Niccolo Machiavelli (14691527) Deemed the father of modern political science, Niccolo Machiavelli, produced the masterpiece, The

Prince, his volume on statecraft. Machiavelli contended that political Highly

determinations should not be controlled by spiritual and moral considerations.

controversial during his own lifetime, his views subjected to him to imprisonment, torture, and exile; following his death, The Prince was condemned by the Pope. How did Machiavellis ideas help to shape the modern world? Why have his ideas proven so controversial? ***** Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was born in Florence on May 3, 1469, the son of a well-known lawyer, Bernardo di Niccolo Buoninsegna, and Barolommea di Stefano Nelli. Both Bernardo and Barolommea belonged to old noble families based in Florence, but Bernardos own family had fallen on hard economic times. Later, Machiavelli wrote that he was born in poverty and at an early age learned how to endure hardship rather than flourish. Nevertheless, he must have been exposed to some of the great works that were published during the Renaissance, including the writings of Greek and Roman philosophers, along with Italian histories, from the small library that Bernardo held. In his History of Florence, Machiavelli painted a picture of how young men, perhaps like himself, spent their days under Medicean rule. They were freer than their forefathers in dress and living, and spent more in other kinds of excesses, consuming their time and money in idleness, gaming, and women; their chief aim was to appear well dressed and to speak with wit and acuteness, whilst he who could wound others the most cleverly was thought the wisest.

At the time of Machiavellis birth, Italy was experiencing political tumult. Four strong, but small city-states dominated Italian political life, although each in turn was beset by threats from other European governments. Beginning in 1434, the powerful and wealthy Medici family governed Florence, but near the end of the century a reform campaign briefly threatened their hold on power. In 1494, as the power of Piero deMedici diminished, Machiavelli became involved with public service. In addition, Machiavelli may well have participated in the ouster of the Savonarolist regime four years later, which resulted in the execution of Girolamo Savonarola, the Dominican monk who had established a Florentine republic. When a new republic was constructed under chief magistrate Piero Soderni, Machiavelli received an appointment to head the newly formed governments Second Chancery, and to act as secretary of an agency that dealt with issues involving war and peace. Serving in those capacities, he conducted a series of diplomatic missions in European courts. In 1499, he went to see Catherine Sforza, while the next year he traveled to France to obtain support from Louis XII in a campaign against Pisa. In 1502, Machiavelli visited Cesare Borgia, Pope Alexander VIs son, who served as the Duke Valentino. Following the death of Pius III in 1503, Machiavelli traveled to Rome to witness the papal election. After heading for France the next year, he returned to Rome in 1506 to speak with Pope Julius II. In 1507 and 1508, Machiavelli was an envoy at the court of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian. One

important achievement that Machiavelli brought about was the establishment of a standing army, which proceeded to retake control of Pisa in 1509. In 1512, however, the Medici regained power, thanks to Spanish involvement, leading to Machiavellis dismissal on November 7 and subsequent charges that he had conspired against the Medici family. Imprisoned, Machiavelli was tortured, before Leo X obtained his release.

Although pardoned, Machiavelli was exiled to his small country estate at San Cascinao, close to

Florence, where he spent much of his time writing, soon producing The Prince, Discourse on the First Decade of Titus Livius, Florentine Histories, and a pair of plays. In correspondence written in late 1513, Machiavelli explained how he spent his evenings in his study, after he changed out of his peasant-clothes and attired himself in noble court dress. Thus becomingly re-clothed I pass into the ancient courts of the men of old, where, being lovingly received by them, I am fed with that food which is mine alone; where I do not hesitate to speak with them, and to ask for the reason of their actions, and they in their benignity answer me; and for four hours I feel no weariness. I forget every trouble, poverty does not dismay, death does not terrify me; I am possessed entirely by those great men. And because Dante says:

Knowledge doth come of learning well retained, Unfruitful else . That year, Machiavelli wrote The Prince, which he did not publish during his lifetime. As revealed in a letter found three centuries later, Machiavelli drafted this treatise to curry favor with the ruling Medici. The book attempted to explain how power was won and then

maintained, while indicating that any means, no matter how ignoble, were justified. In contrast to most political writers of his age, Machiavelli avoided an idealistic religious approach, seeking rather to examine government affairs in a realistic fashion. He challenged the classical views of Aristotle, which insisted that politics were the extension of ethics; some scholars suggest that Machiavelli applied a scientific method to the political arena. Regardless, many have accused Machiavelli of championing manipulative practices. As he produced The Prince, Italy remained beholden to foreign states, which, in his estimation, necessitated the forming of potent Italian city-states.

Machiavelli indicated that monarchies and republics were the two chief forms of governments of his age, but he concentrated on the former. A prince, Machiavelli believed, must be instructed by virtu, which he considered a mixture of talent and shrewdness, in his efforts to preserve his state. Such a leader should acquire a reputation for stinginess, rather than

generosity; should be viewed as harsh, not merciful; was best served by being considered severe, not merciful; but should avoid being hated to prevent his ouster. When necessary, the prince should employ deceit, although that should not be obvious to his public, which needed to consider him honest, upright, and religious. He should also be ready to employ cruelty and force, if necessary. A single misstep, he warned, could cost a ruler dearly, by dissipating his hard-won authority. As depicted in The Prince, social and political affairs remained highly problematic, leading Machiavelli to contend that calculated, manipulated thought and action were demanded. In 1518, Machiavelli was hired to attend to the affairs in Genoa of a group of merchants from Florentine. The next year saw something of a relaxation in the Medicis iron-fisted control in Florentine. Machiavelli was among a group of individuals consulted about a constitution that would allow for the restoration of the Great Council, adapted from the representative body in Venice. That same year, Leo X commissioned Machiavelli to produce a history of Florence. From 1521-1525, Machiavelli once again served in the diplomatic corps and as a historiographer. After the Emperor Charles VII defeated the French at Pavia in 1525, Machiavelli attempted to prevent the invading army from coursing through Florence on its way to sack Rome. In the spring of 1527, the Medici again lost power and a new republic was proclaimed, but an ailing Machiavelli was not allowed to participate in that reform campaign nor given a new position. Distrusted by the latest republican government, the fifty-eight year-old writer, political theorist, and former government official died on June 22. Three years later, a campaign joined by

Emperor Charles VII and Pope Clement VII terminated the Third Republic of Florence. The Prince was published in 1532 but soon was condemned by the papacy. In 1564, Machiavellis writings were included in the Church Index of books that were officially banned. Suggested Readings De Grazia, Sebastian. Machiavelli in Hell (1994). Viroli, Maurizio. Machiavelli (1998).