Chapter 5 : Chemical Bonds

ionic bonds ( metal + non metal ) transfer electron covalent bonds ( non metal + non metal ) sharing electron

Formation of Compounds

Different elements that chemically bonded together Octet electron arrangement 8 valence electrons Duplet electron arrangement 2 valence electrons Eg : Compound water is hydrogen & oxygen atoms are chemically bonded together

Stability of Noble Gases

Not gain, lose nor share electrons with other atoms. Do not combine with atoms of other elements Chemically unreactive. Exist as monoatomic.

Ionic Bonds Formed = transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms Metal atoms donate valence electrons to form positive ions (cations, Mb Non-metal atoms receive electrons to form negative ions (anions, Xa-) Cations & anions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force of attraction

Formula of an Ionic Compound

Cation Mb+ Anion XaFormula formed = MaXb

Structure of ionic compounds

The oppositely-charged ions are attracted to each other by a strong electrostatic force. It form a rigid 3-D lattice structure Formed crystal. Giant ionic lattice.

Covalent Bonds Formed from the sharing of valence electrons between non-metal atoms Each shared pair of electrons is as 1 covalent bond. It produces molecules. Form between non-metal atoms from Group 15, 16 & 17 and sometimes can be formed from Group 14 (carbon and silicon) & hydrogen. Covalent bond can be formed from atoms of the same element and atoms of different elements.

Types of covalent bond formed

Single bond = one pair of electrons shared between two atoms. Double bond = two pair of electrons shared between two atoms. Triple bond = three pair of electrons shared between two atoms.

Formula of a Covalent Compound

Non-metal X atom (valence electron is a) Combine with non-metal Y atom (valence electron is b) b = simplest ratio (n) and a = simplest ratio (m) Formula of a covalent compound formed, XnYm

Structure of covalent compounds

 Simple molecular structure/giant molecular structure. The atoms of the molecules are joined together by strong covalent bond Intermolecular forces are weak by weak van der Waals forces.

Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compound Ionic bonding is strong electrostatics forces between the oppositely-charged ions Covalent Compound Covalent bonding is strong bonding between the atoms in the molecule Ionic Compound Ions Lost/gained Strong electrostatics forces (Ionic) between oppositelycharged ions arranged in a 3D giant crystal lattice Solid High High Non-volatile Dissolve in water & polar solvents Do not dissolve Differences Particles Electron Forces Covalent Compound Molecules Shared Strong (Covalent) between atoms in the molecule. Weak forces of attraction between the molecules (van der Waals forces) Gases/volatile liquids Low (simple) High (giant) Low (simple) High (giant) Very volatile (simple) Non-volatile (giant) Do not dissolve in water Dissolve

State Melting point Melting point Volatility Solubility in water Solubility in organic solvent

Conduct electricity in liquid & aq solution(positive & negative ions move freely). Cannot conduct electricity in solid(fixed & cannot move freely).

Electricity conductor

Cannot conduct electricity in any state (no free mobile ions)

Uses of covalent compounds as solvent

Ether solvents in the extraction of chemicals from aqueous solution

o o o o

Alcohol solvents used to make ink and dye because these solvent are volatile Turpentine dissolved paint CFC (chlorofluocarbons) solvents to clean computer circuits board Propanone remove nail varnish

Chapter 6 Electrochemistry
Electrolyte Substances that can conduct electricity in molten/aqueous state. Can conduct electricity due to the presence of free moving ions. Example for electrolytes (alkalis, acids, salt solution or molten salt): molten lead(II) chloride copper(II) sulphate solution solution containing ions such as hydrochloride acid

Non-electrolyte Molecules that cannot conduct electricity & will not undergo any chemical changes. It cannot conduct electricity due to the absent of free moving ions. Example of non-electrolytes (covalent substances): molten acetone molten naphthalene glucose solution

Conductor Substances that can conduct electricity in solid/molten state but do not undergo any chemical changes. It can conduct electricity due to the flow of electrons. Example of conductor: iron graphite mercury

Ionic Compounds

Solid state Do not conduct electricity

Molten/aqueous state (dissolved in water) Can conduct electricity

Ions are held in a lattice Ions do not move freely

Ions are free to move

Covalent Compounds

Solid state Do not conduct electricity Exist in molecules Molecules do not have free moving ions

Molten/aqueous state (dissolved in water) Do not conduct electricity Exist in molecules Exception: HCl and NH3 exist as free moving ions in water

Electrolysis of Molten Compounds

Electrolysis (with battery/electricity current) is a process of decomposition / breaking down /separation of a compound (electrolyte) into its constituent elements when electric current passes through it.

Anode Cathode Anion Cation

Electrode connected to the positive terminal (+) of a battery Electrode connected to the negative terminal (-) of a battery Negatively-charged ion. Example: Cl-, SO42- and O2Positively-charged ion. Example: Na+, Zn2+ and Al3+

Classification of electrodes

Inert electrodes Active electrodes

Electrodes that do not take part in chemical reactions during electrolysis Electrodes that take part in chemical reactions during electrolysis

Carbon or platinum Copper or zinc

Electrolysis of Aqueous Compounds

3 important factors to determine the types of ions to be discharged at the electrodes : Positions of ions in the electrochemical series Concentration of ions in the solution Types of electrodes used 1. Positions of ions in the electrochemical series The lower the position of the ion in the electrochemical series, the easier the ion is selectively discharged.

Electrochemical series

Cation (+) K+ Na+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Zn2+ Fe2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ H+ Cu2+ F-

Anion (-)

SO42NO3ClBrIOH-

Ag+

2. Effect of concentration of ions in the solution The concentration of a particular type of ion is high = ion more likely to be discharged in electrolysis. 3. Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis There are 2 important notes: Inert electrodes: Carbon and platinum (Both of these electrodes do not react with the electrolytes or products of electrolysis) Active electrodes: Silver, copper and nickel (Active anode ionises and concentration of cations in the electrolyte does not change)

Products of Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

1. Main factor: Position of ions in the electrochemical series Cation: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable. Example: K+ & Na+ are never discharged in an aqueous solution in electrolysis. Anions: The higher the position in the electrochemical series are very stable. Example: F - & SO42- are never discharged in an aqueous solution in electrolysis. 2. Second factor: Concentration of the electrolyte 3. Third factor: Types of electrode as anode

Electrolysis in Industries

A. Extraction of reactive metals Reactive metals: Sodium, calcium, magnesium & aluminium extract from their compounds Example: Extraction of aluminium from aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (bauxite) by using cryolite, Na3AlF6 at 980C.

B. Purification of metals Anode: impure metal / Cathode: pure metal Electrolyte: solution containing the ions of the metal to be purified Example: purification of impure copper metal.

C. Electroplating of metals Electroplating = process of coating the surface of metal objects with a thin & even layer of another metal. Importance of electroplating is to prevent corrosion & improve the appearance. Cathode: object to be electroplated Anode: pure plating metal Electrolyte: aqueous solution contains plating metal ions

Voltaic Cell/Galvanic cell

Converts chemical energy > electrical energy (-) terminal: more electropositive (higher position in the electrochemical series) (+) terminal: less electropositive (lower position in the electrochemical series) Electrons released (more electropositive metal) through the wire to a less electropositive metal.

Daniell Cell

It is another example of a voltaic cell. Solutions are connected by a salt bridge (inert electrolyte) or a porous pot. The main function of a salt bridge/porous pot is to complete the circuit by allowing the movement of ions & prevent two solution from mixing.

Comparison of Electrolytic Cells and Voltaic Cells

Similarities

o o o o

Two electrodes involves in the reaction Electrons flow through the external circuit (connecting wires) Anode (oxidation): loss of electrons Cathode (reduction): gain of electrons

Differences

Electrolytic Cell Main basic structures Energy conversion Transfer of electrons at the positive terminal Transfer of electrons at the negative terminal A battery is needed to supply electrical energy Electrical energy > chemical energy Anode (+ terminal): Oxidation anions lose electrons at the anode Cathode (- terminal): Reduction cations accept electrons from the cathode

Voltaic Cell Battery is not needed. Chemical energy > electrical energy Cathode (+ terminal): Reduction Anode (- terminal): Oxidation

Electrochemistry

It is an arrangement of elements according to their tendencies to donate electrons to form cations. Higher position = a metal that has a higher tendencies to ionise & form (+) ions.

 Constructed by the potential difference (voltage difference) between pairs of metals & the ability of a metal to displace another metal from its own salt solution.

A) Electrochemical Series based on the Potential Difference (Voltage Difference) To construct an electrochemical series = measure the potential difference between two metals in voltaic cells. (-) terminal in voltaic cell has a higher tendency to release electrons = higher position in the electrochemical series (+ terminal ) in voltaic cell has a lower tendency to release electrons = lower position in the electrochemical series. The greater the potential difference (voltage) = further apart the positions of two metals in electrochemical series.

B) Electrochemical Series from the Displacement Reaction of Metals To construct an electrochemical series = ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution. Higher position of a metal in the electrochemical series = able to displace a metal below it from its salt solution.

The Importance of Electrochemical Series Terminal of a voltaic cell Voltage produced by a pair of metals Ability of a metal to displace another metal from its salt solution Metal displacement of hydrogen from an acid

The Importance of Electrochemical Industries Extract useful metals (Al, Na & Mg) from its ore using electrolysis. Manufacture of useful chemical substances (Cl and NaOH) using electrolysis. Electroplating of Pb with chromium to protect the iron layer. Silver - plating to make fine cutleries. Voltaic cell (batteries)

Effect of Electrochemical Industries towards the Environment Heavy metals (chromium and mercury) cause water pollution. Chlorine gas/toxic gas cause problem (irritates) to human respiratory system. Mercury cell (batteries) is highly toxic. Improper disposal of industrial waste cause water pollution.

Chapter 7 Acid and Bases

Acids

Chemical substance which ionises in H2O to produce hydrogen ions, H+. H+(aq) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq) Example: HCl(g) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq) + Cl -(aq) Acid HCl HNO3 H2SO4 CH3COOH Acid name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulphuric acid Ethanoic acid Ions H+, Cl H+, NO3H+, SO42H+, CH3COO -

Monoprotic acid = Produce only 1 hydrogen ion per molecule in water. (Eg: HCl) Diprotic acid = Produce 2 hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Eg: H2SO4) Triprotic acid = Produce 3 hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Eg: H3PO4)

Bases/Alkalis

Chemical substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt & water only. Base(s) + acid(aq) > salt + water (l). Example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Base Copper(II) oxide Lead(II) oxide Magnesium oxide Zinc hydroxide

Formula CuO PbO MgO Zn(OH)2

Solubility in water Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base

Ions (aq) -

Aluminium hydroxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Barium hydroxide

Al(OH)3 Na2O CaO NaOH KOH Ba(OH)2

Insoluble base Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali)

Na+, O2Ca2+, O2Na+, OHK+, OHBa2+, OH-

The Uses of Acids in Our Daily Life

Benzoic acid Carbonic acid Ethanoic acid Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulphuric acid Tartaric acid

Its salt are used to preserve food To make carbonated drinks A main compound of vinegar To clean metals before electroplating / household cleaning / leather processing / swimming pool maintenance Production of fertilisers, explosives, etching and dissolution of metals (purification and extraction of gold) To make detergent, polymer and fertilisers. Manufacturing of soft drinks, provide tartness to food, as an emetic (a substance to induce vomiting)

The Uses of Bases in Our Daily Life

Ammonia

Production of fertilisers (ammonium and nitrate salts), used in the manufacture of nitric acid, neutralise the acid (in the petroleum industry) and prevent premature coagulation in natural / synthetic latex. Manufacture other aluminium compound and to make gastric medicine (antacid) To make cement, limewater, neutralise the acidity of soil and application of sewage treatment. Used in the manufacturing of soaps, detergents, and cleaners. Suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water are used as an antacid, used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant and as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewater.

Aluminium hydroxide Calcium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide

Chemical Properties

Acid In water, an acid will ionise to form hydrogen ion, H+. Sour < than 7 Blue to red Universal indicator (Orange & red) Methyl orange (Red) React with bases to produce salts and water. 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) > CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) React with metals (reactive metal, higher position than H+ in the electrochemical series) to produce salts and hydrogen gas. 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) > ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) React with carbonates to produce salts, carbon dioxide gas and water. H2SO4(aq) + ZnCO3(s) > ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Alkali In water, an alkali will ionise to form hydroxide ion, OH -. Bitter > than 7 Red to Blue Universal indicator (Blue & purple) Methyl orange (Yellow) React with acids to produce salts and water. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) React with an ammonium salt (alkali is heated) to produce ammonia gas. Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s) > BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g) React with aqueous salt solutions to produce metal hydroxides (as precipitate). 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) > Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

Monoprotic acid (monobasic acid) is an acid which produce 1 mole of H+ ion when 1 mole of the acid ionise in water. Monoprotic acid HCl HNO3 CH3COOH Monoprotic acid name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Ethanoic acid

Diprotic acid (dibasic acid) is an acid which produce 2 moles of H+ ions from 1 mole of the acid in water. Diprotic acid H2SO4 H2CO3 H2CrO4 H2C2O4 Diprotic acid name Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Chromic acid Ethanedioic acid / Oxalate acid

Triprotic acid (tribasic acid) is an acid which produce 3 moles of H+ ions from 1 mole of the acid in water. Triprotic acid H3PO4 Triprotic acid name Phosphoric acid

C6H8O7

Citric acid

The pH scale & the Measurement of pH Value of a Solution

pH scale = Number to represent the degree of acidity/alkalinity of a solution. pH = Measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution. Alkaline = The lower the concentration of the H+ ions, the higher the pH value. = pH value ( >7 ) Acidic = The higher the concentration of the H+ ions, the lower the pH value. = pH value ( <7 ) Neutral = exactly 7 pH solution can be measured by using universal indicator, pH paper & pH meter. pH value 0, 1, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12, 13, 14 Colour of Universal Indicator Red Orange red Orange Orange yellow Yellow Green Greenish-blue Blue Blue Bluish-purple Purple

Strong Acids

Strength of an acid the degree of ionisation of the acid in water. Strong acid an acid which ionises completely in water to form high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). Example of strong acid: Mineral acid hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Example of the strong acid reaction in water: HCl(aq) > H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (The concentration of hydrogen ions is [=] to the concentration of hydrochloric acid)

Weak Acids

Weak acid an acid which ionises partially in water to form low concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). Example of weak acid: ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) & methanoic acid (HCOOH) Example of the weak acid reaction in water: CH3COOH <-> CH3COO-(aq) + H+ (aq) {The concentration of hydrogen ions is low & the ions (CH3COO- and H+) reacts to reform the ethanoic acid molecule = reversible reaction}

Strong Alkalis

Strength of alkali the degree of ionisation of the alkali in water. Strong alkali an alkali which ionises completely in water to form high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ). Eg of strong alkali: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution & barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2] solution. Eg of the strong alkali reaction in water: NaOH(aq) > Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak Alkalis

Weak alkali an alkali which ionises partially in water to form low concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ). Example of weak alkali: ammonia (NH3) solution. Eg of the weak alkali reaction in water: NH3(g) + H2O(l) <-> NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)

Concentration of Acids and Alkalis

Quantity of solute = grams [ g dm-3 ] or moles [ mol dm-3]. Concentration (g dm-3) = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3) Concentration (mol dm-3) = no of moles of solute (mol) / volume of solution (dm3)

Relationship between No of Moles with Molarity & Volume of a Solution

o o o

Molarity (mol dm-3) = no of moles of solution (mol) / volume of solution (dm3) M = molarity of solution (mol dm-3), V = Volume of solution (dm3), n = Number of moles of solute (mol) M = n/V

Preparation of Standard Solutions

Standard solution = a solution in which its concentration is accurately known. Prepared by using volumetric flask with a fixed volume (100 cm3, 200 cm3, 250 cm3, 500 cm3 and 1000 cm3)

Preparation of a Solution by Dilution Method

Dilution = a process of diluting a concentrated solution by adding a solvent (water) to obtain a more diluted solution. The concentration of the solution decreases after dilution. The no of moles of solute in the solution remains unchanged after dilution. (MaVa) / 1000 = (MbVb) / 1000 Ma = Initial molarity of solution, Mb = Final molarity of solution, Va = Initial volume of solution and Vb = Final volume of solution

Relationship between pH Values and Molarities of Acids/Alkalis

pH values depends on degree of dissociation and molarity/concentration of hydrogen ions, H+/ hydroxide ions, OH- in the solution. The higher the molarity of a strong acid, the lower is its pH value. The higher the molarity of a strong alkali, the higher is its pH value. The molarity of an acid can be changed when (i) water is added, (ii) an acid of different concentration is added and (iii) an alkali is added.

Neutralisation

Neutralisation = a reaction between an acid & a base/alkali to produce salt and water only. Acid + alkali > salt + water Ionic equation of neutralisation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) > H2O(l)

Application of Neutralisation Reactions in Daily Life

Digestive juices in stomach Insect stings Toothpaste pH of the swimming pool Latex industries Neutralisation Effluent from

Break up food (only in acidic condition) & maintained at pH of between 1 & 2 Bees & ants inject an acidic liquid into the skin but wasps inject an alkaline liquid. An alkaline compound (magnesium hydroxide) in toothpastes neutralises the organic acids produced by the food. Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2 is added to the water. Ammonia is used to neutralise the organic acid produces by bacteria to prevent coagulation. Manufacture fertilisers, soaps and detergents It can be treated with lime.

factories Sulphuric acid Soil treatment

Manufacture of dyes, explosives, steel, fertilisers, paints and plastics. Plants grow best when the pH of the soil is about 7. The soil is too acidic, quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to the soil to neutralise the excess acid. Acid-base Titration

Titration a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of an acid that is required to neutralise a fixed volume of an alkali / a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of an alkali that is required to neutralise a fixed volume of an acid.

End point of a titration a point which neutralisation occurs when the acid has completely neutralised the alkali / the alkali has completely neutralised the acid.

Reactants: Acid and alkali Products: Salt and water End point can be determined by (i) the use of acid-base indicators during titration, (ii) measuring the pH values of the solution during titration and (iii) measuring the electrical conductivity of solution during titration.

Indicator Litmus Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

Alkali Blue Yellow Pink

Neutral Orange Orange Colourless

Acid Red Red Colourless