Power & Politics in Organizations

• Professor Stephen Standifird

– GSBA 594
– Welcome, I’m glad you’re here!
• Today’s Agenda
– Go over syllabus, in detail
– Establish ground rules for the class
– Identify your perceptions of power and politics
– Introduce French & Raven
 Syllabus Overview

• Course Description and Objectives

• Reading Material - 3 books, 5 articles
• Evaluation
– Class Participation (40%)
– Personal Assignments (60%)
– Reading the material (100%)
• Course Outline
– Assignments designed to follow content
– Content follows the readings
 Ground Rules for Class
• First Rule
– My job is to facilitate, NOT participate (Most of my
opinions are accurately reflected in the readings)
– I will NOT be lecturing on the material
• Second Rule
– You MUST read the material and attend the class in
order to effectively participate
• Third Rule
– Everyone is expected to participate and all
participants should be treated with respect
 Ground Rules for Participation
• Be on time and ready to work (having read the material) 
• Making comments that encourages further discussion (person 
attacks or comments that discourage disagreement are not 
appropriate) 
• Introduce questions into the conversation (your questions will often 
help to facilitate further discussion)
• Clearly state your opinions and feel free to disagree with yourself 
later in the discussion
• It is OK (even preferred) to disagree (with yourself and with others)
• Attack ideas but never attack the individual sharing the ideas 
• Recognizing and accepting the diverse opinions of our class 
• Listen and refer respectfully to the comments made by others
Your Perceptions of Power and Politics

• What is Power?

• What is Politics?
 French and Raven (1959):
The Basis of Social Power

• Power is influence (measured as the

maximum possible influence of O over P)
• Power is more than your formal position
• Social Power (the power to influence
others) comes in many forms
• Reward Power, Coercive Power, Legitimate
Power, Referent Power, and Expert Power
 Reward Power

• Influence based on the ability to reward

(money CAN be a source of power)

• Resistance = None, usually

• Appropriateness = Generally OK
• State Change = No, requires constant attention
 Coercive Power

• Influence based on the ability to punish

(might makes right)

• Resistance = Potentially quite strong

• Appropriateness = Often not
• State Change = No, could provoke strong
negative response
 Legitimate Power

• Influence based on the legitimate right of

someone to influence others
(often embedded in position, always complex)

• Resistance = Usually quite low

• Appropriateness = Yes, by definition
• State Change = Often involves a state change
 Referent Power

• Influence by example, peer pressure power

(I want to be like Mike)

• Resistance = None
• Appropriateness = Generally OK
• State Change = Very much so
 Expert Power

• Influence based on the ability to convince others

to follow your good advice
(information is power)

• Resistance = Generally low

• Appropriateness = Generally OK
• State Change = Not really
 Discussion Questions
• What is your opinion on the bases identified?
• Are there sources of power not identified by the author?
• Which of the bases identified would you feel most
comfortable using?
• Which of the bases identified are most important and/or
useful for the average manager?
• If you were planning to take over the world, which of the
bases identified would you find most useful?
• How might this information be helpful to you personally?
• What information/understanding am you still missing in
order to make this information useful?
 Today’s Agenda

• It’s all about “The Prince”

– A brief historical background
– A summary of key principles
– Discussion
 The Prince - A Historical Background
• Written in 1513 (long time ago)
• He had been a bureaucrat/advisor to rulers
• Suddenly found himself without a job
• Wrote The Prince and dedicated it to Lorenzo the
Magnificent of the Medicis
• Setting the stage for long-term power of a KING
• Guaranteed never to be employed again
• Even if following advice, could not admit it
 The Prince - Summary Principles
• Very action oriented
• Do it by whatever means necessary
• But “look” good while you are doing it
• Make others dependent on you
• But do not become dependent on any one else or leave
anyone in position to challenge you
• This does not mean you should be cruel
• However, it does not mean you should strive to be loved
• You can not isolate yourself from others but must pick
your confidants carefully
 The Prince - Summary Principles
• The life of a change oriented person is particularly
challenging
• Thus, it is particularly important for the change agent to
establish themselves as powerful
• Unfortunately, many leaders will have a difficult time
during periods of change
• Such is the cruel reality of life
 The Prince - Your Thoughts?
• Like it, hate, somewhere in between?
• The underlying assumptions of “The Prince”?
• Do you agree with these assumptions?
• If not, does this change your opinion of “The Prince”?
• Is it better to be feared or loved? What are Machiavelli’s
assumptions here? Is this a valid question?
• Your thoughts on Machiavelli’s discussion of “Change”?
• How applicable is Machiavelli today?
• What, if anything, is missing?
 Subgroup Exercise/Role Play
• Group One: Machiavelli Discredited
– Why Machiavelli’s work no longer applies.
Indeed, it would be detrimental for a manager to
apply Machiavelli’s work in today’s environment.
• Group Two: In Defense of Machiavelli
– Why Machiavelli’s writings are every bit as
applicable today as they were in the early 1500s.
Indeed, managers would be wise to follow
Machiavelli’s advice.
 Machiavelli vs French & Raven
• What “sources of power” as described by French
& Raven are also discussed in “The Prince”?
• What “sources of power” as described by French
& Raven are not discussed in “The Prince”?
• Do you see this as a major oversight or merely a
different way of viewing power?
 Machiavelli vs French & Raven

• What are the advantages associated with the

sources of power identified in “The Prince”?
• What are the disadvantages associated with the
sources of power identified in “The Prince”?
• What are the potential problems associated with
ignoring the “other” sources of power?
• What does this all say about the applicability of
Machiavelli’s work?
 Influence: Science and Practice
• Chapter One: Introduction to Click, Whirr
• Notable Quotables:
– “We need shortcuts… We will accept their imperfections since
there is really no other choice.” (p. 7)
– “They make us terribly vulnerable to anyone who does know
how they work.” (p. 10)
– “The ability to manipulate without the appearance of
manipulation.” (p. 12)
– “The advantage… efficiency and economy. The
disadvantage… vulnerability to silly and costly mistakes.” (p.
17)
 Influence: Science and Practice
• General thoughts, comments or questions on the idea of
click, whirr responses?
• Why is this information important?
• How should we be looking at this information?
• How can we make ourselves less vulnerable to click,
whirr responses?
• How can we (should we) use this information to
influence others?
• Simple messages are the best way to influence others.
Yes, No? Why?
 Focus of Readings

• How might this information be

used (for good or for evil)?

• How can we make sure this

information is not used against us?
 Reciprocity: Give and TAKE
• Notable Quotables:
– “A person can trigger a feeling of indebtedness by doing us
an uninvited favor - an obligation to receive.” (p. 30-31)
– “Highly disagreeable to be in a state of obligation.” (p. 34)
– “As long as it is not viewed as an obvious trick, the
concession will likely stimulate a return concession.” (p. 45)
– “The rule says favors are to be met with favors; it does not
require that tricks be met with favors.” (p. 47)
 Reciprocity: Give and TAKE
• General thoughts?
• How does this fit with Machiavelli’s discussion?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• “Be kind to others and you will receive good Karma.”
• Giving gifts to get donations to a worthy cause. Is this
an appropriate use of the reciprocity response?
• How to defend yourself from the reciprocity response?
• How to use the reciprocity response to your favor?
 Commitment and Consistency
• Notable Quotable:
– “If I can get you to make a commitment, I will have set the
stage for your automatic and ill-considered consistency with
that earlier commitment” (p. 61)
– “You can use small commitments to manipulate a person’s
self-image” (p. 67)
– “We accept responsibility when we think we have chosen to
perform in the absence of strong outside pressure” (p. 82)
– “Securing an initial commitment is the key” (p. 96)
– “Commitments are most effective when they are active,
public, effortful, and viewed as internally motivated” (p. 96)
 Commitment and Consistency
• General thoughts?
• How to defend yourself from the commitment trap?
• How to use the commitment trap to your favor?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• How can this information be used for good?
• Can this information explain the high level of divorce
in the US as compared to many other countries?
 Social Proof
• Notable Quotable:
– “We view a behavior as correct in a given situation to the
degree that we see other performing it” (p. 100)
– “Works best when the proof is provided by the actions of
many other people” (p. 103)
– “Works best under two conditions. The first is uncertainty.
The second is similarity” (p. 140)
– “No leader can hope to persuade, regularly and single-
handedly, all the members of the group. The most influential
leaders are those who know how to arrange the group
conditions to allow the principle of social proof to work in
their favor” (p. 133)
 Social Proof
• General thoughts?
• How to defend yourself from social proof?
• How to use social proof to your favor?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• How can this information be used for good?
• What are the dangers of using social proof as a
mechanism of influence?
 Liking: The Friendly Thief
Notable Quotable:
– “A halo effect occurs when one positive characteristic of a person
dominates the way that person is viewed by others,” for example
physical attractiveness (p. 148)
– “We like people who are similar to use… in areas of opinions,
personality traits, background, or lifestyle” (p. 150)
– “An innocent association with either bad things or good things
will influence how people feel about us” (p. 162)
– “Upon recognizing that we like a requestor inordinately well, we
should step back from the social interaction, mentally separate
the requester from his or her offer, and make any compliance
decision based solely on the merits of the offer” (p. 1176)
 Liking: The Friendly Thief
• General thoughts?
• How to defend yourself from Liking?
• How to use Liking to your favor (let’s be specific)?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• How can this information be used for good?
• What are the dangers of using Liking as a mechanism
of influence?
 Authority
• Notable Quotable:
– “When reacting to authority in an automatic fashion, there is
a tendency to do so in response to the mere symbols of
authority rather than to its substance” (p. 201)
– “Titles are simultaneously the most difficult and the easiest
symbols of authority to acquire” (p. 188)
– “Finely styled and expensive clothes carry an aura of status
and position, as do similar trappings such as jewlry and cars”
(p. 195)
– “Is this authority truly an expert? How truthful can we expect
this expert to be?” (p. )
 Authority
• General thoughts?
• How to defend yourself from Authority?
• How to use Authority to your favor?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• How can this information be used for good?
• What are the dangers of using Authority as a
mechanism of influence?
 Scarcity
• Notable Quotable:
– “Opportunities seem more valuable when they are less
available” (p. 205)
– “People see a thing as more desirable when it recently has
become less available than when it has been scarce all along”
(p. 222)
– “Not only do we want the same item more when it is scarce,
we want it most when we are in competition for it” (p. 223)
– “The joy is not in the experiencing of a scarce commodity but
in the possessing of it” (p. 228)
 Scarcity
• General thoughts?
• How to defend yourself from Scarcity?
• How to use Scarcity to your favor?
• How can this be used to help someone develop a
sustainable power position?
• How can this information be used for good?
• What are the dangers of using Scarcity as a mechanism
of influence?
 Instant Influence
• Notable Quotable:
– “The pace of modern life demands that we frequently use
shortcuts” (p. 234)
– “The real treachery, and what we cannot tolerate, is any
attempt to make a profit in a way that threatens the reliability
of our shortcuts” (p. 239)
– “The use of these triggers is not necessarily exploitative. It
only becomes so when the trigger is not a natural feature of
the situation but is fabricated by the practitioner” (p. 240)
 Managing with Power
“Decisions & Implementation”
“To say, a leader is preoccupied with power, is
like saying that a tennis player is preoccupied with
making shots his opponent cannot return. Of
course leaders are preoccupied with power! The
significant questions are: What means do they use
to gain it? How do they exercise it? To what ends
do they exercise it?” (p12)
 Managing with Power
“Decisions & Implementation”
• Against hierarchy – non-cooperative and vulnerable to
the will of one
• Against culture – tough to build and non-adaptive
• Against decision making – not enough by itself

“We almost invariably spend more time living with the

consequences of our decisions than we do making them
. . . it would seem at least useful to spend more time
implementing decisions and dealing with their
ramifications.” (p19)
 Managing with Power
“Decisions & Implementation”
• “It is my thesis that problems of implementation
are, in many instances, problems in developing
political will and expertise – the desire to
accomplish something, even against opposition,
and the knowledge and skills that make it possible
to do so.” (p7-8)

• “In evaluating a leader, the key question about his

behavioral traits is not whether they are attractive
or unattractive, but whether they are useful.” (p13)
 Managing with Power
“Decisions & Implementation”
Power Process:
1. Decide what your goals are.
2. Diagnose patterns of dependence and interdependence.
3. Analyze views of powerful individuals.
4. Determine the power base of potential influential persons.
5. Determine your power base.
6. Determine which power strategies/tactics seems most
appropriate/effective.
7. Choose the appropriate course of action.
 Managing with Power
“Decisions & Implementation”
• It’s all (or at least mostly) about power. True/False?
• “The decisions are not as important as the
implementation.” Your thoughts?
• “In evaluating a leader, the key question about his
behavioral traits is not whether they are attractive or
unattractive, but whether they are useful.” Do you
agree?
• The “Power Process.” Does this make sense? Can
you use this information? What’s missing?
 Managing with Power
“When Is Power Used”
• “All these data together suggest that power is
more important in major decisions . . . for domains
in which performance is more difficult to assess . .
. and in instances in which there is likely to be
uncertainty and disagreement." (p37)

• “Power is used more frequently under conditions

of moderate interdependence.” (p38)
 Managing with Power
“When Is Power Used”
• “One factor that is critical in affecting the nature and the
amount of interdependence is the scarcity of resources.
Slack resources reduce interdependence, while scarcity
increases it.” (p40)

• “The greater the task specialization in the organization, the

more likely there will be disagreement.” (p42)

• “Serious disagreements . . . are more likely to emerge in

the absence of clear objectives or in the absence of an
external threat or competition sufficient to cause subunits
to work together.”
 Managing with Power
“When Is Power Used”
Summary List of Power Creating Circumstances:
– The Big Three
1. When resources are scarce
2. When goals and objectives are unclear
3. When performance is difficult to measure
– Less Critical Factors
4. Where there are minimal external threats
5. Where there exists a certain level of dependency
6. Where there is moderate to high uncertainty
 Managing with Power
“When Is Power Used”
• “The appearance of power can actually provide power, and thus these
efforts to maintain the symbols of power are significant.” (p45)

• “Your success in an organization depends not only on your

intelligence, industriousness, and luck, but also on the match between
your political skills and what is required in the position you occupy.”
(p47)

• “Most people search for positions in which their particular intellectual

competencies and interests will be useful and important. But they
seldom analyze jobs in terms of power and influence.” (p48)

• Implicate here is the recognition that not all jobs require the same level
of politicing – find what is right for you!
 Managing with Power
“When Is Power Used”
• What do you think about the list of “Power Creating
Circumstances”? Anything missing? Anything you
disagree with? Any one of these jump out at you?
• Let’s get specific! Where/when is power likely to be most
important/exercised?
• “Your success in an organization depends not only on your
intelligence, industriousness, and luck, but also on the
match between your political skills and what is required in
the position you occupy.” How do you go about finding
the match between your political skills and what is
required? How important is it that you do so?
 Managing with Power
“Diagnosing Power in Orgs”

“To be successful in getting things done in organizations, it is

critical that you be able to diagnose the relative power of the
various participants and comprehend the patterns of
interdependence.” (p49)

“There are three tasks required . . .

– First, the relevant subunits or subdivisions must be identified.
– Then, one must come up with some indicators of power and apply them to
the identified units to assess their relative power ranking . . .
– Finally, . . . the patterns of interdependence and interdependence among
them must be considered in order to determine an effective course of
action.” (p50)
 Managing with Power
“Diagnosing Power in Orgs”
Methods for Assessing Power:

“Power is not employed when there are no differences in

perspective, or when no conflict exists, As a consequence, power
is most readily diagnosed by looking at important decisions,
which involve interdependent activities and which lead to
disagreement.”
- Listen to statements made by others
- Focus on how others talk about the person
- Don’t trust what you hear BUT don’t underestimate the
value of “the talk.”
 Managing with Power
“Diagnosing Power in Orgs”
• Look at representational indicators
- Whose being brought in on the major decisions
• Observe Consequences
- Who gets the resources, projects approved, the biggest budget
• Look at Symbols of Power
- What perks to certain people/groups get?
- Who’s having dinner with whom?
- What parking spaces do people get?
- Office space is always an issue
- Rule based responses don’t tell you much - look for subtle clues
 Managing with Power
“Diagnosing Power in Orgs”

“Be conservative in your estimates; it is

preferable to overestimate potential
dependencies rather than to be surprised at the
last minute by a person or group you failed to
consider; the best surprise is no surprise.”
 Managing with Power
“Diagnosing Power in Orgs”
• Asking about power reputation. How would
you do this? Let’s be specific.
• What are potential indicators of power?
• How would you determine who’s the most
powerful faculty member in the CBE?
• You are about to start a new job. What
power indicators should you be conscious
of walking in on the first day?
 Sources of Power

“Our first task is to determine whether the

most critical source of power is individual
characteristics or location in the
organization. Although individual attributes
are important, my view is that being in the
right place is more essential.” Pg. 69
 Where does power come from?

“Structural perspectives on power argue that

power is derived from where each person stands in
the division of labor and the communication
system of the organization… Power, then, comes
from the control over resources, from ties one has
to powerful others, and from the formal authority
one obtains because of one’s position in the
hierarchy.” Pg. 75
 Where does power come from?
• “An important source of power is the match
between style, skill, and capacities and what is
required by the situation… in technical service
projects, with less task uncertainty, internal
communication stars were most influential, while
in applied research units, boundary spanners
carried the most weight.” Pg 77

• Bottom Line: Who is best equipped to handle the

uncertainty issues facing the firm.
 Where does power come from?

“As situational factors change, the

attributions required to be influential and
effective change as well. That is why it is
important not only to find positions with the
political demands that match our skills and
interests, but also to tailor our actions to the
circumstance we confront.” Pg. 81
 Where does power come from?

• General thoughts on the importance of

structural power?
• How does this all fit with Cialdini’s work?
• IF position matters, how do we assure a
good position for ourselves?
• Pfeffer suggests that the “match” is
important. How do we assure a good
“match”?
Resources, Allies, and the New
Golden Rule
“New Golden Rule: the person with the gold
makes the rules” pg. 83

“Begin by building a power base in a niche that is

largely uncontested… the most precious resources
in any organization is an incremental resource, not
already spoken for, that can then be used to solve
the organization’s current problems… power can
often be increased by finding underutilized
resources and exploiting them.”
 Resources, Allies, and the New
Golden Rule
“Failures in implementation are almost invariably failures
to build successful coalitions. Although networks of allies
can obviously be misused, the are nevertheless essential in
order to get things done. And, allies must be put in place
through whatever practical means are at hand.” Pg. 108

“Respect, competence, and intelligence are not enough.

One needs friends and allies to attend to the many details
of implementation, which are often too much for one
person… Allies and resources are important sources of
power, and as such, should not be wasted.” Pg. 110
 Resources, Allies, and the New
Golden Rule
• The New Golden Rule – your thoughts?
• The uncontested resources. How practical is
this approach?
• “Allies must be put in place through
whatever practical means are at hand”
• Do you agree, disagree? How is this done?
 Location in the Communication
Network
“Power is a function of one’s position in the
network of communications and social relations,
where this position is assessed not only simply in
terms of structural centrality, but also in terms of
the power of the people with whom one is
connected.” Pg. 111

“To develop influence, we need to be plugged into

the structure of communication and interaction,
and that means seeking out interactions, even
social interactions, strategically.” Pg 124
 Location in the Communication
Network
“Social networks are, then, structures that
can be built deliberately, and our place in
the network of communications is
something that is under our control. We can
work the numbers or the halls – and often it
is more effective to work the halls.” Pg. 125
 Location in the Communication
Network

• Seeking out interactions, even social

interactions, strategically.
Your thoughts?

• What if you can not stand to hang out with

your colleagues? Are you doomed?
 Formal Authority, Reputation
and Performance
• “The power inherent in a given formal position is,
therefore, power invested in that position by all (or at least
most) members of the social organization in which the
position is located” pg. 130
• “People with reputations for being influential and effective
will, all other things being equal, find it easier to obtain
allies and supporters” pg. 137
• The reputation for having power is almost as important as
the reputation for loyalty and competence, since, as we
have seen, the perception of power can help to create
power” pg. 139
 Formal Authority, Reputation
and Performance
• “Your reputation is formed soon after you enter the
organization, and thus it is essential to start out on the right
course” pg. 140
• Because of the interconnected nature of reputation,
performance and position, it is exceedingly difficult to
work yourself out of a hole” pg. 145
• “We need to deemphasize our preoccupation with
correctness as a measure of performance” pg. 144
• “If I know that I will lose on an issue that I consider
important and about which I am convinced I am right,
should I carry on the fight anyway? My reply is, in almost
all instances, no” pg. 140
 Formal Authority, Reputation
and Performance
• There is an issue you are passionate about
but you know you are going to be over-
ruled by the rest of the group. Should you
go along or continue to resist?
• For a variety of reasons, you find that no
one in the organization considers you to be
an influential person. What to do?
 The Importance of Being in the
Right Unit
• “Those units that have the oversight of critical areas have
the potential to become quite powerful. Whether they do
become powerful depends, to some extent, on whether the
units can actually cope with the critical problems
confronting the organization” pg. 154
• “Subunit power comes from being unified, being able to
deal with critical organizational problems, and from
having a monopoly on the ability to solve those problems”
pg. 157
• “Maintaining a position of irreplaceability involves
monopolizing resources, controlling access to expertise,
and… making sure one’s expert knowledge is not readily
accessible to others” pg. 160
 The Importance of Being in the
Right Unit

• Being in the right place matters but what if you don’t want
to be a _____? Instead, your interests are more in the area
that is traditionally defined as support staff.

• How do you make yourself irreplaceable in an organization?

Let’s get specific. What’s right/wrong with this approach?
 Individual Attributes as
Sources of Power
• Energy and Physical Stamina: “Endurance triumphs over
cleverness… The ability and willingness to work grueling
hours has characterized many powerful figures” pg. 166
• Focus: “Effort is wasted by being spread too thin, and more
important, details that may be significant in the effort to
build power and influence are often overlooked” pg. 170
• Sensitivity to Others: “It should be clear that being
sensitive to others does not mean that one is necessarily
going to act in their interests… Sensitivity simply means
understanding who they are, their position on the issue, and
how best to communicate with and influence them” pg. 172
 Individual Attributes as
Sources of Power
• Flexibility: “Flexibility that comes from focusing on
ultimate objectives and being able to remain emotionally
detached from the situation” pg. 176
• Ability to Tolerate Conflict : “Since many people dislike
conflict, being willing to do battle, vigorously, with others
over something we want provides a strong incentive for
them to go along” pg. 177
• Submerging One’s Ego: “Related to the characteristic of
flexibility, since it entails the ability to trade present restraint
for greater power and resources in the future” pg. 182
 Individual Attributes as
Sources of Power

• Can these “attributes” be developed or are

they inherent abilities of some individuals?

• How comfortable are you with the set of

attributes discussed by Pfeffer?
 Guest Speaker

• What specific issues do we want to talk

about with our guest speaker?
• How does this translate into specific
questions for the guest speaker?
 Guest Speaker Debriefing

• Thoughts, comments, questions?

• What was most informative?
• What was missing?
 Framing
• Contrast: “We need to make sure our proposals benefit by
contrast with what has come before, and at the same time
that they are significant enough to get noticed” pg. 192
• Commitment: “the most effective way to gain a person’s
loyalty is not to do him or her a favor, but to let that person
do one for you” pg. 198
• Scarcity: “what you advocate should always appear to be
scarce” pg. 203

“Because the framing of an issue can decide the

outcome, it is important to be early in the process of
setting the terms of the discussion” pg. 205
 Interpersonal Influence

• Social Proof: “Once social consensus begins to develop in

one direction, it is difficult to change… affecting how
decisions are viewed, very early in the process, is
absolutely critical” pg. 212
• Liking and Ingratiation: “managers who are warmer, more
humorous, and less intimidating will, other things being
equal, have an easier time exercising influence” pg. 220
• Emotions: “Getting along in organizations often involves
being able to transact business, in a pleasant and effective
manner, with people whom you don’t like” pg. 224
 Framing and Influence
• How is Pfeffer’s discussion similar/different from
Ciadini’s?
• Pfeffer suggestions that most of what he discusses
are skills that can be developed. Do you agree?
• Hide/manipulate your emotions.
Yes, no, maybe?
• How effective was our guest speaker in using
these techniques?
• How effective are you in using these techniques?
• Anything particularly “disagreeable” in
Pfeffer’s/our discussion?
 Timing
• Being Early and Moving Fast: “Once a project is started, it is
much more difficult to stop” pg. 228
• Delays: “tend to undermine the confidence of the proponents,
increasing the likelihood that the opponents with prevail” pg. 231
• The Waiting Game: “a person can emphasize his or her
importance by causing others to wait” pg. 236
• Deadlines: “convey a sense of urgency and importance” pg. 237
• Order of Consideration: “Presenting the weaker proposal first
will tend to ensure that the stronger proposal is favorably
received” pg. 240
• Propitious Moments: “Issues and events have the quality of
ripeness - there is a time to act, and a time to delay” pg. 244
 Timing
• How do we introduce delays to our benefit?
• How do we avoid delays for projects/ideas we support?
• The Waiting Game: when does it work for you/against you?
• To capitalize on Propitious Moments, we must be able to identify
when these moments exist. How is this done?

• I’m considering going up for Tenure early. What advice do you

have for me?
 Politics of Info and Analysis
• “First, all organizations strive for the appearance of
rationality… Second, it is unlikely that processes of
straightforward analysis will clearly resolve the issue…
This means that, there is the opportunity to use information
and analysis selectively” pp. 248-249
• “One strategic use of power and influence involves
advocating the employment of standards that favor one’s
own position… ignoring information that does not advance
one’s own point of view” pg. 258-260
• “Knowledge of analytic techniques is very helpful, if not
critical, in the exercise of power and influence in
organizations” pg. 260
 Politics of Info and Analysis

• “But it is important to recognize that the

connection between results is quite tenuous.
What this means is that we should probably
not hesitate to use information and analysis
to exercise power in organizations, since the
strategy is an effective one and the
likelihood of our being called to account for
our actions is not very great” pg. 265
 Changing the Structure
• “Power is created and used by having a separate,
somewhat protected domain of activity established in the
structure of the organization as a base for gathering
information and resources” pg. 271
• “Power is built by ensuring that you control as much
territory as possible, and this control is obtained by placing
your allies in key positions and by expanding the activities
over which you have formal responsibility” pg. 273
• “Awareness of the role of organizational design in the
exercise of power can sensitize us to the hidden agendas
that may underlie restructurings undertaken for seemingly
straightforward reasons” pg. 278
 Symbolic Action

• Language: “political language is often effective because

people are judged by their intent, by the symbolism of
what they are doing, and not necessarily by the reality of
what they are doing” pg. 288
• Ceremonies: “Meetings are often held to reassure some
group in the organization that it is important” pg. 291
• Settings: “Having a large office, an imposing desk and
desk chair, and an office arrangement that separates you
from your visitors” pg. 298
 Symbolic Action

• It is the job of people interested in wielding

power and influence to cause others to feel
good about doing what we want done. This
involves the exercise of symbolic
management” pg. 279
• One reason that language, ceremonies, and
settings are so important in the exercise of
influence is because we are often scarcely
conscious of their effects on us” pg. 298
 Discussion
• Information/analysis and symbolic
management = Form over substance
• Is this a fair assessment of Pfeffer’s
argument? If so, do you agree?
• “Strategy and Tactics for Employing
Power” (Framing, Interpersonal influence,
Timing, Information and Analysis, Structure
and Symbolic Action)
• What is the punch line in Pfeffer’s
discussion in this section? Do you agree?
 Case Study
I’m considering going up for Tenure early.
What advice do you have for me?

As related to:
– Framing
– Interpersonal influence
– Timing,
– Information and Analysis
– Structure
– Symbolic Action
 Power Dynamics

“Perhaps there is a greater sin than making

mistakes or influencing others - the sin of
doing nothing, of being passive in the face
of great challenges and opportunities, and
even great problems… Being personally
effective requires at least two things:
knowing how to get things done and being
willing to do them” pg. 300
 How Power is Lost
• “To be in power is to be watched more closely, and this
surveillance affords one the luxury of few mistakes.” pg. 302
• “Power is lost because circumstances are often more changeable
than we are.” pg. 304
• Having developed particular skill at one way of doing things or
thinking about problems, they (those in power) are not always
skilled with alternative approaches.” pg. 306
• “One should never assume that the formal position is sufficient to
maintain power… Power has many sources, and position, as we
have seen is only one” pg. 309
• “Organizations entail interdependence. Regardless of your power
or your position, your dependence on others remains.” pg. 315
 How Power is Lost

• After reading this chapter, where you more or less

interested in exercising influence in organizations?
• Are there any general lessons for the exercise of
influence from this discussion?
• Exiting gracefully or fighting to the bitter end
Is there a time to give up on the exercising of
influence?
 Managing Political Dynamics
• “The question, then, is how to incorporate new
perspectives and new ideas, which often involve shifting
the power distribution in the organization, without so much
trauma and turmoil that the organization is destroyed in the
process” pg. 320
• “To the extent that organizations can agree on goals and on
measures of progress toward goal attainment, influence
activities can be reduced” pg. 322
• “In determining how much conflict can exist in a healthy
organization, we would do well to remember that not all
conflict is harmful” pg. 323
• “To remove the role of power… has its own costs.
Managing power in organizations requires the ability to
compromise” pg. 328
 Managing Political Dynamics
• Punch line of the discussion: The exercise of
influence can be good for the organization if kept
within certain bounds.
• Do you agree? If so, what are the appropriate
bounds?
• Are you interested and prepared to be the change
agent within an organization?
• What special problems do change agents face?
 Managing with Power
• “Developing and exercising power require having both will and
skill. It is the will that often seems to be missing.” pg. 338
• “What does it mean, to manage with power?” pg. 340
– Recognizing that there are varying interests.
– Trying to identify the interests of various parties.
– Understanding the need for power to get things done. Understanding
where power comes from.
– Understanding strategies and tactics for developing power.

• “Knowledge without power is of remarkably little use. And

power without the skill to employ it effectively is likely to be
wasted. Managing with power means more than knowing the
ideas discussed in this book. It means being willing to do
something with that knowledge.” pg. 342
 Managing with Power
• That’s all from Pfeffer! Any parting thoughts?
• The good, the bad, the ugly. Where you generally
convinced?
• Do you agree with Pfeffer’s general argument that
you must employ the tactics discussed in his book if
you want to be effective in organizations?
• Are you comfortable using the strategies and tactics
discussed in this book?
• Any “one” lesson/comment that stands out the most?
 Kipnis - The Use of Power
• Those with more power were likely to use strong tactics to
influence others… an “Iron Law of Power” such that the
greater the discrepancy in power between influencer and
target, the greater the probability that strong tactics will be
used.” pg. 187
• Given a choice, most people initially seek to exert
influence through simple requests and reason. Strong
tactics are used when the target of influence refuses or
appears reluctant to comply with a request… In contrast,
people without power are more likely to stop trying to
influence when they encounter resistance.” pg. 188
 Kipnis - The Use of Power
• “Expectations about a target person’s willingness to
comply are distorted by situational and personal factors…
I have found that supervisors used harsher tactics with
black than white subordinates for similar incidents of
misconduct… I believe that gender differences in the use
of influence can be attributed to the previously discussed
factors of power, objectives, and expectations” pg.189
• “Our organizational research found no significant
difference between male and female managers in their self-
reported use of seven influence strategies. Men and women
revealed practically identical influence profiles.” pg. 190
 Kipnis - The Use of Power
• “Shotgun managers had above-average scores on all seven
influence strategies… had the least managerial experience,
tended to hold staff positions, and expressed the greatest
number of both personal and organizational needs.”
• Tactician managers relied heavily on the use of Reason to
influence others… directed work units that did
technologically complex work.”
• Bystander managers were the “timid souls” of the
management sample… directed organizational units that
did mostly routine work.” pg. 191
 Kipnis - The Use of Power
• What type of influence tactic is a person likely to use?

• It depends!
– On the Relative Power Position
– On the Objectives of the Influence
– On the Expectation of Compliance

• When the difference in “power position” is high or when

the “expectation of compliance” is low, strong tactics (do
it or else) are more likely.
 Kipnis - The Use of Power
• What problem (if any) do differences in power make when
the exercise of influence is involved? Examples?
• Where are differences in power most likely to exist? What
does this say about the exercise of influence in such a
situation?
• What problem (if any) do differences in personal
backgrounds make when the exercise of influence is
involved? Examples?
• Where are differences in personal characteristics most
likely to exist? What does this say about the exercise of
influence in such a situation?
“Power tends to corrupt,
and absolute power corrupts
absolutely. Great men are
almost always bad men.”
– Lord Acton, in a letter to Bishop Mandell Creighton, 1887
 Kipnis - The View from the Top
• “My research suggests that the use of strong tactics triggers
the following events: First, their success strengthens the
power-holder’s belief that he or she controls the other
person… To the extent that the power-holders believe that
they control another person’s behavior, that other person is
likely to be devalued.”
pp. 30-31
• The exercise of strong control over people, then, whether
through face-to-face encounters or indirectly through
environmental alterations that limit free choice worsens
relationships between power-holders and those they
control.” pg. 36
 Kipnis - The View from the Top
• OK, power corrupts. So what? Why do we care?
• Kipnis suggests that power corruption comes from the use
of strong tactics. Might it also result from the use of weaker
tactics of influence?
• When is power corruption mostly likely to happen?
• What can be done, if anything, to temper the corruptive
tendency associated with the use power?
• What can be done in situation where strong tactics are the
norm when it comes to influence (e.g., the military)?
Leadership-An Alienating Myth?
• “There exists a strong tendency to explain organizational
outcomes by attributing causality to “leadership. This
attributional social bias creates the illusion that leaders are
in control of events” pg. 263
• “Members become preoccupied with the thought that
sometime in the future a person (leader) or idea
(leadership) will surface that will eventually solve all their
problems without any effort on their part” pg. 265
• “In projecting their own senses of completeness and
incompleteness onto leaders, people become alienated and
caught in an illusion of helplessness and failure without
realizing that they limit the leader’s power as well as their
own by their denial, projection, and passivity” pg. 266
 The Leadership Myth
• Leadership as an alienating myth. What do you think of this
argument in general?
• What does this tell us about the exercise of influence?
• How could this information be used to be more effective in the
exercise of influence?
• Can we minimize the “alienation” while still being aggressive in
our exercise of influence? What might Kipnis say?
• Is this something we should worry about? What are the negative
impacts of the alienation?
 The Social Basis of Behavior
• “At the start of the study, then, there were no measurable
differences between the young men assigned to be guards and
those who were to role-play being prisoners.” pg. 559
• “Although there were no initial differences between those
assigned to play the roles of prisoner and guard, enacting those
roles in a social situation that validated the power differences
created extreme behavioral and emotional differences between
the two groups… Every guard at some time engaged in abusive
authoritarian behaviors” pg. 560
• “Presumably, they, like the rest of us, had learned stereotyped
conceptions of guard and prisoner roles from the mass media as
well as from social models of power and powerlessness (parent-
child, teacher-student, boss-worker, police-suspect, etc)” pg. 561
 Social Basis of Behavior

• What types of influence are involved in the

exercise discussed in this reading?
• What is the response to the influence attempts in
general?
• What does this tell us about the exercise of
influence in general?
 Ethical Implications

The purpose of this write-up is to have you reflect

on what you believe to be the appropriate uses of
power and influence. The attempt here is not to
prescribe a particular ethic concerning the use of
power and influence. Instead, you are asked to
develop their own opinions concerning the
appropriate use of power and influence.

(2 page max)
 Final Session

Things to thing about for the next class:

– Three most important lessons learned
– What I plan to do differently as a result