Introduction to methods of disease appraisal & crop loss assessment and Plant disease Management:

To assess the incidence of diseases of crop & relating to subsequent losses interims of yields & money is a difficult problems but the measurement of losses as accurately as possible is essential for the following reasons. a) It avoid non judicious use of control measures b) It convinces the grower about economics of control measures & enable him to use them at reasonable cost c) It induces the scientists & research workers to concentrate their efforts on finding out suitable control measures including new fungicides. d) It helps industry to undertake development & use of fungicides & also undertake othe rmeasures of control of the diseases. The strategy of loss apprisal involves two distint phases 1. Mesurement of diseases incidence & severity and its correlation with loss. 2. assessment of diseases in surveys of no. of fields in a particular dist or Tal. By assessment methods. For the measurement of the diseases intensity of the crop the following knowledge is of atmost important a) Kowlege about growth stage & morphology of crop b) Course of diseases development c) Keys for diseases assessment. The diseases measurement varies accoding to the nature of diseases usually diseases intensity is measured in the % percentage. However theprecent doesnt properly gives the idea of losses to diseases.

SSM55 The main categories of diseases damage are : i) ii) iii) The whole palnt is killed or redered unproductive ex. Damping off, root rot , wilts,viral infection of inflorances. Localized parts of the plants are affected, ex. Leaf tissue, fruits, earhead. The diseases out breaks persist over several seasons as incanse of soil brone plant pathogens. For measuring the plant diseases the percentage of plants infected as well as the severityof plant infection should be taken into accoutne. i) Recording the% of diseased plant e.g. damppingoff, root rots, wilts, here the % infection direction directly related to the % loss in yield. ii) Recoriding the % of diseased parts e.g. Ergot,smuts, the total no.of earhead infected is directly proportionate to the loss of yield. iii) Precent of diseased tissue : In some leaf spots & blight development the % disease area affected differes form plant to plant, it such eases the % infection of crop plant may not be accurate for disease assessment henc ethe observations are combined with the severity for such diseases percentage scale & standard scale diagrams of diseases intensity are use. Assessment system of using precenoage scale relating to loss of host tissue or area convered by pathogen has been developed for assessment number of crops with the diseases affected. Assessment system using percentage scale developed by Briths

Mycological society 1947 for measurement of late blight of potato is given below. Late blight key ( BMS 1947 ) Blight % 0 0.1 1.0 5.0 25.0 Nature of infection No diseases observed Assessment few scattered plant blightened no more than 1 or 2 spots in 10 meter radius upto 10 spots per plant About 50 spots per plant: upto 1 in to leaflet infected . Narly everyleaflet infected, but plants retaining normal form-plants may smell of blight,

Blight % Nature of infection 50.0 every plant affected and about 50 % of leaf area is destroyed Field papers green, flecked with brown. 75.0 about 75% of leaf area destroyed field appears Either predominantly brown not green 100.0 All leaves dead stem dad or dying. Assessmet dey for cereal rus virulence in wheat Symbols Host parasite interaction 01 oc On Immune : no visible sings of infection Highly resistant minutes flecks. Highly resistant, imnutesxs necrotic flecks.

1 2 3 4 X i) ii) iii)

Resistant : small pustules with necrotic surrouding tissue. Moderately resistant, mediuim sized pastules with nectrotic surrou nding tissue Moderately susceptible edium sized patuleswith chloratic surrounding tissue. Susceptible large pastuleswith little or no chlorosis Mesothetic reaction : mixed reaction type on onoe leaaf The lower & upper limits of the scale are well difined The scale is flex ibel & can be divided and subdivided conveniently It is univarselly known and can be used for recording incidence % . Such scale had been developed for assessment large no. Of pathogens like Helminathosoporium truism, Powdery mildew diseases Downy mildew diseases, Rust, etc. Formula for calculating % infection index. % infection index = Sum of all diseases rating Total no. of X Maximum rating diseases grade

Generally % scale has many advangages.

ex. Calculate the % diseases infection in blast of paddy on the basis of following data. Total no.of leaves observed for infotioin = 200 SSM57 - . - - . - -. --. -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . Sr.No. % oeaf area Grade No.of leaves disease rating Covered in athe grade ( Sum of diseases ( rating ) ( rating )

- . - - . - -. --. -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . 1 0 0 75 00 2 1 1 10 10 3 10 3 20 60 4 25 5 50 150 5 50 7 15 75 6 More than 9 5 45 50% - . - - . - -. --. -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . -- . 200 340 Sum of diseases rating = 340 Total no.of rating = 200 9 Max . diseases grtade =

% infection index

= =

340 200 * 9 34 18

X 100 X 10

18.88 %

The overall index of assessment district can be obtained by using formula = field rating class x NO.of heacters in class Total no. of hectares.

Crop looss assessment : Meadurement of losses The object is to co-relate diseases severity to reduction in the yield. The stage at which the loss is calculated is of the prime importance. Ex. For loose smut of wheat (where the loss of ear head is directly proportional to loss in yield ) The loss due to disease is calculated at heading stage. In each field 50 plants / esq. area are taken at random The percentage infected ear heads of these plats 5 calculated & yield loss estimated according to formula, Pr Loss = 100 = Pr where Pr = Percentage infected ear heads Pa actual yield. Ex. For stripe diseases of barely ( Helminthosporium germanium Sample crop at growth stage heading to ripe at random through an area of 4.4 x 0.4 m. count the no . of fertile & infected tillers calculate the %-infected tillers. In loss relationship : % loss = % infected losskg /ha % infected Xyield kg /ha X pa

Principlaes of plant diseases control : (Excusion Eradicacion plant protection, & plant diseases resistance. )

The & ultimate aim of study of the plant pathology is to evolve the suitable controlmeasures so that the loss due to diseases may be prevaenated and the farmer ca get the better profit form it sproduce. It is always said that the prevention is better than cure because in the cases of plant diseases once the disease occuirs it will leads to destruction of theparticular tissue that had been infected. Different authors had proposed different system of classification of principles of plant diseases control, The system proposed by the sharvelle ( 19979 ) is widely accepted. He classifies the priciples on two broad groups prophylaxis & cimunization. The ward prophylaxis is derived form the ward prophylactikes means measures taken to preserve health & prevent the spread of diseases . Immunization includes the measures that makes the host resistant to invasion of pathogen or to kill the pathogen after it has invaded. For the effective management of the plant diseases one must have the full knownledge about pathogen, its mode of infection, source of primary infection mode of survival, & secondary Spread & its life cycle so that at one or more places it can be checked or killed before it invade the host Exculsion or Legislavtive method of plant diseases Management : It is the method by which the entry and /or establishment of . pthogen prevented within and univaded places. It includes quaratine regulations & other regulatory measures. Quaratine : A quaratine canbe defined as a leagal method of restrition of themovement of agriculture commodidites or part there of for the purpose of

exclusion, prevention or delay in the spread of plant pests & diseases in uninfected area. The first such quaratine law was first enacted in the USA in ( 1912) calledfederal Quanatine Act. Such 1ow werer enacted infrance 1887 & In Denmark 1930 In India form the other countries. Name of disease Bunchy top of banana Blast of paddy Downy mildew of grapes Downy mildew Year 1940 1918 1910 1912 From the county shilanka South east Asia Europe. Java

The Directorate of plant protection, Quarantine & storge, headed by plant protection development\advisor to Govt. of India was established in 1946 . the Frist plant quarantine & fumigation station (PQFS)at Bomaby started in December 1951 , There are eight sea ports now that mentain ( PQFS) Bhavanagar, Nombay, culcutta conhin, madras, remeshwaram, Tuticorin, Vishakhapatnam : Ine air ports Amristar, railway station, Attari Wagh berder, Attari railway station, Bongaon, Gede road, Kalimpong & sukhia pokria. Aopart form this Directorate of plant Protection quarantine & Storage Govt. of India also has approved htree national agencies which assit in plant quarantine matter

 National high level scientific committeee for plant & animal introduction & quaratine. NBPGR ( &ational Bureau for plant genetic resources) Forest research Institute & botanical survey of India to assist the plant quarntine work in India. The plant qiaratome can be of this types: i) ii) iii) International Domestic Ecmbragoes. The international quarantine restricts the movement of diseases form one country to another. a) It completely prohibits entry of certain plant or plant material. b) The import of certain plant material must be accompanied by phytosanitory certificate. c) Allowing entry after inspection & proper treatments. As the problem of the plant diseases management is globule looking into the at in 1951 in Rome, International Plant protection convention was drawn up which has 50 signatory which has object. i) An official protection organization with the specific basis of inspecting, growing crops & the produce derived form them & issuing phytosanitory certificate. ii) The distribution of information regarding pest & diseases both within the country & to FAO so that world-reporting survive is established.

iii)

Research & investigation in the field of plant Protection on a cooperative basis for diseases, which had international effect/importance.

Under the convention the member countries co-operates in prevention of introduction & spread of plant & plant products carrying destructive diseases & insect pests. With the framework of international co-operates there are regional groups working around the glob e. *European plant protection organization EPPO) Rome inter-Arfican phytosanitory commission (For south Africa, South of sahara) *Plant Protection committee for south East asia & the Pacific region. near East Plant oprotection commission convenio Intermercano de protection Agricola ( South America ) Organizmo International Regional de sandnidad Agroperciane (central America & Maxice ) Domestic quarantine: The domestic quarantine restricts the movement of palnt parts or there of within the country form one state to another or form one place to another. DIP Act (1914) empowers the Govt. Of India to a prohibit or regulate the export form a state/union territory or transport form one state/union territory to another within India of any article or class of articles likely to cause infection to any or of insects generally or of any class of insects.

a) to make rules for detention, inspection, disinfection or destruction of any insects or class of insects or diseases producing articles. But since the Agriculture & forestry are being the states subject central GOVT. had very little power in the state, thus center & state GOVT. had to wirk together to ensure effective Quarantine. The domestic Quaratine has been enforced against the following diseases to check its spread form one part to another a) Against the spread of banana bunchy top diseases form Assam, karalla, orrisa, tamilNuadu m Wet Bengal to the rest of country. b) Against spread of Mosaic diseases of banana form Gujarat & Maharashtra to rest of country. c) Against the spread of wart of potato (Synchs tricum endobioticum) form west Bengal to the rest of country. d) Against the spread of apple scab diseases (Ventura inaugurals) form jimmy & Kashmir state to rest of country. e) Against the spread of pests & diseases with the movement of plant & plant material form mainland to the Andaman & Nicobar In India, Quarantine method is attempted to exclude the following diseases form other countries. 1) Coffee forms other like Silence for Coffee rust. 2) Potato imports are banned for potato wart & Golden nematode 3) Rubber seeds & plants form South America & west Indies for leaf diseases. 4) Coco form Africa to prevent swollen shoot of cocoa. 5) Sugarcane form Australia for Fiji diseases.

Once the imported plant material comes to India it is tested for exotic pest & disease as at (PGFS) Plant quarantine & fumigation station, then it is conditionally released for the cultivation with regular post Quarantine entry check for a period of around year. If not the material first grown at the gloss house & monitored for diseases & pest. The officers have the full power for the destructation of the material if they reported any exotic diseases & pests. Embargoes: Embargoes totally prohibit the transport of material form one place to another place. Other requlation : In many countries legislation aims at restriction of sale of infected planting materials or the material seed are sold by processing and application of seed dressing fungicides. The material to be sold as a seed in generally grown in diseases free area inspected in the growing season & diseases free plant propogating material is sold through the Govt. agencies. Eradication through Cultural Method & chemical methods The eradication refers to reducing, inactivating, eleiminating or destroying inoculm at a source, either form region or form individual plant individual plant where it is already established. It can be done through following ways: 1. Sanitation & destruction of crop debries: the large no. of plant pathogens survive in the crop debries either as dormant mycelium or through

modification of mycelium into different dormant structure, the destruction & burning of the crop debries eliminate the coerce of primary inoculation to the host. The diseases like root rot; wilt can be avoided by this method. 2. Eradication of alternate host: This method specially in the rust diseases of wheat eradicates the source of primary inoculums at the same time it also breaks the life cycle of pathogen (Puccini gamines tritici) and chances of development of new race through hybridization on the Barberry bushes. So eradication of barberry bushes as alternate host of Wheat rust reduces the diseases development. 3. Destruction of collateral hosts: In case of blast of paddy (pyricularia oryzae ) The destruction of collateral host i.e. grasses reduces the source of primary inoculation. 4. Roughing: It denotes the destruction of the diseases plant in order to avoid the spread of diseases in the healthy host. E.g. yellow vein mosaic of bhendi, (viral), loose smut of wheat (ustilago tritici) a) Selection of field : The soil borne plant diseases can be well avoided by selecting the field free of soil brone plant pathogens. In case where there is occurance of soilborne diseases in a particular field such field should be avoided for growing of the same crops. For at least 3 to 4 years. Ex. Wilt of cotton, Wilt of Turn. b) Deep tillage: The deep tillage during summer expose the doormat structures of plant pathogens to sunlight & kill them & reduces the inoculums potential of the pathogen in soil. Ex. Late blight of potato. c) Improved soil drainage: The field selected for the cultivation should be well drain, the poorly drained or waterlogged condition favors the development of diseases like damping off, soft rot, etc.

d) Following : It has been effective in control of Take all diseases of wheat. ( Ophilobolus graminis ) e) Flooding : It has been successful in controlling Panama Wilt of Banana rows of trees in orchards has been effectively utilized in minimizing texas root rot. f) Trenching : Trenching between rows of trees in orchards has been effectively utilized in minimizing texas root rot. g) Modifying soil reaction : In the acidic soil the diseases like club root of cabbage is favoured which can be corrected by application of lime 1200 to 1500 kg/hac. Where as in the alkaline soil favours the diseases like scab of potato can be corrected by application of sulphur 1200 kg/hac. h) Choice of sowing time : The pathogen is able to infect the susceptible host under certain specific environmental condition, such condition can be well avoided by selecting the proper time of sowing. Incase of pea, the early sowing of pea escape the attack of powdery mildew in jan. which become serve in late jan. sowing of the root rot so sowing under such conditions should be avoided. i) Crop rotation : It helps in control of certain soil brone diseases e.g. club root of cabbage, cotton wilt, green aear of bajara. Some pathogens attack cereal crops only in such cases a cereal crop is rotated with non-ceral crops. Long rotation or fallow are desirable & ainmed at starvation of pathogen in absence of host & eliminat it . j) Mixed cropping: Root rot of cotton can be effectively controlled by growing of moth as mixed crop in between rows of cotton, this helps in covering the soil & lowering the soil temperature.

k) Trap crops : A crop often termed as trap crop or secondary crop should be highly susceptible to the pathogen & should be sown in the area & destroyed before the main crop. This method is usually fallowed to destroy paest population. l) Use fo diseases free seeds : The seed material selected form the diseases free area is effective in chckin gpahtogen like colletotrichum fulcatum causes red rot of sugercane, Grassy shhot of sugercane and soft rot of ginger. m) Use of farm yard manure ( F.Y.M. ) : The farm yard manure when added to soil improve the mosture holding capacity soil arreation, texture, at the same time improves the antagonistic activities of antagonists against the soil brone pathogesns. n) Judicious application of fertilizers : The heavy does of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the incidence of blast of paddy in rice. o) Use of organic soil amendments : The most of root rot diseases can be controlled effectively by incorporation of of neem cake along with farm yard manure. p) Soil solarization : is the method by means of which the temperature of the soil is raised to around 60 to 800c during summer which kill the most of pathogens present in the soil. The southern blight of tomato is controlled by using this method. q) Mulching : Muylching reduces the activity of plant pathogens by increasing gthe soil temperation. Chemical Methods used in eradication of plant pathogens: Soil drenching & fumigation : The soil drenching of fungicides & fumigation of soil by fungicides reduced the incoulum of pathogen in soiul & ultimately the diseases saused by them.

Use of seed dressing fungicides : The seed dressing fungicide like vitavax Thirum reduces the seed born inoculum fo pathogen present internally & externally on the seed respectively.

PHYSICAL METHODS:
The physical methods in which the heat, Moist heat m hot water solar heat is used for the eradication of plant pathogens. 1.e of hot water : The hot water treatment to sugercane set at a temperature of 540c for 10 min eradicate the infection of grassy shoot of suger cane is one of the most effective method of controlling the diseases . it was discovered by jensen in 1887 2. Use of stem or moist heat : The moist heat or steam is generally used for the sterilization of soil or experimental blickon a small scale to eradicate the soil borne plant pathogen. 3. Use of solar heat : The solar heat during the summer where the temperature raised to around 460c is used to eradicate the seed born ifection of many fungal plant pathogens. The solar heat treatment was discovered by the j.c.Lluthra in 1932 where the seed are soaked for a period of 3 to 4 hous in water to activate the germination of fungal spores, then the seed are spread on a sheet of galvanized iron in the hot sunny days during summer, because of solar heat the fungal striucture, dormant mycelium present in seed are destroyed, when the seeds are exposed continusely for 4 to 5 days. This method is widly used for the control of loose smut of wheat where pathogen is internally seed borne present in the embryo of seed as dormant mycelium.

Protection : The protection form the infection of the plant pathogen can be brought by either through chemical or biological method of cultural manipulation. Chemical methods of plant diseases management: Chemicals are very popular for the control of the plant diseases since their discoveries. They have curative as well as protective mode of action & is invert small quantity they have ability to ckeck the spread of diseases inoculums. They create a toxic barrier between the pathogen some time by their action they induces the resi9stant in the host. The fungicides are used accordingly on the basis of the nature of diseases i.e. whether soil borne seed borne or are borne

The following fungicides used for soil disinfections. 1. Formaldehyde (37-40%) Solutioin In water & methanol 2. Methyl bromide 3. PCNB nz ( Penta chloronitrobeone ) is banana 4. Captan, Thiram, Zineb 75%WP. `used for drenching @ 22-65 lit esq. for control of seedling blight & damping off. @ 1.5 2 kg /sp.m. for Rhizocteria, Botrytis Sclerotiuim

@ 135 % g/Sq.m.or s.5m lit / sq m. @ 0.2 % con forseed rot damping o ff , seedlining blight root rot. Fungicides used for seed disinfection : 1. Captan, Thiram @ 2 to 3 g/kg of seed for various soil & root bome diseases 2. Vitavax @ 3 g/kg of seed for loose smut of wheat

3. Sulphur

@ 3 to 4 g/kg of seed

for control of smut of Jawar.

Fungicides used for foliar application for air bome pathogens 1.Zineb, Dithan m 45 @ 0.2 to 0.3 % spary for control of Various blights , leaf spts, Anthraconse, Ruse, etc 0.2 to 0.3 % spary for Downy mildew of grapes, cusurbits, late of potato, Tikka diseases of groundnut, black leaf spot of rose. 0.05% spray confor blast of rice, Tikka of groundut,Apple scab,Powdary mildew diseases. 0.2 % spray con. For control of Of powdary mildew fungi. 0.1% spray for rice blast,

2. Captan Blitox-50

3. Benomyl carbendozin

4. Wettable sulphur 5. Hinsoan 50 %E.C.

@ @

For poreparation, formulation & application of fungicaide calles fication of funmgicides active ingradienmt in fungicide, diseases control & rate of appliction, chracteristic of ideal fungicide refer practical manual. )