BIOLOGY PRELIM Biological Science is the study of living things.

In this context we may ask: What are living things? We humans, ourselves are living things .How do living things differ from non-living things? To answer these questions, we must first define the word life. Life refers to the properties and conditions which distinguish a plant and animal from inorganic matter or dead organism. While we define dead or deprived of life. So life is what animals and plants have when they are not dead, and dead is what those same organisms are when they lack life. Definition of Biology (Greek words, bios, life; logus, to study) the science of life the study of living things deals with the investigation of the origin , history, structure ,function, identification, classification, distribution, development, inheritance, and significance of living things as well as their relationships and interactions with the environment. Living thing versus Non-living things Most living things can be distinguished readily from non-living things by the following characteristics: 1. Form and size. Living things have characteristic form and size within certain limits most of them are also arranged as definite individuals. While in non-living things, materials vary widely. 2. Organization. Living things are made up of cells which are assembled into interrelated system for performing the life processes. They rearrange and combine the chemical elements for their need. Non-living things on the other hand cannot recombine materials on their and their structure depends on chemical present and mode of formation. 3. Movement. Living things can move by themselves while non-living things can move with the help of external force. 4. Growth and life cycle. Living things exhibit internal growth or intussusception while nonliving things exhibit growth or accretion. 5. Metabolism. The word metabolism is defined as various processes which includes all the changes that the materials taken as food undergo. These are two phases of metabolism namely: anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism is called the constructive or building up phase. Catabolism is the destructive or breaking down phase. 6. Irritability. Living thongs react to changes in the environment. These act as stimuli that induce responses by the organism. The degree of response is often disproportionate to that of the stimulus and the organism is not permanently altered by the stimulus. 7. Reproduction. This is defined as the ability of the organism to create another one of the same kind. Living things reproduce by using the materials within their bodies, a characteristic which non-living things do not have.

Plants and animals are both kingdoms of living things. They differ in important aspects. The chart below summarizes some of these differences. PLANTS ANIMALS Plants generally are rooted in Most animals have the ability to move one place an do not move on fairly freely. their own Animals cannot make their own food and are dependent on plants and other animals Plants contain chlorophyll and for food. can make their own food Plants give off oxygen and Animals give off carbon dioxide which take in carbon dioxide given plants need to make food and take in off by animals. oxygen which they need to breathe. Plants cells have cell walls and Animal cells do not have cell walls and other structures differ from have different structures than plant cells those of animals. Plants have either no or very Animals have a much more highly basic ability to sense. developed sensory and nervous system. History of Biology Primitive period is characterized by uncritical accumulation of information , mainly derived from the practical necessities of obtaining food, materials for clothing and shelter , substances to cure ailments, and necessary information about the human body. During this period accumulation of knowledge was not recorded, nor were the scientific method and its associated intellectual activities a part of the procedure in learning about life. The classical period began with the Greeks and continued with the Romans. This was marked by great curiosity about natural phenomena an ability to organize biological knowledge and record it. This began with the contribution of Hippocrates who is called the Father of Medicine. He stated that diseases have natural causes and the body has the power to repair itself. Aristotle who is called as the Greatest Ancient Scientist who excelled in making observations.Theoprastus carried on pioneer studies of plants; his works to reach us from the classical period. Galen, who practiced medicine in Rome, began to study human anatomy and carried out the first physiological experiment in animals. The renaissance took place during the 14th to 16th centuries. Curiosity about the structure of living things was rekindled by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who made accurate studies in plants, animals and human body. Andreas Vesalius published his book The Structure of the Human Body . William Harvey described the blood circulation in man which contributed to physiology. By the middle of renaissance, anatomy, physiology, botany and zoology were established. The introduction of microscope at the beginning of 17th century marked the start of modern biology. This was followed by the establishment of the concept of the cell theory by Robert Hooke, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodore Schwann. The spontaneous origin of life from non-living matter was experimentally disapproved by Francisco Redi and later experimented by Lazzaro

Spallanzani. Carolus Linnaeus The Father of Taxonomy established the system of nomenclature in which all living things are arranged by genera and species . In the early 19th century, Jean Baptiste Lamarck proposed the theory of evolution. But the most outstanding contribution to evolution come from the Charles Darwin who proposed the natural selection as an explanation by which evolutionary changes take place. Lamarcks Theory of Evolution This theory of evolution involves three theories: 1. Theory of Need. The production of organism or part of the organism arises from the need of it. The early ancestors of snakes had short legs and short bodies , but because they had to walk through narrow places, its body developed into longer and legless forms and crawled instead of walk 2. Theory of Use and Disuse. Continued use of an organ strengthens it and continued disuse of an organ weakens it until it disappears. Lamarck believed that continued stretching of the body of the snakes as they crawl in narrow places and less use of the legs resulted in longer bodies and loss of the legs 3. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. Lamarck believed that characteristics that have been acquired or changed during the lifetime of the organisms is transmitted to the offspring. Theory of Natural Selection According to Charles Darwin, the chief factors responsible for the development of new species from common ancestry are as follows: 1. Overproduction. All organisms produce more offspring that can actually survive 2. Struggle for Existence. Because of overproduction, there is a constant struggle for existence among individuals. 3. Variation among Individuals. Plant breeders choose plants that are disease-resistant or control the size or characteristics of fruits by experimentation or cross fertilization. 4. Survival of the Fittest. Among seeds of the same plant, those with better dispersal devices are carried to distant, less crowded places where there are grater chances of survival. 5. Transmission of the variation of the Offspring. Darwin believed that those changes in the individual brought about by nature giving him the special fitness will automatically transmitted to his offspring as the type selected by nature to continue their species. Louis Pasteur The Father of Modern Microbiology laid the foundation of modern microbiology. Claude Bernard and Johannes Muller established comparative physiology. Karl von Baer founded comparative embryology. Gregor Mendel made studies on genetics and Hugo de Vries formulated the mutation theory. During the 20th century, many of the ideas of the past centuries, many ideas of the past centuries were consolidated and refined and new concepts have been added. In endricnology, our knowledge of hormones was increased by the work of E.H. Starling. Ecology came into existence at the time of Ernst Haeckel who stated that an organism was the product of the interactions of its environment with hereditary factors. Ecology was put on a modern basis by the American Botanists H.E. Cowla and F.E. Clements and zoologists V.E. Shelford.

The following are the various branches of biology: Botany is the study of plants. Zoology is the study of animals. Anatomy is the study of internal structures of living things. Biochemistry is the use of chemistry in the study of living things. Biological Earth Science is the use of earth sciences, such as geography in the study of living things. Biological Psychology is the use of biology in psychological studies. Biomathematics is the use of mathematics in the study of living things. Biophysics is the use of physics in the study of living things. Ecology is the study of the relationships of living things to each other and to their environment. Pathology is the study if diseases, generally in animals. Phytopathology is the study of diseases in plants. Physiology is the study of normal functions of living things. Taxonomy is the classification and naming of living things. Genetics is the science of heredity and the lifelong development of living things Embryology is the study of the formation and development of living things from fertilization to birth as independent organisms. Pharmacology is the study of the actions of chemicals on and in living things. Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their actions. Cytology is the study of cells. Histology is the study of tissues. Protozoology is the study of one celled organisms. Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. Virology is the study of viruses. Mammalogy is the study of mammals. Ornithology is the study of birds. Herpetology is the study of reptiles and amphibians, Ichthyology is the study of fishes. Entomology is the study of insects.

Helminthology is the study of worms. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms. Mycology is the study of fungi. Phycology is the study of algae. Liehenology is the study of lichens. Paleontology is the study of fossils. Biogeography is the study of geographical distribution of living things. Phytogeography is the study of the land and its plants. Zoogeography is the study of the land and its animals.

Chemical Basis of Life Atoms and Molecules Atoms

smallest particle of matter non-divisible by chemical means composed of protons (+) and neutrons (neutral) in the nucleus and electrons (-) outside the nucleus. the smallest unit of an element to enter into chemical reactions all atoms of an element have a particular number of protons (atomic number) electrically neutral because the number of protons equals the number of electrons atomic weight depends on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus chemical properties depend on the number in the outer shell

Molecules form when two or more atoms of the same element react with one another or combine with atoms or another element the smallest part of a compound that still has the properties of that compound could be inorganic or organic molecules Common elements in living things 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Oxygen (O) 65% of human body weight Carbon (C)- 18% Hydrogen (H)- 10% Nitrogen (N)- 3% Sodium (Na) -0.15% Magnesium (Mg)-0.05% Phosphorus(P)-1.1%

8. Sulfur (S) -0.25% 9. Chlorine (Cl)-0.15% 10. Potassium (K)- 0.35% 11. Calcium (Ca)- 2% 12. Iron (Fe)-0.004% 13. Iodine (I)-0.0004% Chemical Bonding interactions involving atoms of elements combining with one another the attractive force that binds atom together to form molecules determined by the electrons that surround the nucleus an atom may bond with one another by either gaining ,losing or sharing electons Types of Chemical Bonds 1. Covalent Bond- electrons are shared ; characteristic of most chemicals in living things; smallest particles formed are called ,molecules 2. Ionic Bond- an electron is transferred from one atom to another ; ions (charge particles) are formed cations when electrons is lost ;anions when electrons is gained. 3. Hydrogen bond- when hydrogen combines with oxygen or with another electronegative atom; weak and can easily be formed or broken; very important in bilogocal system: important in determining the structure of DNA and proteins. Inorganic Molecules usually contain positive and negative ions atoms are usually held together by ionic bond usually composed of short chains often associated with non-living things includes water, acids and bases, salts and gases Water the most abundant component of the protoplasm inorganic compound composed of two atoms of hydrogen and an atom of oxygen Physical Properties of Water 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. universal solvent high specific and latent heat of vaporization high degree of thermal conductivity immiscible with lipids neutral pH liquid in form at room temperature high surface tension

Physiological Properties of Water 1. dissolves or holds in suspension the materials of the protoplasm

2. furnishes a medium for some vital processes and substances (nutrients, wastes, and hormones) 3. moistens surfaces for gas diffusion 4. regulates body temperature 5. helps in the functions of the sense organ 6. serves as lubricant for movable surfaces 7. serves as cushion for the brain and spinal cord Acids and Bases acids are molecules that raise the hydrogen ion concentration (H) when added to a solution , such as HCL bases are molecules that lower the (H) when added to a solution , such as NaOH pH scale is used to measure the acidity and alkalinity of a solution as the pH number decreases , acidity increases as the pH number increases, alkalinity increases most organisms maintain a neutral pH (pH 7) a much higher or lower pH may cause illness Salts formed from the neutralization of an acid and a base occur in the form of soluble chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and carbonates of sodium , calcium, potassium, anf magnesium important in vital processes such as irritability of muscles and nerves , growth and repair of tissues, etc. act as buffers or regulators of acid-base balance

Gases important in oxidation of food molecule in order to release energy two important gases are oxygen and carbon dioxide Organic Molecules always contain carbon and hydrogen atoms are usually held together by covalent bond usually composed of long chains usually associated with living things includes carbohydrates ,lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids Carbohydrates composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in definite ratio 1:2:1, with a general formula of CH2O the main source of energy in the body building blocks are glucose molecules Types of carbohydrates 1. Monosaccharaides- simple sugar important source of energy for the cells

a. b. c. a. b. c. Lipids

sub-units of which most polysaccharides are made a. Glucose- blood sugar or dextrose b. Fructose- fruit sugar c. Galactose- milk sugar 2. Disaccharides- double sugar two monosaccharaides bonded together principle sugar transported throughout the bodies of land plants Lactose- milk sugar: glucose + galactose Maltose- malt sugar: glucose + glucose Sucrose- table sugar: glucose + fructose 3. Polysaccharides-complex sugar Many monosaccharaides (usually glucose) bonded together Cellulose structural materials in plants Starch- energy storage in plants Glycogen- energy storage in animals

composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with no definite ratio, the number of oxygen atoms is very much less compared to hydrogen atoms storage of energy and important component of the cell membrane building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol Types of Lipids 1. Simple lipids (Triglycerides) composed of three fatty acids bonded to glycerol Include oil and fats. stearin, palmitin, olein and waxes 2. Compound lipids Composed of lipids found in combination with other compounds a. Lipoproteins with protein b. Glycolipids-with carbohydrates c. Phospholipids- with phosphoric acid 3. Steroids composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen plus other elements such as sulfur, iron, iodine etc. for growth and repair of tissues, component of the cell membrane, acts as organic buffer, and play a major role in chemical reactions as enzymes , in protection of the body as antibodies building blocks are amino acids , which are united by means of peptide linkage to form polypeptide chains Types of Protein 1. Fibrous protein- the polypeptides are arranged along a single axis to produce long fibers or sheets Collagen- the most abundant protein in vertebrates found in bones, cartilage and skin Keratin-helical protein, principal component of hair ,skin and nails Fibrinogen- blood plasma responsible for blood clotting Muscle proteins- actin and myosin, responsible for muscle contraction Silk-pleated sheet protein produced by silk moths and spiders

a.
b.

c. d. e.

2. Globular protein- the polypeptides are so tightly folded into spherical or globular shapes a. Albumins and globulins- soluble proteins abundant in animal cells, blood serum, milk amd eggs b. Hemoglobin- the component of vertebrate blood to transport oxygen c. Enzymes, antibodies, and hormones 3. Conjugated protein- simple proteins in union with other substances a. Nucleoprotein with nucleic acids e.g. histones b. Glycoprotein- with carbohydrates e.g. mucin c. Lipoprotein with fatty acids, e.g. serum and brain tissue d. Chromoprotein- with pigments, e.g. cytochrome Nucleic Acids composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus important in protein synthesis as RNA, and in heredity as DNA building blocks are the nucleotides, which are made up of a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA ), a nitrogen base (pyrimidine or purine), and phosphoric acid in DNA, purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G); pyrimidines are cytosine(C) and thymine (T); in RNA , thymine is replaced by uracil (U). Cells are microscopic in size and can be seen only with the aid of a microscope. In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English scientist discovered the cells. He cut off a thin section of cork from a tree bark and reminded it under the microscope. Boxlike structures that were arranged like a honeycomb reminded him of small rooms of monastery where monks lived. These were the outermost coverings of plant cells which he later called cell walls. The work of Hooke was followed by studies done by Robert Brown. In 1830, he studied all kinds of oragnisms under the microscope and found a central part common to all. He called the structure nucleus. By the late 1830s, two German scientists also made observations on cells. Alhough they worked separately. Mathias Scheleiden found out that all plants are composed of living cells. His colleague Theodore Schwann came to the same conclusion about animals. Based on the worked of Schleiden and Schwann came to the same conclusion about animals.

Cell theory the observations and conclusion of Shleiden (1838), Schwann (1839) and Virchow (1858) established the cell theory 1. All organisms are made up cells and a cell is the structural and functional unit of organisms 2. Cells are capable of self reproduction, and cells come only from pre-existing cells. Cell Size and Shape smallest cell a bacterium known as a mycoplasma , is 0.0001 mm in diameter; largest cells are the nerve cells in a giraffes neck 3.0 m in length in human variety of sizes from small red blood cells that measure 0.00076 mm to liver cells that may be ten times larger, about 10,000 average sized human cells can fit on the head of a pin common unit of measure in the study of cell micrometer (um) = 1 x 10 meter or 1/1,000,000 meter smaller cell has more surface has more surface area per volume than does a large cell ideal shape of an isolated cell is spherical

the shape of the cell is related to its function; long for contraction (muscle cell) , with protoplasmic processes for conduction of impulses (nerve cell) , concave disc for distribution of oxygen (blood cell) factors affecting variations in cell shapes: elasticity or rigidity of the membrane , surface tension, viscosity of the cytoplasm pressure exerted by neighboring cells and functional adaptation

Types of Cell Prokaryotic Cell (Greek pro, before and karyon, nucleus) cells without a true nucleus characteristic of bacteria with a size ranging from 1 to 10 um outer boundary is composed of cell wall and plasma membrane cytoplasm contains ribosomes, thylakoids and innumerable enzymes nucleoid contains single chromosomes (DNA only) Eukaryotic Cell (Greek eu, true and karyon, nucleus) cells with true nucleus characteristic protists (unicellular) ,fungi, plants and animals (multicellular ) consists of a plasma membrane made up of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins nucleus is membrane-bounded containing multiple chromatin cytoplasm contains compartmentalized organelles

Cell Parts and Their Functions Nucleus - Large Oval body near the centre of the cell. - The control centre for all activity. - Surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleoplasm - is the protoplasm in the nucleus. - contains genetic material ---> CHROMOSOMES (DNA) Nucleolus - is found in the nucleus. - contains more genetic information (RNA) Cell Membrane - the outer boundary of the cell. - it separates the cell from other cells. - it is porous ---> allows molecules to pass through. Cell Wall ( Plant Cells Only ) - non living structure that surrounds the plant cell. - protects + supports the cell. - made up of a tough fibre called cellulose.

Cyto Plasm - cell material outside the nucleus but within the cell membrane. - clear thick fluid. - contains structures called organelles. Vacuoles - are clear fluid sacs that act as storage areas for food, minerals, and waste. - in plant cell the vacuoles are large and mostly filled with water. This gives the plant support. - in animal cells the vacuoles are much smaller. Mitochondria - power house of the cell. - centre of respiration of the cell. - they release energy for cell functions. Chloro Plasts ( Plant cells only ) - contains a green pigment known as chlorophyll which is important for photosynthesis. Ribosomes - tiny spherical bodies that help make proteins. - found in the cyto plasm or attached to the endo plasmic reticulum. Endo Plasmic Reticulum ( ER ) - systems of membranes throughout the cyto plasm. - it connects the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. - passageway for material moving though the cell. Golgi Bodies - tube like structures that have tiny sacs at their ends. - they help package protein. Lysosomes - " suicide sacs " - small structures that contain enzymes which are used in digestion. - if a lysosome were to burst it could destroy the cell. Biotechnology (sometimes shortened to "biotech") is generally accepted as the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. . Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micro propagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production pharmacogenomics gene therapy genetic testing (or genetic screening): techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases DNA microarray chip some can do as many as a million blood tests at once Main article: Pharmacogenomics Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body's response to drugs. It is a portmanteau derived from the words "pharmacology" and "genomics". It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person's genetic makeup. Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits: Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient's genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once. Genetic testing is now used for: Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;

Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals; Determining sex; Forensic/identity testing; Newborn screening; Prenatal diagnostic screening; Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers; Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders. Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington's disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered. Controversial questions Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individual's descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis--vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein. Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment: Ex vivo, which means "outside the body" Cells from the patient's blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein. In vivo, which means "inside the body" No cells are removed from the patient's body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient's body. Gene Therapy Obstacles Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the

disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease. [edit]Human Genome Project Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed. There are two types of cloning: Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus. Therapeutic cloning] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments. . Agriculture Crop yield Increased nutritional quality Improved taste, texture or appearance of food Plant Structure and Function The "Typical" Plant Body The Root System Underground (usually) Anchor the plant in the soil Absorb water and nutrients Conduct water and nutrients Food Storage The Shoot System Above ground (usually) Elevates the plant above the soil Many functions including: photosynthesis

reproduction & dispersal food and water conduction Note: the shoot system includes the leaves and the reproductive organs, although these will be covered in more detail separately

Monocots (or monocotyledons) and dicots (or dicotyledons) are the two main types of flowering plants. They differ in morphological characteristics of leaves, stems, flowers and fruit of flowering plants. Comparison chart Dicot Embryo: Leaf venation: Monocot

The dicotyledons embryo has two Monocotyledons have one cotyledons. cotyledon. Leaf veins are reticulated (branched). Leaf veins are parallel. multiples of three Absent

Petals of flower: multiples of four or five Secondary growth: Often present

Stem and Bundles of vascular tissue Bundles of vascular tissue vascular system: arranged in a ring. The vascular scattered throughout the stem with system is divided into a cortex and no particular arrangement, and has stele. no cortex. Pollen: Examples: Pollen with three furrows or pores Pollen with a single furrow or pore Legumes (pea, beans, lentils, peanuts) daisies, mint, lettuce, tomato, oak, tree, etc. Grains, (wheat, corn, rice, millet) lilies, daffodils, sugarcane, banana, palm, ginger, onions, bamboo, sugar, cone, palm tree, banana tree,grass Fibrous roots herbaceous

Root Pattern: Presence or absence of wood:

Taproot system both herbaceous and woody

Chlorophyll is the primary link between living things and sunlight. Chlorophyll a is blue-green and greatly absorbs red light wavelength, while chlorophyll b is yellow-green are best known and most abundant types of chlorophyll. Photosynthesis- The Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Green plants and other producers light energy into chemical energy through the process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis require chlorophyll, light, carbon dioxide, and water to take place. The process can be illustrated as: light + ware + Carbon dioxide ------------Glucose + Oxygen Glucose is the end product while oxygen is the byproduct of photosynthesis Rate of Photosynthesis- The rate at which photosynthesis proceeds is affected by three factors: a) intensity of light; b) temperature and c) availability of raw materials such as carbon dioxide and water. Intensity of Light- Light provides the energy of photosynthesis. When light is in excess, the rate of photosynthesis increases. When much light energy is absorbed, more chlorophyll molecules are energized, causing them to capture more energy that can be used in the chemical reaction producing glucose or starch. Temperature- Most plants photosynthesize within the temperature range of 20 C to 40 C. Tenperature outside this range causes enzymes involved in photosynthesis to be non functional Availability of Raw Materials- Availability of carbon dioxide as well as water will also affect the photosynthetic rate. Shortage of water causes the stomata to close, thus carbon dioxide cannot enter the leaf. Therefore, no food can be produced Light Reaction of Photosynthesis Chlorophyl absorbs the units of light called photons light energy------------energy of flowing electrons-----------chemical energy (ATP) water----------light/chlorophyll--------------------Hydrogen + Oxygen energized electrons are attached to NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) Dark Reactions- These reactions can take place even without light. Here, light is not necessary anymore once the hydrogen atom had been formed. carbon dioxide + hydrogen atoms enzymes stages / energy from ATP a simple sugar + water

As a result of dark reactions , the energy previously stored in ATP and NADPH is now the sugar molecules. The dark reactions complete the transformation of light energy to chemical energy. Plant Hormones chemical messengers produced in very low concentrations by one part of the plant and active on another plant coordinate responses of the plant to environmental stimuli Types of Plant Hormones

Growth Promoters 1. Auxin for cell elongation 2. Gibberelins for stem elongation 3. Cytokinins- promote cell division Growth Inhibitors 1.Abscicic acid for dormancy and called a stress hormone 2.Ethylene- for fruit ripening Plant responses Tropism (Greek, tropos, turning) plant growth toward or away from a directional stimulus the stimulus is coming from only one direction produced due to differential growth, one side of an organ elongates faster than the other side the results is curving toward or away from the stimulus Types of Tropism as to Direction 1. Positive tropism- grows toward a stimulus 2. Negative tropism- grows away from a stimulus Types of Tropism as to Stimulus 1. Phototropism- growth response to light 2. Geotropism growth response to gravity 3. Thigmotropism-growth response to touch 4. Chemotropism- growth response to chemical stimulus 5. Hydrotropism- growth response to water or soil moisture Plant Adaptations 1. Desert- cactus light colored hair to shade the plant 2. Grassland- narrow leaves minimize water loss 3. Tropical rain forest- drip tips help shed excess water 4. Temperate rain forest-trees can grow very tall in a moist environment 5. Temperate deciduous plant- broad leaves can capture a lot of sunlight 6. Taiga- needle like leaves help reduce water loss 7. Tundra- plant grows in a clump to help conserve energy 8. In water- chlorophyll is restricted to surface