Byzantium has been described as a place of decadence, for centuries - like in Edward Gibbon's famous History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire- , the ancient Greek spirit is looked at by Westerners having received a classical Latin-Greek education. Princess Bibesco, of Fanadot odgin, wdtes in French: "the fall of Constantinople is a personal misfortune which stroke us last week"'". 2. Ottoman Empire The development of pdnting in the 16th century lead to more than 2000 books of travels to the Ottoman empire, a lot of them including descdption of Istanbul, as explained by the histodan Stphane Yerasimos who lists 449 travel books, of which 136 Italian, 80 German, French, English, Spanish, etc.'^ Most of reports deal either with trade or with diplomatic relationships, sometimes descdbing the peculiadties, for a Westerner,
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of the landscape. The reprint of some of these reports show the success of travel compilations in Italian (Erancesco Sansovino seven reprints between 1560 and 1564), English (Hackluyt, and Purchas), Erench (abb Prvost and La Harpe)'^ followed in the mid 19"" century by magazines specialized in travels (Le Tour du Monde, National Geography). The first missions, which can be nowadays qualified a socio-cultural enquiry, was ordered by the Erench king, Erancis P*\ At a time of deep social and religious changes in Western Europe, the king was curious to learn more about his new allies against the German emperor Charles 5'^ partly in order to find arguments justiiying the alliance (however we are told by historians that Charles 5"" planned without success to retake Istanbul and was keeping a print of the city in his bedroom) ". Guillaume Postel, a companion of Pierre Gilles, learnt Arabic and Turkish in Istanbul, carrying back books in those languages to Erance; he was appointed the first teacher of Greek, Hebrew and Arabic literature at the newly created Royal College in Paris. Postel wrote the first detailed political description of the Ottoman power organisation in De la Rpublique des Turcqz published in 1560, as he could have observed in Istanbul. His book will inspire the Turkish pages the Erench first western political scientist, Jean Bodin, wrote on comparative regimes in La Rpublique.'^ This is more a description of political culture, of protocol and formal customs in the capital, as later will give other writers like the Italian Ottaviano Bon'" or the British Paul Ricaut^". The reports of the Venetian baglios (ambassadors) were widely circulated and sold printed in Italy^'. The report of the mission of Daniele Ludivisi on a visit to Istanbul in spring 1534 exposed to the Venetian Senate inspired Libri tre delle cose dei Turchi (Three books on Turkish affairs), published in 1539 by Benedetto Ramberti, the mission's secretary^^ Extensive negotiations with the Seraglio, leading to peace and trade treaties (capitulations) imposed to Western Embassies to learn well both languages and customs practices and for this to recruit drogmans: Navagero, the Venetian baglio in 1550-1552, reports the importance for legations to have drogmans speaking Turkish, Greek and Italian''*. The Venice Republic was the first administration to start training of translators-interpreters Turkish/Italian (and Latin) for their administrative purposes - "giovani di langue" (language youth). Erench will follow on the same line; the on spot training lead in the 17"" century to the creation of the School of Oriental Languages in Paris. The diplomatic reports note the progressive change in the use of languages around the sultans: along Turkish, Greek, Italian and Serbo-Croatian (Slavonian) were quite commonly spoken in the palace - particularly at the apogee of the dev^irme system, noted by a number of observers,
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which was recruiting young Slav, Albanian or Italian boys from South Eastern Europe, educating them in Istanbul and integrating them into the Ottoman Army or Administration up to the highest job of sadrazam. Turkish became predominant in the l/"" century in the palace. Diplomats resident for a long time in Istanbul got a more intimate knowledge of the life in the city. Thus the ambassador of the French King Henry 4'^, Gontaud Biron, fond of hunting joined local hunting parties and between 1605 and 1610, presented greyhounds, spaniels and hawks brought from France to the sultan^''. Hunting was part of the common culture shared between Western princes and Ottoman sultans; a first drawing of Turkish hunting around Istanbul appears in Peter Coeck's representation of the imperial palace. The Observations of Pierre Belon, published in 1553 in Pads, constitute a kind of encyclopaedia of physical and social knowledge on the Empire Ottoman, and in particular Istanbul, lively and exhaustive testimony on the Turkish baths, the caravanserais, the medicine, education. It was widely copied by his fellows and successors like Luigi Bassano- a spy of the Spanish ambassador in Venice, Nicolas de Nicolay, Andr Thevet^^ Bertrand de la Bordede, in 1537-1538^*, Favolio accompanying the impedal ambassador Veltwyck, Nicolas de Nicolay, Gassot, Chesneau with French ambassador d'Aramon, Palerne, impedal ambassadors like Cornelius de Schepper, Busbecq. Busbecq admires tulips and bdngs them back to Western Europe. The Italian priest Sestini describes vineyards, gardens, fiower cultures around the Bosporus in the second half of the lS"" century^^. The French ambassador in 1813-15, Andreossy^^, draws an inventory of plants and trees along the Bosporus shores. The French merchant, Jean-Claude Flachat, worked in Istanbul between 1740 and 1755, bezergn bai selling mirrors to the seraglio, describes the tulip feasts called iragan^'^ at Yenisaray; he notes that tulip onions grow in vases provided specially by Venetians. The names of varieties were registered. In April, the gardens around the Sultan's kiosk were illuminated, while musicians were playing for his "ladies". Flowers thus appear like a precious part of the life in Istanbul, as will confirm the translations of the Divan poetries into Western languages. In this context, Peter Coeck of Aalst, who in 1533 had unsuccessfully tried to sell Flemish tapestdes to Suleiman, spent his time drawing landscaped of Istanbul, which were pdnted in Antwerp in 1553 under the title Murs & Fchons des Turcz, as a kind of first picture reportage on the city3. His prints got a tremendous success in Western Europe and were copied by other artists like Nicolas de Nicolay, and up to Ingres.
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[Fig. 1 Peter de Coecke van Aalst, View from Kasimpaa, 1533] Diplomats were accompanied by artists like Nicolas de Nicolay, the author of the Codex vindobonensis with Bartelemeo di Pezzana who drew a splendid sedal of coloured drawings of life in Istanbul-^' or Melchior Lorichs. Again, cloths and typical street situations are predominant: men and women whose cloths vary with religion (Jews, Armenians, Greeks); Ramadan, feasts and ceremonies like circumcision, weddings, budals, dervishes. The French ambassador Nointel established a painting workshop in the embassy, and ordered the painter Rombaud Faidherbe to prepare a kind of picture reportage for king Louis XIV'^ Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, born in Valenciennes in 1671, painted Istanbul from 1699 till his death in 1737; his paintings, ordered by the French or Dutch ambassadors, Ferriol, Bonnac, and Cornelis Calkoen, give a vivid picture of the official ceremonies and of the easy life of palaces; a big part of his works are now in the Rijksmuseum of Amsterdam. French Ambassador Choiseul-Gouffier ordered painters Casst and Hilaire to draw landscapes in Istanbul, the Bosporus and the Marmara Sea, which got a success in France and were used as models for china plates in Creil or Bordeaux. Antoine Melling, who worked in Istanbul between 1784 and 1802 - he drew palace plans for the sultan's sister- published a Picturesque travel of Constantinople and the Bosporus in Paris in 1806, which got a tremendous success". F. Ziem, the son of a Croatian soldier of Napoleon, after a stay in Istanbul, continued to paint the city his whole life with a style between Turner and impressionists^^. The Maltese Preziosi, marded to a Greek lady of Istanbul, published in 1858 an album Stamboul, Souvenir d'Orient, including many bazaar scenes, women, coffee houses with narghilehs'^*. Russian painters like Ayvazovsky or Bogolubkov spread the taste of Bosporus landscapes in the Russian circles. More than 500 "odentalist" French painters have been identified in the 19"' century; in 1893 they gathered in a kind of club, the Socit des peintres orientalistes^'^.
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These paintings were popularised in the 19th century by albums of prints and by the magazines on travels (Le Tour du Monde, L'lllusti'ation). Food traditions appear in Gian Maria Angiolello, prisoner for several years in Constantinople published a Historia Turchesca in 14803**, in Cantacuzene, - which can be found also in Belon or Busbecq (fish). Belon notes with interest the use of ice brought from the Uludag to Istanbul in order to prepare sherbets in the middle of the summer. The coffee success in Istanbul stroke Western travellers: the Italian Pietro della Valle, in Istanbul in 1614-15, who had learned Turkish because he found it a "easy and beautiful language, rare in his country"- he even composed poetries in Turkish- he had discussions with dervishes-^", and the French Jean Thvenof", in 1655-1656, competed in bringing back this drink to Western Europe. Thvenot frequents coffee-houses (kahvehane), where coffee is served with cardamom and cloves while musicians play. "When our French tradesmen must write many letters and want to work the whole night, they take one or two cups of coffee in the evening; it's also good for the stomach, and helps the digestion." Frquentation of kahvehane, place of social meetings and discussions, is still described by Grenville Murray" or a must in Pierre Loti's novels. Tobacco became part of Turkish culture in the 17"" century, and more in 18-19"' centuries, admired by the travellers when ubuk were offered in official receptions: Sestini admires the liileci, (pipo manufacturers), the ubuku, manufacturing tubes made of cherry timber and tips of amber imported from the Baltic area. This taste appears again in Salaberry, Thophile Gautier, Pierre Loti, smoking narghilehs^'^, and in the book of Jules Verne- Keraban the Inflexible: Adventures in the Euxine, the hero is a tobacco merchant in Istanbul meeting his unfortunate Dutch colleague, and teaching him the pleasure of smoking. Trade exchanges give a hint on the local tastes. Istanbul was importing from Venice in the 15-16"' centuries, later from Marseille or England*' scarlet or purple wool fabrics, corduroy, silks from France, England, Italy, Florence, oil from Puglia, pewter from Flanders, white soaps, also glasses, mirrors, needles, clocks, paper from Milan or Germany. The Ottoman Empire was exporting to Italy and France wax, biscuits, leather, carpets, pearls, caviar, and several herbs, seeds and drugs supposed to cure all kinds of illnesses particularly those with reviving or purgative virtues, like rhubarb, scammony, amber spirit, manna, semencine, various balsams, musk, civet. Belon describes their trade handled by Jewish or Greeks merchants in the Egyptian Bazaar (Misir arisi). Westerners staying for a period in Istanbul could discover the Ramadan entertainments or feasts organised on the Atmeydani for
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circumcisions of ehzade: swings, fireworks, acrobats and Karagz (Chesneau, Belon, della Valle, Palerne). Karagz became a very popular attraction for visitors, well till the end of the 19* century; some like Nerval were amused by his freedom of language and attitude, some like priests or du Loir in 1639-1640''', Sevin in 1728 pretended to be scandalised by his wantonness and sexual frankness. Local music attracted visitors as soon as the 16"" century as can be seen from Peter Coecke's print. The description of the Turkish music- either dervishes by Covers or musiki In 1786, Lady Craven, estranged wife of the margrave of Ansbach (Bayern)''*, one of the firm women to travel by herself to Istanbul ; while she enjoys German musicians brought by the French Ambassador Choiseul- Gouffier playing classical western music, she does not appreciate the Greek music played with a lyre, a violin and two guitars on a kayik on the Bosporus. Laurent d'Arvieux started to inspire western composers like Lully in his Turkish interlude of the Bourgeois Gentihomme^\- reflected later in Campra's La Turquie, last act of the Europe galante. It became fashionable to represent love stodes in harems like in L'incontro improvviso, of Haydn (1775), Die Entfhrung aus dem Seraglio of Wolfgang Mozart (1781) or // serraglio di Osmano o le tre sultane, o Giuseppe Gazzaniga (1784 Venice), etc"^. While the

[Fig. 2 Codex Vindobonensis. Acemoglan musicians, around 1580]

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scenery is inspired from Istanbul views and harem scenes which will induce tourists to come and visit Topkapi, the composers use Turkish themes or music instruments deemed to be typically Turkish (cymbals, triangles). Sufi music inspired directly the Erench Elicien David for his Desert (1844) or Elorent Schmitt for Salom (1905). Istanbul landscapes inspired even the composition of the Portuguese Erancisco de Lacerda (1869-1934) : Levantinas, Travel Impressions, including a Sunset in Oil wrestling (yagli gre) became a popular sport well represented by Nicolay or the Codex vindobonensis.

Fig. 3. Nicolas de Nicolay, Pehlivan, 1550

Travellers in the 17"' century, quite often already somewhat informed on Istanbul through their readings, were more curious meeting people - Greek orthodox to gather old manuscripts still kept in monasteries, dervishes, and Jews established since their expulsion from Spain (1492) at Istanbul where they continued to speak ancient Spanish intermingled with Turkish and Italian (ladino) till now. Jewish doctors like Hamon
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were curing women in the seraglio and giving lectures of geography to Suleiman. The Jews were thus part of European culture settled in Turkey. Istanbul became an example of religious freedom at a time when, at the end of the religious wars between Protestants and Catholics, on a specific territory, only one religion was tolerated, and Jews were persecuted, heretics and former Muslims in Spain were burnt. An interesting case : Balthasar de Monconys, a judicial officer in Lyons, travelled across Europe trying to discover scientific novelties, and stayed in Istanbul in May-September 1648. Curious in old philosophy, in a variety of religious creeds and astrology, he was looking for what was remaining of Zoroaster, Hermes Trismegistus, the Kabbalah, attending hurling dervishes, was trying to meet people having some knowledge of cabbalistic secrets, describing a chemical clock, a kiosk (the word thus got into the French language as a typical element of Turkish house building) '".

Fig. 4. Balthasar de Monconys, a kiosk, 1648 Antoine Galland worked for several years secretary at the French Embassy in Istanbul between 1672 and 1688. Very famous for the translation into French of the One-Thousand Nights, he made famous all over Europe, good connoisseur of Turkish, Arabic and Persian ; he He was the main contributor of the Bibliothque orientale, an encyclopaedia on the Eastern world, launched by d'Herbelof-'. Recognized as one of the founders of Orientalism, Galland was probably one of Western intellectuals who had the deepest knowledge of Istanbul culture. His French edition o One-Thousand Nights was translated in all European languages, and two centuries later, was considered as a description of Istanbul:
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von Moltke feels the One Thousand Nights, in a kahvehane with narghilehs at a sunset on the Bosphorus^^ Thornbury thinks he meets the heroes of the One Thousand Nights in the streets of IstanbuP'^. Frances Elliot sees them in the Grand bazaar*^. This is still used in modern advertisement: "a bazaar of One Thousand Nights coffeehouses where you can smoke narghilehs, Turkey"^^. In thrillers, young women meeting enquiry agents look like princesses of one thousand Nights Galata bridge looks like described by Galland^^. Carpet merchants evoke also the One thousand nights and itsflyingcarpets. The letters of Lady Montagu, who accompanied her husband, the British Ambassador in Istanbul in 1717-1718 are not only interesting for the descdption of women's life seen by a woman, emphasizing the freedom of life under the veil, for her taste for women's clothes and fashion, but also for the curiosity she shows for the divan literature and religious life.s^ Translations of Divan poetry inspired the West-stlicher Diwan of the German poet Goethe. Countess Dora d'Istria, born Eleni Ghika from a famous Fanariot family, wrote on Ottoman poetry, published in 18775, where she compares Turkish poetesses to famous French women writers like Louise Labb or George Sand- and defending that education would put women to the same level than men. The follow up of the visit made by the Ottoman Ambassador Yirmisekizinci Mehmet Efendi to Paris and Versailles on Istanbul culture has been widely noted by French visitors in Istanbul : the architecture of Saadabad at Kgithane was copied on a French model - it was called "the small Versailles" v^ites ToUot who visited it in 1731''''; then new mosques took features from barock art (Nuru-osmaniye). The launching

Fig. 5- Jean-Baptiste Vanmour, Saadahad

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of printing activities in Istanbul by Ibrahim Muteferrika was hailed as a step towards the westernisation of Istanbul by Western visitors like Jean Otter*"' in 1734-36 or by Kumbaraci Bonneval pasha, a French aristocrat who converted to Islam and settled in Istanbul busy with artillery renovation*'.

3. Istanbul under Tanzimat

The cultural and political changes which accompanied Tanzimat reforms were considered by Westerners as new bright developments of Ottoman culture in Istanbul. Several elements combined to increase the interest of Westerners: - easier transportation first through steamers, then trains, and finally planes, which developed tourism; - industrialisation bringing investors to Istanbul for railway development, mining, food industries, etc. - cultural changes in the city, with interest of the sultans, the ruling classes and the various communities for music, theatre, painting. Tanzimat brought the industrial revolution to Istanbul, and thus opened the city to increased exchanges with Western European culture. Steamers regular connections start in 1833 between Naples and Istanbul, in 1836 between Vienna and Istanbul. In 1850, Lamartine observes 150 steam ships in anchored around Istanbul, and writes: "the present roads of Constantinople are the centre where East and West merge, the pot where divergences melt to constitute civilization unity." The first cruises to Istanbul are offered by the Peninsular & Oriental, in 1844, as describes William Thackeray*^ The first travel of the Orient-Express in 1888 is accompanied by several journalists in charge of promoting this new travel means. Tourism to Istanbul became more popular again with the train connection inaugurated by the Orient Express in 1888*3. Only in France, in the 19th century, about 2000 Travel reports en Onenf were published, 331 in Russia dealing vth Turkey*''. The first tourist guides (Joanne, Baedeker, Murray) started in the mid-1850, more attached to classical monuments - palaces (Topkapi, Dolmabahe, Beylerbey), churches and mosques (Aya Sofia, Kariye mosque, Eyp), cisterns and aqueducts, walls, fortresses and columns, and to a lesser extent physical landscape (Bosporus) ''^ some peculiar places like the "sweet waters" (Kagithane)- cemeteries (Kinglake in Eothen), prisons and timarhane (Michaud, Thornbury), hammams (Thackeray, Edmondo de Amicis, Gautier), Grand Bazaar or Egyptian Bazaar (Lamartine, Gautier, Amicis), slave market, narghileh smoking, both whirling and yelling dervishes
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in Beyoglu or skdar (countess de Gaspadn). P. Throux: "A day for walls and fortifications, a few days in pursuit of aqueducts and cisterns in and outside the city, a week for palaces, another for museums, a day for columns and towers, weeks for churches and mosques... Days may be spent on tombs and cemeteries and the dcor of death will be found to be gayer than one thought..." The first museums - dress museum, then the Archaeology museum, once open, immediately started to attract tourists, revealed an other side of the cultural life. Visitors to Istanbul as early as 1830 like the French poet and politician Lamartine in 1833 and again in 1850''*' or the histodan Joseph Michaud*^ in 1830 showed a strong interest in the cultural evolution of the capital. Louis-Marie de Marcellus, secretary of the French Embassy between 1816 and 1820, who recuperated the statue of the Venus of Milo describes his extensive contacts in Tarabya with Greek intellectuals reviving classical literature in their language***. Von Hammer took 30 years to write his History of the Ottoman Empire, after he consulted more than 15.000 documents. His work, translated into several languages, including his edition of other works like the translation of Evliya elebi into English, was a source for all western writers on the Ottoman empire and particularly Istanbul'"'. Real analysis of the cultural life appears in the letters of Ubicini^", dealing with education reform in the State schools, the state of thefloweringpress after the launching of the newspaper Moniteur Ottoman with the help French Blacque (in French from 1831), {Takvim-i vakai : calendar of events since 1832 in Turkish, with an Armenian version . Ubicini gives also an inventory of public and uaA:!/libraries in Istanbul. Interest is shovra in political changes emerging from the Turkish elite, in application of Tanzimat; interest in Turkish society to follow the Western fashions (introduction of pianos in harems, of tennis end 19"' century, etc.) The development of the Turkish press exploded after the Revolution of 1908. The Crimean war (1854-56) lead to the first telegraph connection between Istanbul and the main European cities, to the first press coverage of a war, and subsequently to a flow of information on Istanbul - development of hospitals with Florence Nightingale and later of cemeteries (in Fedky or skdar). Western architects developed Art Nouveau architecture in Istanbul: Raimondo d'Aronco, Alexandre Vallaury^', followed by Turkish architects like Vedat Tek, Kemaleddin bey. However a famous architect like Le Corbusier, visiting Istanbul in 1912; does not show an interest for their original style combining fashionable features of Art nouveau with traditional Istanbul features.
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The taste of sultans for Western musicians is well known: Giuseppe Donizetti composed marches for Mahmud II (1831) and Abdulmecid (1839), while his successor, Callisto Guatelli composed a March for the big Ottoman exhibition (1863), the first big industrial fair organised in Istanbul on the model of similar fairs organised in Erance and England. Theatres like theatre Nahum in Beyoglu started to represent the Western repertoire. While Erench had been introduced in Imperial military schools already in the 18"" century, the contribution of Erance to reforms following the visit of Abdlaziz to Paris in 1867 particularly in the education field in Istanbul (creation of Galatasaray Lyceum), has to be underlined. As a follow-up of this visit, the prefect of Paris, Haussmann, was invited to contribute to the modernisation of Istanbul. He came after the fall of the Erench IF Empire, in 1873, but could not find enough financial resources to carry in Istanbul the same construction policy he had lead under Napoleon III in Paris, and left the capital city without a master plan. His stay reflects the Erench interest for the modernisation of the city. The Erench Grard de Nerval explains the reasons of the absence of pictures and painting by the Muslim prohibition. However, photography quicklyflourishedin Istanbul during the second half of the 19"' century: the prince of Brabant (King Leopold I" of Belgium) during his trip in i860 ordered pictures of the city^^ Postal cards of monuments and of typical scenes - including representation of women photographed as odalisques in studios- proliferated at the end of the century, while famous photographers like Carlos Naya, Basil Kargopoulo, the Hunarian Raif Efendi, the Swedish photographer Guillaume Berggren Sebah & Joaillier, the Glmez Brothers hold a prosperous business in Beyoglu. Postal cards were to a certain extent giving a universal character to Istanbul. However, many writers note that the 'local colour' is disappearing, as western fashions in clothes, western uniforms are adopted, and sport is introduced. Mahmud II looks like a European, except for his fez, writes Lamartine. Pierre Loti, famous in Erance for his romantic description of women in Istanbul (Aziyade, The Disenchanted) complaints heavily about the modernisation of the city; the Erench writers like Earrre or Roland Barthes suggest to use Aziyade as a guide to visit Istanbul^*. Enault writes that the new palace of Dolmabahe is a European statement of belief written with marble... it's the first palace of a new town... the furniture comes fiom Erance in Louis XIV style, arranged by the decorator of Paris Opera . However, several travellers noted that Abdulaziz liked to Western European and traditional Turkish styles: his bathroom is a grotto carved in Egyptian 'trimed' alabaster, in aflourishedMoorish style with small columns, capitals in calices, etc.
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4. Republic
The end of the Ottoman Empire lead to a proliferation of books on the death of Istanbul, the end of local color^-. Losing its rank of capital in 1923, visitors consider it's a 'decaying but charming city' (Willemart), which has lost its old prestige (Huxley) ; the city has fallen at the same time the empire disappeared (French writer Butor). For the American director odginary from Kayseri Elia Kazan, or for the Russian poet Brodsky, Istanbul is a city from where people emigrate. The adoption of western dresses is criticised by western travellers since Tanzimat: Turks loose their nice traditional clothes - uniforms for soldiers, loss of fez or kaftans for women (Marmier, Thornbury in 1859, Throux, Godin de Souhesmes en 1896, Mauclair, Julian Huxley, Gsset, Lawlor, Seal, Aurenche); but it should be considered that travellers, tourists come to find some exotics and regret to see people dressed like themselves. The Canadian Lemieux wishes that Turks don't become too fast modern Europeans. On the opposite, the adoption of the Latin alphabet by Atatrk was hailed by most travellers as a step towards the westernisation of the country, at least easing their life in reading the names of streets or shops. The development of tourism - 3 million visitors in 1996, more than 6 million in 2008 - has lead to a diversification of toudst places, giving a bigger place to Beyoglu, iek Pasaji, to the palaces of Dolmabahe, Yildiz and iragan^^, to the 19* century hotel Pera Palas, or to Istanbul stations (Haydarpaa), which became a symbol of Istanbul local colour. New guides extensively quote modern Turkish writers like Yaar Kemal, Orhan Pamuk or Nedim Grsel. The translation of their books into most Western languages, the Nobel Prize given to Orhan Pamuk have spread a quite new image of Istanbul in the Western world. Modern Istanbul theatre has been brought to Western theaters by the actor Georges Daniel who translated Aziz Nesin and Melih Cevdet Anday into French. Recent films of Crossing the Bridge or On the other side by Fatih Akin , Hammam by Ferzan zpetek or A Touch of Spice (or Politiki kouzina) by Tassos Boulmetis contdbuted to give an other image of Istanbul culture. The cinema, in the 20* century, uses Istanbul as an exotic landscape for spy or love movies: The Virgin ofStamboul, of Tod Browning (1920), Murder on the Orient Express taken from Agatha Christie, Background to Danger of Raoul Walsh (1943), Dimitrios' mask of Jean Negulesco, after a novel of Eric Ambler; The man of Istanbul (Operacin Estambul) of Antonio Isasi-Isasmendi (1964), Five Fingers, From Russia with
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Love with James Bond, The customers ofAvrenos, telefilm inspired from Simenon's novel ; Madame De... , L'Immortelle of Alain RobbeGrillet. While none of Herg's famous comics, Tintin, happens in Istanbul, a movie inspired from them, Tintin and the Mystery of the Golden Fleece, begins in the golden Horn.

Fig. 6 Codex Sinaiticus : street scene (comics, 2010)

Fig. 7. Sophialetta : Karaky (comics, 2009)

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Culture in Istanbul as seen by Western Europeans

Istanbul has become a fashionable place for popular literature^'',thrillers and comics, particularly in French, since Bcassine chez les Turcs published in 1919, just at the end of First World War. Most of comics take Istanbul as an exotic landscape for spy stories -Bosporus, Grand Bazaar, Pera Palas. Although nowadays most of travellers reach Istanbul by plane, the presence of the Sea is a must of all tours: crossing or sailing upwards the Bosporus or taking a ferry to the islands. Cosmopolitan city, where remains of the various ancient communities can be found in the Fener, in Balat, city which the geography multiplies in two or three (see Butor) Most tourists however are mainly staring at what may look exotic : hamals, shoe blacks, water or simit street merchants, local food - kebab vth raki, belly dancers, backgammon players, narghilehs, etc. The excavations of the Theodosius harbor at Yenikapi have been covered by many newspapers; the restoration of the Fener-Balat area, particularly of the house of Dimitri Kantemir, with the support of the European Union, is attracting more visitors. The recent developments in cultural life, new museums like the Museum of Modern Art, the Ko industrial museum, festivals of music, exhibitions are more and more mentioned about Istanbul life. Television programs, particularly on Arte, show a very diversified and lively cultural life. Western Europeans are now discovering a city where culture is evolving, changing, diversifying, where life never stops.

Endnotes
* 1 2 Advisor at the DG Enlargement, European Commission (Avrupa Komisyonu, Genileme Genel Mdrlg Maviri). The views expressed in this article don'et necessarily represent those of the institution to which its author belongs. See Greg Richards, "Cultural Tourism in Europe", CABI, Wallingford, 1996, and www.atlas-euro.org. European Cultural Capital Report, A report by Robert Palmer and Greg Richards, TRAM (Tourism Research and Marketing), N" 1, October 2007. See Greg Richards, "The European Cultural Capital Event: Strategic Weapon in the Cultural Arms Race?", in Journal of Cultural Policy, 6 (2), 159-181. Urban mindscapes of Europe , edited by Godela Weiss-Sussex with Franco Bianchini. Weiss-Sussex, Godela. Amsterdam : Rodopi, 2006. Series European studies: an interdisciplinary series in european culture, history and politics ; 23 Palmer/RAE Associates, European Cities and Capitals of Culture, Study prepared for the European Commission 2004. See www.palmer-rae.com and ec.europa. eu/culture/key-documents/doc926_en.htm . See also the study Economy and

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Culture in Europe, 2006, by KEA European Affairs, (http://www.keanet.eu/ ecoculture/studynew.pdO whicb bighlights the role of culture in the EU project and the socio-economic benefits of this sector in Europe. 5 See Gilbert Dagron, Naissance d'une capitale: Constantinople et ses institutions de 330 451 , Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1974, Constantinople imaginaire: tude sur le recueil des Patria Paris : Presses universitaires de France, 1984. Stephane Yerasimos. La Fondation de Constantinople et de Sainte-Sophie dans le traditions turques, Paris : IFEA & Librairie d'Amrique et d'Orient, 1990. 6 Jean Ebersolt, Constantinople byzantine et les Voyageurs du Levant, Ernest Leroux, Paris, 1919 7 Liutprand of Cremona, Antapodosis, The Embassy to Constantinople and other Writings, J.M. Dent, Londres & Charles E. Tuttle Co. Rutland, Vermont, 1993. 8 In Voyages faits principalement en Asie dans les XII, XIII, XIV et XV sicles par Benjamin de Tudele, etc., Pierre Bergeron, The Hague,i735. 9 See Le Livre du Plerin (Itinraires russes en Orient), translated Mme B. de Khitrowo, Geneva, 1889. 10 Villehardouin Geoffroi de Ville-Hardouin, La conqute de Constantinople, Firmin Didot, Paris, 1872. Robert de Clari, in Ch. Hopf, Chroniques grco-romaines indites ou peu connues, Berlin, 1873. 11 Cf La caduta di Costantinopoli. Le testimonianze dei contemporanei, ed. Agostino Pertusi, Fondazione Lorenzo Valla, Amoldo Mondadori Editore, Milan, 1976. 12 De Constantinopoleos Topographia, Lyon, 1561; Engl translation. The Antiquities of Constantinople, 1729, London; reprint. Itlica Press: New York, 1988. De Bosporo Tracio, libri IH, Lyon, 1561. Pierre Gilles. Itinraires byzantins, ed. Jean-Pierre Grelois, Collge de France-CNRS, Paris, 2007. 13 Lettres sur Constantinople de M. l'abb Sevin, de l'Acadmie Royale des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, crites pendant son sjour dans cette ville, au comte de Caylus 1746. See Henri Omont, Missions archologiques ftanaises en Orient aux XVir et XVIir sicles, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1902, 14 See; Abel Hermant, Le nouvel Anarchasis, Promenade au jardin des lettres grecques, Grasset, Paris, 1928; Timour Byzance and Les sentinelles de la nuit. 15 Stphane Yerasimos, Les Voyageurs dans l'Empire Ottoman (XlVe-XVIe sicles). Bibliographie, itinraires et inventaire des lieux habits. Conseil Suprme d'Atatrk pour Culture, Langue et Histoire, Publication de la Socit Turque d'Histoire, Ankara, 1991. C. GUner, Turcica : Die Europische Trkendrucke des XVI. Jahrhunderts, I & II, Berlin-Bucarest, 1961-1968 lists 901 titles of European publications on Turkey between 1501 and 1551. 16 Abb Prvost, Histoire des Voyages; Jean-Franois de La Harpe, Abrg de l'histoire des voyages, contenant ce qu'il y a de plus remarquable... dans les pays o les voyageurs ont pntr; les moeurs des habitans, la religion, les usages, arts et sciences, commerces... Paris, 1780-86, 32 volumes. Ternaux Compans. Bibliothque Asiatique et Africaine ou Catalogue des Ouvrages relatifs l'Asie et l'Afrique qui ont paru depuis la dcouverte de l'imprimerie jusqu'en 1700, Paris, 1841
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17 Frdric Tinguely, L'criture du Levant la Renaissance. Enqute sur les voyageurs franais dans l'Empire de Soliman le Magnifique, Droz, Geneva, 2000 ; Raia Zaimova, Les Intellectuels franais et les tudes orientales (fm du XVIIXVIIIe s.) , Etudes balkaniques, 1995, n 3-4, pp. 132-13918 Cf. William J. Bouwsma, Concordia mundi, The Career and Thought of Guillaume Postel, Cambridge, MA, 1957 ; Guillaume Postel, De la rpublique des Turcs, et l o l'occasion l'offrera, des meurs et loy de tous les Muhammedistes. Histoire et considration de l'origine, loy, et coustume des Tartares, Persiens, Arabes, Turcs, & tous autres Ismalites ou Muhamediques, dits par nous Mahomtains ou Sarrazins. La tierce partie des orientales histoires, Poitiers, E. de Marnef, 1560 ; Frank Lestringant, Guillaume Postel et l'Obsession Turque, Ecrire le monde la Renaissance, Paradigme, Caen, 1993, 201 ; C. Postel, Les crits de Guillaume Postel, Geneva, 1992. 19 Ottaviano BON, "The Sultan's Saraglio, An intimate Portrait of Life at the Ottoman Court", Saqi Books, London, 1996 20 Histoire de l'tat prsent de l'Empire Ottoman; contenant les Maximes Politiques des Turcs, les principaux Points de la Religion Mahomtane, ses Sectes, ses Hrsies & ses diverses sortes de Religieux; leur Discipline Militaire, avec une supputation exacte de leurs Forces par mer & par terre, & du revenu de l'Etat, Paris: Sebastien Mabre-Cramoisy, 1670. 21 Cochrane Eric, Historians and Historiography in the Italian Renaissance, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 324-337 22 Libri Tre delle cose de Turchi. Nel primo si descrive il viaggio da Venetia a Constantinopoli, con gli nomi de luoghi antichi & moderni : Nel secondo la Porta, do la corte de Soltan Soleymano, Signor de Turchi : Nel terzo il modo del reggere il stato & imperio suo, Venice, Aide Manucci, 1539,. 23 Harvard Library, MS Riant 56, Relationi di Constantinopoli, Bernard Navagero, 1549,34 ff 24 Journal de Dangus et lettres. Archives historiques de la Gascogne, XVIII et XIX, Voyage Constantinople, sjour en Turquie, Paris-Auch, 1888; Th. de GontautBiron: Ambassade en Turquie de Jean de Gontaut-Biron, baron de Salignac, 1605 1610- Paris, 1888-1889, 2 vol. See a drawing of hunting dogs in Codex vindobonensis. 25 Pierre Belon, Les observations sur plusieurs singularitez et choses memorables trouves en Grce, Asie, Jude, Egypte, Arabie et autres pays estranges, Paris, 1553. Luigi Bassano, Costumi et i modi particolari de la vita de Turchi, Rome 1545 (reprint: 1963); Andr Thevet, Cosmographie du Levant, 1554 Lyon ; reprint, 1985. 26 Bertrand de la Borderie, Le Discours du voyage de Constantinoble envoy dudict lieu une damoyselle franoise, Lyon, 1542; see http://www.sjsu.edu/ depts/foreign_lang/Constant/. 27 Lettres du Baron de Busbec, Ambassadeur de Ferdinand I Roy des Romains, de Hongrie, etc. auprs de Soliman II, Empereur des Turcs. Paris : Cl. J. Bte Bauche et Laurent d'Houy, 1748, 3 vol. Sestini, Domenico, Opuscoli del signor abate Domenico Sestini. I. Descrizione del littorale del canale di Costantinopoli, e dlia coltura delle vigne lungo le coste del medesimo. IL Delia coltura di varie cose geoponiche lungo le coste medesime. III. Idea dei giardini Turco-Bizantini, e coltura dei varifiori che si fa nei medesimi. IV. Delia cacda turca... Florence,
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1785. Domenico Sestini Della coltura delle vigne lungo le coste del canale del Mar Nero o sia di Costantinopoli ... - Siena : Vincenzo Pazzini Carli e Figli, 1784. 28 Comte Antoine-Franois Andreossy. Voyage l'embouchure de la Mer-Noire ou Essai sur le Bosphore, et la partie du Delta de Thrace comprenant le systme des eaux qui abreuvent Constantinople; Prcd de Considrations gnrales sur la Gographie physique avec un atlas compos d'une carte nouvelle du Bosphore et du canal de la Mer Noire, et de plusieurs autres nouveaux dessins, Paris, Plancher, 1818. 29 Jean-Claude Flachat, Observations sur le commerce et sur les arts d'une partie de l'Europe, de l'Asie, de l'Afrique et mme des Indes orientales, Lyon, Jacquenod pre et Rusand, 1766. 30 Anvers, 1553. Baron Jules de Saint-Gnois, Les voyageurs belges, XIII au XVIme sicles. Ajamar, Bruxelles, pp. 41-42. 31 Codex Vind. 8626, Bibliothque Nationale d'Autriche, FMR, N 5, October 1984, pp. 89-114. 32 Albert Vandal, L'Odysse d'un Ambassadeur, Les voyages du marquis de Nointel (1670-1680), Librairie Pion, Paris, 1900,114,192-199, 281. 33 Oeuvres au Muse de Bordeaux et au Rijksmuseum. Cf. Milliyet Sanat Dergisi, 22/5/1978. R. Van Luttervelt, De Turkse schilderijen van Jan-Baptist Vanmour (1671-1737) en zijn school. Editions de l'Institut Historique et Archologique Nerlandais d'Istanbul, 1958. 34 Cornelis Boschma & Jacques Perot, Antoine-Ignace Melling (1763-1831), artistevoyageur. Editions Paris-Muses, Paris, 1991, The Voyage pittoresque de Constantinople et des rives du Bosphore, published between 1806 and 1819, in Paris, was conterfeited in Brussels, Leipzig and Leghorn. 35 Cf. Les Matres illustres, F. Ziem, ed.Henri Rougon, Paris, s. d. 36 Osman ndes, Istanbul a^igi ressam Preziosi, Milliyet Yay., Istanbul, 1972; Caroline Juler, Les Orientalistes de l'cole italienne, ACR, Courbevoie, 1994,128131. Eduardo Dizy Caso, Les Orientalistes de l'cole espagnole, ACR Edition, Paris, 1997. 37 See Christine Peltre, L'atelier du voyage. Les peintres en Orient au XIXe sicle, Paris : Gallimard, 1995, Auguste Boppe, Les peintres du Bosphore au XVIIIe sicle. Les ditions de l'amateur, 1989. 38 J.M. Angiolello (1452-1525), Ses manuscrits indits, publis et annots par Jean Reinhard, Besanon, 1913 . Giovan Antonio Menavino, Trattato de costumi e vita de Turchi, Genovese da Vultri, Florence, 1548 39 Viaggi di Pietro della Valle il Pellegrino... Descritto da lui medesimo in lettere familiari all'erudito suo amico Mario Schipiano. Rome : Biagio Deversin, 1658 ;. 40 Jean Thvenot, Relation d'un Voyage fait au Levant, en Perse et aux Indes, et des singularits particulires de l'Archipel, Constantinople et Terre Sainte, Egypte, Paris, 1664; L'Empire du Grand Turc vu par un sujet de Louis XIV, Paris: Calmann-Lvy, 1965 41 E.C.G Grenville Murray, Les Turcs chez les Turcs, Traduit de l'anglais par J. Butler, Paris, 1878 42 Sallabeny, Voyage Constantinople, en Italie et aux les de l'Archipel par l'Allemagne et la Hongrie, Paris : Maradan, 1799.
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43 See Michael Rogers, Europe and the Ottoman Arts: Foreign Demand and Ottoman Consumption , in Europa e Islam tra i Secoli XlVe XVI. Europe and Islam Between 14"' and 16"' Centuries, Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 2002, t. 2, pp. 709-736; Bartolommeo di Paxi, Tariffa de pesi e misure corrispondenti dal Levante al Ponente e da una terra e luoga all'altro quasi p. tutte le parti dil mondo, con la dichiaratione, e notificatione di tutte le robbe : che si tragono di uno paese per l'altro, Venice; 1540, Paul Masson, Histoire du Commerce franais dans le Levant au XVIIe sicle, Paris: Hachette, 1896. 44 Les Voyages du Sieur du Loir, ensemble de ce qui se passa la mort du feu Sultan Mourat dans le Serrail, les ceremonies de ses funrailles; & celles de l'auenement l'Empire de Sultan Hibraim son frre, qui luy succda. Paris: Franois Clouzier, 1654. 45 Theodore J. Bent (Edits), Early Voyages and Travels in the Levant. II. Extracts from the Diaries of John Covel 1670-1679. With some Account of the Levant Company of Turkey Merchants. Hakluyt Society. London. 1893 46 Lady Craven, Journey through the Crime to Constantinople, 1789;. 47 L. d'Arvieux- W.H. Lewis, Levantine adventurer. The travels and missions of the Chevalier d'Arvieux, 1653-1697, New York, 1963. 48 http://it.wildpedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Gazzaniga 49 Coriolan, Le Piano Portugais, 1999. 50 Journal des voyages de Monsieur de Monconys, conseiller du Roy- 1re Partie. Voyage du Portugal, Provence, Italie, Egypte, Syrie, Constantinople & Natolie, publi par Gasp, de Monconys, Lyon : Horace Boissat & Georges Remeus, 1665. 51 Antoine Galland, Journal pendant son sjour Constantinople (1672-1673), Paris, d. Scheffer, 1881. Henri Omont, Missions archologiques franaises en Orient aux XVII' etXVHF sicles, Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1902, L 201. A. Galland, Les paroles remarquables, les bons mots, et les maximes des Orientaux. Traduction de leurs ouvrages en Arabe, en Persan, & en Turc. La Haye, L. et H. van Dole, 1694. 52 V. Moltke, Unter dem Halbmond, Erlebnisse in der alten Trkei, 1835-1839, Erdmann, Stuttgart, 1984,103. Loti also uses the term 1001 Nights to describe coffee houses. 53 Walter Thornbury, Turkish Life and Character, I, 34,49, 73,118. 54 Frances Elliot, Diary of an Idle Woman in Constantinople, Leipzig, B. Tauchnitz, 1893, 29 55 Flash de publicit, Europe N 1,16 octobre 1995. 56 Docteur Henri Aurenche, La mort de Stamboul, J. Peyronnet & C'^ Paris, 1930, 3157 The Letters and Works of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, edited by her Great Grandson Lord Wharncliffe, Londres, Richard Bentley, 1837. 58 Dora d'Istria,: La Posie des Ottomans, Paris : Maisonneuve, 1877. 59 ToUot, Nouveau voyage fait au Levant es annes 1731 et 1732, contenant les descriptions d'Alger, Tunis, Turquie, Tripoly de Barbarie, Alexandrie en Egypte, Terre Sainte, Constantinople, etc. Paris, 1742. 60 Otter, Jean, Voyage en Turquie et en Perse, avec une relation des expditions de Tahmas Kouli-Khan, Paris, Frres Guerin, 1768.
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61 Prince Charles de Ligne, Mmoire sur le comte de Bonneval par le Prince de Ligne, suivi des lettres de la comtesse de Bonneval son mari, et de celles du comte son frre, etc. etc. Paris, Hrissant et Delaunay, 1817. On French military assistance, see : Mmoires sur les Turcs et les Tartares de M. de Tott, Paris, 1784. 62 William Makepeace Thackeray, Eastern Sketches, A Journey from Cornhill to Cairo, The Complete Works, Volume XI, Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Boston and New York, 1889. 63 See my article Les voyageurs de I'Orient-Express 64 Nadir Devlet, "Tsarist and Soviet Russia's Approach to Turkish History", Eurasian Studies, 4, Winter 1995/96, TICA, Ankara, 92-104. 65 Mamhoury, Strolling through Istanbul, Istanbul at your Fingertips 66 Lamartine, Souvenirs, Impressions, Penses et Paysages pendant un Voyage en Orient, 1832-1833 ou Notes d'un Voyageur, uvres compltes, VII; Voyage en Orient, Paris : Pagnerre-Hachette-Furne, 1856,2 vol. Alphonse de Lamartine, Nouveau Voyage en Orient, 2 vol. Alp. Lebgue, Bruxelles, 1851. 67 M. Michaud et M. Poujoulat, Correspondance d'Orient 1830-1831, P. Ducollet, 1833-1835, 7 vol.; Correspondance d'Orient (1830-1831), Bruxelles : N.J. Gregoir, V. Wouters et Cie, Imprimeurs-Libraires, 1841, 8 vol. 68 Vicomte de Marcellus, Souvenirs de l'Orient, Paris : Debcourt, 1839,. 69 Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman d'aprs la grande histoire de M. de Hammer, raconte la Jeunesse Chrtienne, J.L. Vincent, Limoges-Paris : Librairie des Bons Livres, 1851. 70 M. A. Ubicini, Lettres sur la Turquie ou Tableau statistique, religieux, politique, administratif, militaire, commercial, etc. de l'Empire Ottoman, depuis le Khatti-Cherif de Gulkhan (1839), Paris : Librairie militaire de J. Dumaine, 1853. See also Enault, Louis, Constantinople et la Turquie, tableau historique, pittoresque, statistique et moral de l'Empire ottoman, Paris : Hachette, 1855. 71 See Diana Barillari & Ezio Godoli, Istanbul 1900. Architecture et intrieurs Art nouveau. Seuil: Paris, 1997. 72 OZTUNCAY Bahattin, The Photographers of Constantinople : Pioneers, Studios and Artists ftom 19th Century Istanbul, Istanbul, Aygaz, 2003, www.enginozendes.com. 73 Guide Gallimard suggest a Loti tour of the city. 74 Gillon, Crpuscule des sultans ; Myls, La Fin de Stamboul ; Victor Brard,, La mort de Stamboul 75 Guide Gallimard, Autrement 76 See my article : Parcours d'Istanbul des Guides la Bande Dessine. Du dcor du dsir interdit a celui de l'angoisse .

AKADEMiK AR/\STlRiV1ALAR DERGlSl

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Culture in Istanbul as seen by Western Europeans

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Bati Avrupalilann Gzyle istanbul'da Kltr

istanbul 2010 Avrupa Kltr Bakentlerinden biri oldu. Bu tanitim ve ona ilikin olarak dzenlenen etkinlikler ehre bu yil fazladan birok turist ekmi olabilir. Uzun gemiine bakildiginda birok isimler aldigi grlen istanbul ebrinin, 4. yzyilda Dogu Roma tmparatorlugunun bakenti seilmesinden bu yana, kltrel etkinlikler iin her zaman byk bir merkez ilevi stlendigini grrz. Bati Roma paralara ayrihrken Bizans edebiyat ve sanatsal yaratimin bariz bir temsilcisi haline gelmitir. istanbul'un Osmanli imparatorlan tarafindan 15. yzyilda bakent seilmesi. Bat Avnipalilar iin ilgi odagini degitirmekle birlikte, ehri, gezginlerin kltrel faaliyetleri gzlemlemek zere geldikleri bir merkez haline dntrmtr. Osmanh imparatorlugu'nun Tanzimat sirasinda yaadigi modernleme, Bat ve Dogu Avrupa'da sanat icra edenler arasindaki ilikiyle desteklenmitir. istanbul bugn Avrupa'nm en nfuslu ehri olarak srekli sanatsal yaratimin bir merkezi haline gelmiftir. Anahtar kelimeler: Roma imparatorlugu, istanbul, Osmanh, Bakent, Bizans, Trkiye, Kltr

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