Human civilization and forest cover Extracts from literature In turn, as long ago as 2500 B.C.

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the effects of deforestation shaped human civilizations. The ancient Sumerian empires along the lower Tigris and Euphrates Rivers were seriously affected by siltation and salinization caused by extensive cutting of the forests in their headwaters. A sharp decrease in agricultural yields lead to the decline of Sumer by 2000 B.C.

Human civilizations have been shaping (and shaped by) the forests for thousands of years. Photo Credit Corel Photo Clipart CD.

Forests all over the world have been converted into pastures for animals and fields for crops. Photo credit Corel Photo Clipart CD.

After the decline of Sumer, the

Mediterranean island of Crete became a trading power and prosperous civilization due largely to the presence of its forests. The wood was shipped to other places in the Near East in boats made from local timber. The forests of Crete also provided fuel for working bronze and making pottery. But by 1500-1450 B.C. the forests had been heavily cut and local builders were forced to use as little wood as possible. The size and quality of the shipping fleet also declined.

When Crete declined as a power, it was taken

over by the Mycenaeans, who still had extensive forests of their own. But as the Mycenaean population increased, more and more of those forests were converted to agricultural uses, especially pasture for grazing sheep. Woodcutters had to go further and further inland and potteries had to be

relocated to more remote forested areas. Eventually, with timber supplies scarce and expensive, the Mycenaean population dwindled, and people were forced to pursue a more subsistence-level existence.

By the late Bronze Age, deforestation

led to serious erosion that left many slopes bare and rocky. Nowadays we consider this typical of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean. Some areas have been deforested several times over thousands of years, and the degraded soils that remain cannot retain moisture.

Between 1300 B.C. and 1200 B.C. Cyprus

became a center of copper smelting due to demand from other states in the eastern Mediterranean. To make a 60 pound block of copper required six tons of charcoal for fuel, made from about 120 pine trees covering nearly four acres of land. The smelting of copper alone caused the deforestation of four or five square miles of trees each year, and the island of Cyprus is not very large.

The same patterns of forest use and, in many cases, forest destruction, have continued right into recent times. As populations became even greater, more and more wood was used, and the problems associated with forest use also expanded. In Europe and North America, more and more people were trying to make use of fewer and fewer trees. find out more...

After several centuries, fuel became so expensive that copper smelting ceased.
About 90% of the settlements on the island were abandoned as the population and economy declined. The resulting shortage of bronze caused a shortage of all sorts of tools and weapons, and disrupted many economies in the eastern Mediterranean region.

Throughout the eastern

Mediterranean, between 1500 B.C. and A.D. 200, many coastal cities were affected by siltation caused by erosion due to deforestation. Quite a few cities that had once been on the coast actually ended up inland as harbors and river deltas silted up and debris accumulated in shallow waters.

C oastal erosion is caused by deforestation. Photo credit Corel Photo Clipart CD.

The condition of the

forests played a major role in the story of Greece during the fifth century B.C. The wooden ships of Athens enabled the defeat of the Persians between 480-470 B.C. Then Athens began a major re-building effort. To finance this building boom required silver, mined not far from Athens. Smelting the silver ore required lots of charcoal--made from trees.

T he ancient ruins we can still see today are made from stone, but wood was essential in the creation of these buildings. Photo credit Corel Photo Clipart CD.

After the war between Sparta and Athens ground to a halt, Macedonia became the major
power in the area because of its plentiful forests. Quantities of timber were so valuable they were used as bribes and bargaining chips in the political maneuvers of ancient empires. When Rome conquered Macedonia in 167 B.C. it recognized the strategic value of timber and prevented the Macedonians from cutting their forests further.

The population of Athens also boomed, and reached a peak about 450 B.C. Wood became
more scarce and more expensive. One option was for Athens to try and get more timber by conquest. The Peloponnesian War, fought between Athens and Sparta, was largely about control of timber supplies. Both city states needed huge amounts of wood to build their fleets of war ships and forge weapons. In fact, when Sparta invaded, they cut down the forests of Attica and struck a crippling blow to Athens.

Like early Greece, Rome and parts of

Italy were once covered with thick forests. As elsewhere, the Romans depleted the forests--particularly along the Tiber River--as Rome grew larger. More and more land was converted to intensive agriculture. As wood became scarce and more expensive, Rome also tried to increase its wood supply by conquest. Over time, Rome was forced to seek fuel and food supplies from as far away as North Africa, France, Spain, and England.

F rom ancient times to the present day, wood has been used for water transportation. Photo credit Corel Photo Clipart CD.

From Spain also came the silver that Rome use to finance its expansion. As the
production of silver gradually used more and more of the Spanish forests for fuel, the Romans had to decrease the content of silver in their coins. Eventually the coins were considered almost worthless, and barter of goods became common.