The Nature of Philosophy There is little doubt that doing philosophy is one of the most challenging yet rewarding

activities in which we can engage. This is because the questions we are concerned with in philosophy - the questions about the ultimate causes, meaning, and purpose of human existence and the world - are not only deeply interesting and challenging but also, in a sense, stand in urgent need of responses. The responses should be matters of deep concern to us all because they radically inform our understanding of just who we are and of precisely how we fit into the world that we inhabit. Nature is a concept with two major sets of inter-related meanings, referring on the one hand to the things which are natural, or subject to the normal working of "laws of nature", or on the other hand to the essential properties and causes of those things to be what they naturally are, or in other words the laws of nature themselves. How to understand the meaning and significance of nature has been a consistent theme of discussion within the history of Western Civilization, in the philosophical fields of metaphysics and epistemology, as well as in theology and science. The study of natural things and the regular laws which seem to govern them, as opposed to discussion about what it means to be natural, is the area of natural science. The word "nature" derives from Latin ntra, a philosophical term derived from the verb for birth, which was used as a translation for the earlier Ancient Greek term phusis which was derived from the verb for natural growth, for example that of a plant. Already in classical times, philosophical use of these words combined two related meanings which have in common that they refer to the way in which things happen by themselves, "naturally", without "interference" from human deliberation, divine intervention, or anything outside of what is considered normal for the natural things being considered. Understandings of nature depend on the subject and age of the work where they appear. For example Aristotle's explanation of natural properties differs from what is meant by natural properties in modern philosophical and scientific works, which can also differ from other scientific and conventional usage.

5 Branches of Philosophy Within philosophy there are five primary categories or branches:

1. Epistemology Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Epistemology deals with the process by which we can know that something is true. It addresses questions such as: --What can I know? --How is knowledge acquired? --Can we be certain of anything? Within epistemology there are two important categoriesrationalism and empiricism. Rationalism stresses reason as the most important element in knowing. Rationalism holds that knowledge is gained primarily through the mind. It also asserts that we are born with innate ideas that precede any experiences we may have with our physical senses. Empiricism, on the other hand, asserts that all our knowledge comes from our five senses. To use the terminology of the empiricist, John Locke, our minds are a blank slate at birth. Thus knowledge comes from our experiences. 2. Metaphysics Metaphysics is the study of reality. More specifically it is the study of reality that is beyond the scientific or mathematical realms. The term metaphysics itself literally means beyond the physical. The metaphysical issues most discussed are the existence of God, the soul, and the afterlife. 3. Ethics Ethics is the study of moral value, right and wrong. Ethics is involved with placing value to personal actions, decisions, and relations. Important ethical issues today include abortion, sexual morality, the death penalty, euthanasia, pornography, and the environment. 4. Logic Logic is the study of right reasoning. It is the tool philosophers use to study other philosophical categories. Good logic includes the use of good thinking skills and the avoidance of logic fallacies. 5. Aesthetics Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty. It attempts to address such issues as: --What is art? --What is the relationship between beauty and art? --Are there objective standards by which art can be judged? --Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY Eastern philosophy includes the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, Arab philosophy and Jewish philosophy. The division is not purely geographic but also stems from general hermeneutic and conceptual differences that lay between Eastern and Western traditions. Buddhist philosophy Is the elaboration and explanation of the delivered teachings of theBuddha as found in the Tripitaka and Agama. Its main concern is with explicating thedharmas constituting reality. A recurrent theme is the reification of concepts, and the subsequent return to the Buddhist middle way.[1][2] Early Buddhism avoided speculative thought on metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics, andepistemology,[3] but was based instead on empirical evidence gained by the sense organs (ayatana).[4] Nevertheless, Buddhist scholars have addressed ontological and metaphysical issues subsequently. Particular points of Buddhist philosophy have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism. These elaborations and disputes gave rise to various schools in early Buddhism of Abhidhamma, and to the Mahayana traditions and schools of the prajnaparamita, Madhyamaka, buddhanature and Yogacara. Original Teachings of the Buddha Refer to the teachings of the historical Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. What the original teachings were, or Buddha Vacana ("word of the Buddha") has been the subject of debate and historical argument for centuries. These source teachings have given rise to the numerous schools and traditions of Buddhism that exist today. In modern academia, the sutta pitakas of the Pali Canon, and Chinese Agamas as well as surviving fragments of the Sanskrit Canon and Gandhari Canon have been identified as containing the earliest known record of these teachings. However, the teachings passed down over a period of many centuries as an oral tradition before being committed to writing. During this time they were codified in a form suitable for easy memorization and chanting. Academics are in disagreement over the content of the original source teachings that gave rise to these various recensions and the numerous traditions and scriptures that arose later based on these.

 Confucianism Is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius ( Kng Fz, or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kong", 551479 BC). Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han Dynasty.[1] Following the abandonment of Legalism in China after the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology of China, until it was replaced by the "Three Principles of the People" ideology with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoist Communism after the ROC was replaced by the People's Republic of China in Mainland China. The core of Confucianism is humanism,[2] the belief that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are ren, yi, and li.[3] Ren is an obligation ofaltruism and humaneness for other individuals within a community, yi is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good, and li is a system of norms andpropriety that determines how a person should properly act within a community.[3]Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.[4] Although Confucius the man may have been a believer in Chinese folk religion, Confucianism as an ideology is humanistic[2] and non-theistic, and does not involve a belief in the supernatural or in a personal god.[5] Cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include mainland China,Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly byChinese people, such as Singapore. Although Confucian ideas prevail in these areas, few people outside of academia identify themselves as Confucian,[6][7] and instead see Confucian ethics as a complementary guideline for other ideologies and beliefs, includingdemocracy,[8] Marxism,[9] capitalism,[10] Christianity,[11] Islam[12] and Buddhism.

LIFE OF CONFUCIUS (551479 BCE)[1] was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a system known as Confucianism.

Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death. Confucius's principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong family loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and in traditional interpretations) of husbands by their wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government. He espoused the well-known principle "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself", an early version of the Golden Rule. TAOISM Taoism (modernly: Daoism) is a philosophical and religious tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (modernly romanized as "Dao"). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source and the driving force behind everything that exists. It is ultimately ineffable: "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao."[1] The keystone work of literature in Taoism is the Tao Te Ching, a concise and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: ; pinyin: Lozi; WadeGiles: Lao Tzu). Together with the writings of Zhuangzi, these texts build the philosophical foundation of Taoism. This philosophical Taoism, individualistic by nature, is not institutionalized. Institutionalized forms, however, evolved over time in the shape of a number of different schools, often integrating beliefs and practices that even pre-dated the keystone texts as, for example, the theories of the School of Naturalists, which synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements. Taoist schools traditionally feature reverence for Laozi, immortals or ancestors, along with a variety of divination andexorcism rituals, and practices for achieving ecstasy, longevity or immortality. Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, andclerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: ; pinyin: doshi) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especiallyneidan), Chinese astrology, Zen Buddhism, several martial arts, Traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia. After Laozi and Zhuangzi the literature of Taoism grew steadily and used to be compiled in form of a canon the Daozang, which was at times published at the behest of theemperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominated as state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell much from favor. Like all other religious

activity, Taoism was suppressed in the first decades of the People's Republic of China(and even persecuted during the Cultural Revolution), but continued to be practised inTaiwan. Today, it is one of five religions recognized in the PRC, and although it does not travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies. LIFE OF LAO-TZU Laozi (Chinese: ; pinyin: Loz; WadeGiles: Lao Tzu; also romanized as Lao Tse,Lao Tu, Lao-Tsu, Laotze, Laosi, Laocius, and other variations) (fl. 6th century BCE) was aphilosopher of ancient China, best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching (often simply referred to as Laozi).[1] His association with the To T Chng has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of philosophical Taoism (pronounced as "Daoism"). He is also revered as a deity in most religious forms of Taoist philosophy, which often refers to Laozi as Taishang Laojun, or "One of the Three Pure Ones". According to Chinese traditions, Laozi lived in the 6th century BCE. Some historians contend that he actually lived in the 5th4th century BCE, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period,[2] while some others argue that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures or that he is a mythical figure. A central figure in Chinese culture, both nobility and common people claim Laozi in their lineage. He was honored as an ancestor of the Tang imperial family, and was granted the title Tishng xunyun hungd, meaning "Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor". Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various antiauthoritarianmovements. WU WEI PRINCIPLE Wu wei (Chinese: ; a variant and derivatives: traditional Chinese: ; simplified Chinese: ; pinyin: w wi; Japanese: ; Korean: ; Vietnamese: V vi; English, lit. non-doing) is an important concept in Taoism that literally means nonaction or non-doing. In the Tao te Ching, Laozi explains that beings (or phenomena) that are wholly in harmony with the Tao behave in a completely natural, uncontrived way. As the planets revolve around the sun, they "do" this revolving, but without "doing" it. As trees grow, they simply grow without trying to grow. Thus knowing how and when to act is not knowledge in the sense that one would think, "now I should do this," but rather just doing it, doing the natural thing. The goal of spiritual practice for the human being is, according to Laozi, the attainment of this natural way of behaving.

ASSIGNMENT IN PHILOSOPHY
Submitted by: Lina, Mary Ann C. III- ABTM

Submitted To: Prof. A.L Able