Chapter 4: Cell membranes and transport

Summary:
The basic structure of a membrane is a 7nm phospholipid bilayer with protein molecules spanning the bilayer or within one or other layer. Molecules move within the bilayer (fluid mosaic). Phospholipids form the bilayer structure and are a barrier to most water-soluble substances. Proteins form transport channels or act as enzymes. Cholesterol is needed for membrane fluidity and stability. Glycolipids and glycoproteins form receptors and cell recognition antigens. The plasma membrane controls exchange between the cell and the environment. Special transport proteins are sometimes involved. Within cells, membrane allow compartmentalisation and division of labour to occur, within membranebound organelles such as the nucleus, ER and Golgi apparatus. Some chemical reactions take place on membranes as in photosynthesis and respiration Membranes also contain receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters; posses cell recognition markers, such as antigens; and may contain enzymes, as with microvilli on epithelial cells in the gut. Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions from a region of their higher concentration to one of lower concentration. Oxygen and carbon dioxide cross membranes by diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer. Diffusion of ions and larger polar molecules through membranes is allowed by transport proteins. Water moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water potential. When this takes place through a partially permeable membrane this diffusion is called osmosis. Pure water has a water potential of zero. Adding solute reduces the water by an amount known as the solute potential, which has a negative value. Adding pressure to a solution increases the water potential by an amount known as the pressure potential, which has a positive value. In dilute solutions, animal cells burst as water moves into the cytoplasm from the solution. In dilute solutions, a plant cell does not burst because the cell wall provides resistance to prevent it expanding. The pressure that builds up is the pressure potential. A plant cell in this state is turgid. In concentrated solutions, animal cells shrink whilst in plant cells the protoplast shrinks away from the cell wall in a process known as plasmolysis. Some ions and molecules move across membranes by active transport, against the concentration gradient. This needs a carrier protein and ATP to provide energy. Exocytosis and endocytosis involve the formation of vacuoles to move larger quantities of materials respectively out of, or into, cells by bulk transport. There are two types of endocytosis, namely phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Multicellular organisms often have surfaces that are specialised to allow exchange of substances to take place between their bodies and the environment. These include exchange surfaces such as alveoli in human lungs and root hairs of plants, which take up water and inorganic ions from the soil.
Phospholipid molecule has two ends: hydrophilic head containing phosphate group and two remaining hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

Micelle is an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution. Fluid mosaic model: The plasma membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral components such as lipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or sideways throughout the membrane. That means the membrane is not solid, but more like a 'fluid'. The membrane is depicted as mosaic because like a mosaic that is made up of many different parts the plasma membrane is composed of different kinds of macromolecules, such as proteins, glycoproteins, phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol. According to the model, the plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer (interspersed with proteins). It is so because of its phospholipid component that can fold in itself creating a double layer - or bilayer - when placed in a polar surrounding, like water. This structural feature of the membrane is essential to its functions, such
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so because of its phospholipid component that can fold in itself creating a double layer - or bilayer - when placed in a polar surrounding, like water. This structural feature of the membrane is essential to its functions, such as cellular transport and cell recognition.

Water potential is the tendency of water molecules to move from one place to another. Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane.

Protoplast is the living part of the cell inside the cell wall. When a plant cell is fully inflated with water it is described as turgid. Plasmolysis is the shrinking of protoplasm away from the cell wall of a plant or bacterium due to water loss fromosmosis, thereby resulting in gaps between the cell wall and cell membrane. The point at which pressure
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fromosmosis, thereby resulting in gaps between the cell wall and cell membrane. The point at which pressure potential has just reached zero and plasmolysis is about to occur is referred to as incipient plasmolysis.
Active transport is the energy-consuming transport of molecules or ions across a membrane against a concentration gradient made possible by transferring energy from respiration.

Endocytosis is a process in which cell takes in materials from the outside by engulfing and fusing them with its plasma membrane. It takes two forms: 1) Phagocytosis: the process of engulfing and ingestion of particles by the cell or a phagocyte (e.g. macrophage) to form a phagosome (or food vacuole), which in turn fuse with lysosome and become phagolysosome where the engulfed material is eventually digested or degraded and either released extracellularly via exocytosis, or released intracellularly to undergo further processing. 2) Pinocytosis: a process of taking in fluid together with its contents into the cell by forming narrow channels through its membrane that pinch off into vesicles, and fuse with lysosomes that hydrolyze or break down contents.

Exocytosis is the reverse of endocytosis and is the process by which materials are removed from cells.

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