Volume III

Culture Journal
[VOLUME I ISSUE III]
ISSN: 2241-1720
Registered in the International Catalogue -Publications Series in Paris VOLUME III JUNE 2012
The scientific journal for culture and education
Contact: mail@culturejournal.net EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Alexandros Argyriadis Members: Alexandros Argyriadis Agathi Argyriadis Christin Coumadorakis Alex babalis Alex Tsallos Kostas Efthimiopoulos Symeon Nikolidakis Steve Stand
Culture Journal June 2012 1
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Inclusive Education and the tyranny of Developmental Psychology3 New technologies in teaching Latin..10 Lucian from Samosata and his neglected libel titled as To an uneducated book-collector...19
Cooperative actions within the learning framework on the basis of projects in the subject of Biology in the 1st Lyceum grade 34
Investigating autobiographical memory: gender differences in valence and emotional intensity in childhood memories of adults.48 Call for papers...77
Instructions for authors....79
Culture Journal June 2012
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Inclusive Education and the tyranny of Developmental Psychology Agathi Argyriadi1, agathiarg@yahoo.gr Alexandros Argyriadis2, alexargiriadis@gmail.com 1. Lecturer, Technological Institution of kalamata 2. Lecturer, Phd (c)
Introduction
In the present work we describe two dominant models of disability approach, the individual / medical model and the social model. Then, points out reflection on the field of developmental psychology and critical approaches that have been obtained, concerning the effects on children with disabilities, are unable to achieve the specified developmental milestones.
The atomic model approach to disability
Until the 1980's the dominant model in the disability field was the individual / medical. According to the medical model, the problems of disabled people are considered to be the result of an injury, more than the failure of society to meet their needs in terms of adequate assistance and accessibility. Consequently, a compassionate society must invest in health services in an effort to address medical disability, restore or improve function caused by damage to the disabled people to live a more "normal" life. Health professionals have a key role in the medical model of disability. Leading cause of disability, according to this model, is the view of the biological body. (Sideri-Zoniou, 2004).
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Oliver, in the criticism of individual approaches, emphasizes that the first atomic model of disability locates the 'problem' within the individual and the other, moreover he believes that the causes of this problem occur due to functional limitations or psychological losses allegedly resulting from disability. These two points are reinforced by the "theory of personal tragedy" in which disability is understood as a terrible unfortunate incident which affects the unfortunate people (Oliver, 1990). Oliver, also emphasizes to the power of people who make diagnoses and classify disabled people according to social standards of the majority.The medical model limits the concept of man as a whole, either directly or indirectly, for a set of causes, based on factors such as the following: The focus on academic medical diagnosis through knowledge. People are treated as medical emergencies. The motor or cognitive impairment is the cause of disability. The labeling, stereotyping and the consequent stigmatization. The prevalence of medical self-centered concepts means the approach to disability as a derogation from the dominant regularity and the focus on the restoration effort, which, for the life of the disabled implies non-acceptance, oppression and marginalization. Individual models of disability emphasize to the difference against the collective, focusing on the defect. What is understood as 'deviant' disparity has historically been used as an ideological tool of legitimation of the social hierarchy generated and maintained in capitalist societies. These approaches assume, that disability is a biological constant, evident in 'nature', located outside the historic contexts of normality. The concept of normal is the defining feature of capitalist society. the experience of disability influenced and shaped from the same disabled person, but also the attitudes of people towards other people. Physical or mental impairment is a consequence of the failure of individuals to meet the norms in the normal healthy body. The concept of normality, according to the social model, the normal man is a social construction (Oliver, 1996).
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The approach of the social model of disability Compared to the medical model, which is based on the ideology of normality and is designed to restore the disabled as close as possible to normality, the social model is confirmed by experiences of people with disabilities, challenging the dominant atomic model adopted by people without disabilities . (French & Swain, 1997). The concept of disability is emerging as a socially constructed concept. The basic principles of this model, were formulated in 1976 by UPIAS. (Oliver, 1996, Finkelstein, 1993b). The main characteristic of the proclamation of union UPIAS was the full disclosure of the limitations and emotions caused by injury, so that the roots of the problem were to identify the social structures and not the person. The social model does not deny the problem of disability but locates directly into society. There are many kinds of atomic constraints that cause the problem but it is mainly the failure of society to provide adequate services to meet the needs of the disabled. The society that fails to take account of the social organization of people which is damaged, thus making them disabled (Oliver, 1996).Under the social model, disability is in all those factors that impose restrictions on disabled people, in social life and results in the deprivation of their rights. (Oliver, 1996, Finkelstein, 1993).
The tyranny of developmental psychology
The hegemony of the medical model of disability is obvious that has its roots in the field of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology has led the developing child in an investigation. Its aim is to find global age parameters and to create regulatory models for child development. The developmental model is so prevalent and dominant in cultural beliefs, research, policy and professional practice. However, the dominance of the growth model has been questioned both inside and outside psychology. One criticism of the practices of developmental psychology is the study of children, omitting the context in which they live. Seeking ecumenical laws governing
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the development, and research findings are considered universally applicable. The child is supposed to operate primarily in personal / individual level, skills and behaviors that are detached from the social world in which they live. These ontological positions, critics argue, are reflected in the scientific discourse and methodological approaches. A fundamental assumption is that context, culture, society, the research environment, the timein history, or relationships, can be "controlled." Those who espouse this view does not consider it necessary to investigate what happens between children and the world around them.Secondly, criticism has accepted the assumption that development is typical and can be set, considering that children behave within specific parameters. Based on the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky, is widely argued that child development is constructed as a progressive sequence of a universal, regular and predictable pattern (Burman 2008). In other words, the development of the child develops / progresses in a linear fashion. The standardization process of development, led to connected use of 'normal' and 'non-normal "while the presence of non-typically developing children, built the" normal "child.Allegations of developmental psychology, are often operated by parents and professionals. The popularity of magazines and books for children, shows that parents are fully aware of developmental milestones set for their children. Parents tend to talk among themselves about the achievements of their children in their transition from one landmark to another. Although psychology focuses on the child as an individual, the key point is the study of the system: mother-child dad. Mothers are the organs through which the development of children can be supported and accelerated. Mother, more than the father and the other family members, is required to be tested and held accountable for the emergence typically developing children. This dominant focus ignores the broader socio-cultural and economic factors. The ability of children to achieve these milestones constructs the image of the mother for her child, but also the image of herself as a successful mother or not. The dominant policy of separation is reinforced by the assumptions of developmental psychology and causes anxiety and guilt feelings in the mother, who is considered the key to child development. Many times parents of a disabled child blame themselves, or they blame their disabled children, experiencing personal tragedy on a daily basis.
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These perceptions are imposed.While the concepts of 'normal', 'milestone', 'development', appear as non-problematic in much of the literature in psychology, the dominance of the growth model has been questioned both inside and outside psychology. Burman (2008) challenged the truth of evolutionary psychology after exploring the historical and cultural roots of his claims. For Vurman, the claims of developmental psychology of childhood, must be understood as cultural perceptions, embedded in political and social meanings. Indeed, for Vurman, "the normal child, the ideal type, results from the comparative results of age-weighted population, therefore it is a fiction or a fable (Burman, 2008, p 22). Moreover, according to Billington (2008), developmental psychology can not represent the general diversity and diversity of function for children. It aims at criticized uniformity and diversity. Those children do not spend their developmental stages, the period specified by the developmental psychology become problematic and are unable to participate in society and school so they therefore be excluded. The field of developmental psychology, is the basis for policy implementation in regular kids. A typical example is that of Early Years Foundation Stage (DfES 2007) which is commanded by teachers to assess children under 69 specific educational objectives or milestones, up to 5 years.The Hegemony of developmental psychology, has the role of increasing the scope and influence. The impact of the hegemonic status of developmental psychology is clear and is gaining ground in the children's policy. Children who can not touch the stages and goals, are becoming the "other", different, and as supported by the heterogeneity in this model which can be understood only as inferior as something that is in a lower developmental level. (Walkerdine 1993, p 456). Therefore some disabled children fail to match the child who has developed political reasons and placed in the room more frequently and for longer. He is often excluded from education and care and is committed to poverty. In their article, the Goodley and Runswick-Cole (2011), examining the ways in which the policies of England, based on perceptions of disabled problematic, reproducing the tyranny of developmental psychology and context of the mother who wants
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the key to social and developmental change. These allegations, bring disabled children and their families in a blocked political context. In developmental psychology, claims and unfair play tactics are in regard to disability. The daily life and practices, contribute to the construction of an alternative form of politics.The developmental psychology, is focused on the deficit of the child, not the removal of barriers imposed by society. The focus of developmental psychology can be found to the achievement that inevitably puts disabled children on the sidelines. (Goodley, Runswick-Cole, 2011). The developmental psychology in its original form in the public education system, can be regarded as a more complex form of oppression than that defined as directphysical violence. It provided a structure of discourse that acted to discipline the "wild"and "defective" children not to touch them (Baker, 1998b).
Conclusions Zoniou-Sideris (2004, p 49) reports that treatment of disability and disability in its general term is constructed and places the disabled in a marginal position of dependence, poverty, unemployment and frustration equal rights as a citizen is entitled. Also, Bardeau argues that disabilities in today's society are institutional productions of wage-class society and the medical knowledge developed over the repressive function is disabled. It is a knowing party to the institutional production of disability (Zoniou-Sideris, 1998). The developmental psychology, therefore, an extension of exclusion systems. Like the medical model, has an impact on people with disabilities, as converts to "broken bodies" and "defective minds." When the definition or description refers to the "defective" body at the same time refers to the inability to appropriate and adequate social participation. Therefore, the embodiment of disability means the separation of those who have the label. (Hughes, 2002).
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Bibliography
Billington, T. 2008. Working with children: Assessment, representation and intervention. London: Routledge. Burman, E. 2008. Deconstructing developmental psychology. London: Routledge. Finkelstein, V. (1993b). Disability: A social challenge or an administrative responsibility? In: J. Swain, V. Finkelstein, S. French & M. Oliver (Eds.) Disabling barriers-enabling environments (pp 34-43). London:Sage Publications Goodley, D. & RunswickCole K. (2011). Problematising policy: conceptions of child, disabled and parents in social policy in England. International Journal of Inclusive Education, Vol. 15, 7185 -, . (1998). . : . -, A. (2004). H : . . - (-.) , ( 29-54), , . Oliver, . (1990). he politics of Disablement. Reader in disability studies. Tames Polytechnic. French, S. & Swain, J. (1997). Towards an Affirmation Model of Disability. Disability & society, Vol. 15, 4 Oliver, M. (1996). Understanding Disability: From theory to practice. London: Macmillan. Walkerdine, V. 1993. Beyond developmentalism. Theory Psychology 3: 45169
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New technologies in teaching Latin
Galanopoulou Georgia, University of Ioannina, tzigala@yahoo.gr Georgopoulou Efstathia, University of Peloponnese, efigeorgopoulou@windowslive.com
Abstract In our study reference is made to new technologies in teaching Latin. A brief reference, in the first place, is made about the prerequisites required for effective teaching. The most basic of all is the discontinuing of the teachercentered model and placement of emphasis on the students role. The traditional model is substituted by a new type of student-centered and groupcollaborative teaching in order to avoid sterile learning. This method is conducive to the reduction of students prejudice against Latin. In order to achieve this in practice, suitable work sheets are used through which the motivated students are able to self-actualize, to exercise their critical thinking and initiate in the group-collaborative spirit.
Key words: technology, group-collaborative, student-centered
1. Introduction
Teaching forms a value system in which the interaction subjects are the teacher and student aiming at the knowledge acquisition and skills cultivation. It is, therefore, in direct relation to learning since it aims at it. The use of appropriate methods will make it substantial as well. The Greek educational system, in many cases, uses old-fashioned pedagogical teaching methods. As an outcome, the mechanic memorization is promoted directing the student towards inert behavior and sterile knowledge. Latin is taught, accordingly, in the theoretical direction of 2 nd and 3rd grade of the Lyceum. On the basis of the curriculum, teaching is carried out through the use of school books and the teacher is being addressed as an authority. Even though students have all the material concentrated while it is
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unnecessary to look for other resources, they lack critical thinking, research, self-actualization and personal initiative.
What is important to be mentioned is that teachers, under the burdening need to set the foundation in Latin in the 2nd grade of the Lyceum, emphasize on the cognitive material which is foreseen to complete a certain volume of material. Thus, focusing on the 2nd grade, which is depended on the basis of the 3rd grade, there is no room for student-centered teaching left.
Nonetheless school communities are equipped with technological means such as computers and projectors they are not fully utilized regarding, at least, Latin.
2. Teaching Latin at school
The conclusion drawn from the above mentioned is that even though school books meet the needs of the school program, current pedagogical methods, however, are not adjusted. As a result, teaching does not reflect the students real needs, it is old-fashioned, non student-centered and students are faced with problems. More analytically, the subject is disdained and feared by students. Latin is a foreign language to them.
But the objective of this subject is children to learn Latin and, at the same time, to initiate in the Roman civilization because they would be able, this way, to estimate its value. Nevertheless, the subject deviates from its real objective. Since students needs for the panhellenic examinations have to be met, significance is given to grammar, syntax and vocabulary without any focus on the texts content. There is, therefore, difficulty in comprehending the morals projected and, as a consequence, the texts educational value is not recognized. Besides, the fact that Latin is a dead language to them reinforces even more their confidence that its character is not of usage to their lives. Therefore, the subject is rejected as indifferent and unsubstantial.
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In addition, frontal teaching forms another argument about this type of teaching to be rejected by students. The subject is deemed obsolete because it aims at sterile memorization and passive attendance. No motives and audiovisual stimuli for active participation are provided resulting to the suspension of personal initiative.
Another phenomenon which is being observed is the grading pursuit and the students targeting to high performance in the panhellenic examination in order to enter to higher educational institutions. Thus, they remember the new information in order to take the examination whereas, afterwards, they either forget it or do not use it to solve every day life problems (Vosniadou, 2006: 93).
Students, however, focus on the need for a change. They state that they prefer computers to traditional classroom activities. They also regard the way the lesson is carried out as unsatisfactory, feeling, many times, tediousness and boredom. This passive attitude does not represent them at all. (Vosniadou, 2006: 39)
They also wish to participate in learning as active members who, through motives and various activities, will be able to meet the lesson requirements, pursuing, of course, their personal initiative projection through an experiential learning model.
Within the framework to avoid mechanized and without approach learning, computers and projectors were introduced that is innovations adopting the intensive use of technology for a wide framework of projects, interactively, providing students the opportunity to get constructively and actively involved with interdisciplinary issues. Thus, projects will be characterized by a spirit of investigation and autonomous guidance (Vosniadou, 2006: 360).
Latin should correspondingly be modernized through the use of new technologies slipping from the traditional teacher-centered model. On the first level, the teacher acting as a guide selects some units, according to his own
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will, dedicating, now and then, instruction hours because this project is regarded as more significant that the one carried out during one instruction hour since all the necessary elements of a long teaching are contained (Trilianos, 2008: 20).
Then, the teacher, after having selected subject matter and unit, creates work sheets which contain the text and general guidelines on the basis of which students will work. Afterwards, within the group-collaborative teaching framework, he divides students into groups under the clarifications of the work sheets concerning the manner of the activity as well as the elements to be pursued through the internet sites given. In the next phase, groups should evaluate data, classify them and, eventually, present them in the classroom.
In this manner, the procedure does not form a mechanized method of knowledge and this is achieved through the learning environment organization. According to Meyers analyses, the lesson structure is carried out within a group-centered teaching spirit by putting into practice certain functions which separate and diversify the lesson from the frontal model. As a consequence, the students are provided with the possibility to freely experience their curiosity, develop their systematic work while, concurrently, the teacher is able to observe and experience the class or group of students in a way different from the teacher-centered model (Kossivaki,2004: 391).
3. Lesson plan and work sheets
TEXT II
Dido and Aeneas Aeneas filius Anchisae est. Patria Aeneae Troia est. Graeci Troiam oppugnant et dolo expugnant. Aeneas cum Anchisa, cum nato et cum sociis at Italiam navigat. Sed venti pontum turbant et Aenean in
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Africam portant. Ibi Dido regina novam patriam fundat. Aeneas reginae insidias Graecorum renarrat. Regina Aenean amat et Aeneas reginae insidias Graecorum renarrat. Regina Aenean amat et Aeneas Virgil, Aeneas
To achieve the lesson teaching objectives three groups of at least six people each are going to be needed. The procedure of material research as well as its presentation will last two instruction hours.
According to the procedure:
GROUP A They undertake the task of looking for authors biographical elements as well as the historic framework in which he lived and acted.
Relevant internet sites:
www.sfrang.com/selide/mm1/html/wirgil.htm www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latina-virgilios-publius-verciliw-maro
GROUP B
They will look through internet sites to locate the text translation and along with comments on syntax they will proceed to its syntax. Syntactical comments should eventually be understood in order to be analyzed during the presentation.
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examsos.youblog.gr/2008/11/18/147 blogs.sch.gr/larmoisiades/files/2008/09/keimena.pdf GROUP C
Locate grammar relevant to the text and gather comments on vocabulary. Relevant internet sites:
apostolos/963.blogspot.com/2010/os/blogspot_1855 html latinika/keimena/oo2 Lat.B.Keim.pdf WORK SHEETS FOR STUDENTS
GROUP A Open the computer and go to the installed internet provider. Navigate in the websites: www.sfrang.com/selides/mm1/html/virgili.htm www.ebdomi.com/arthra/24ii-latino-virgilios-publius-vercilius-publius-vergiliusmaro QUESTIONS ) Who was Virgil? ) Which era did he live in? C) What are his works? D) Which was the socio-historic framework of the era?
GROUP B Open the computer and go to the installed internet provider. Navigate in the websites:
examsos.youblog.gr/2008/11/18/147 blogs.sch.gr/larmoisiades/files/2008/09keimena.pdf
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EXERCISES ) Write down the text translation ) After you have observed the syntactical comments, proceed to the syntax of the text.
GROUP C Open the computer and go to the installed internet provider. Navigate in the websites: apostolos/963.blogspot.com/2010/os/blogspot_1855 html latinika/keimena/oo2 Lat.B.Keim.pdf EXERCISES ) Write down the grammar relevant to the text ) Write separately grammatical exceptions C) Write down the unit syntactical phenomena
BIBLIOGRAPHY Alessi, S. & Trollip, S. ( 2005 ) , : Austin, R. ( 2000 ), IV, : University Studio Press Albrecht, M. ( 1995 ), , : Bertrand, Y. ( 1999 ), : : , . ( 2006 ) , , : Gutenberg , . ( 2006 ), , : Gutenberg , . ( 1993 ), , : , . ( 2003 ), , : Gutenberg
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. ( 1995 ), , : Cicero, ( 1998 ), The republic faws, trans, translated by Niall Rudd, Oxford : Oxford University Press Harrison, S. ( 2007 ), Oxford readings in Vergils Aeneid, Oxford: Oxford Harrison, St. ( ed ), ( 2005 ), Latin Literature London ; Blackwell Publishing Highet, G. ( 2001 ), , : Kennedy, I. ( 2007 ), , : , . ( 2004 ), , : Gutenberg , . ( 2000 ), : Marples, R. ( 2003 ), , : Martindde, Ch. ( 2005 ), Latin Poetry and the judgment of taste , New York: Oxford University Press , . ( 2007 ), , : Gutenberg , . ( 2006 ), , : , & , . ( 2001 ), , : , , . ( 2003 ), , : , . , , . ( 2003 ) o , : , . ( 2001 ), , : , . ( 2008 ), , .. . , :
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, . ( 2009 ), , : Reble, A. ( 2005 ), , : Rose, H. ( 1994 ), , : , . ( 1995 ), , : , . ( 2007 ) , : Gutenberg , . ( 2005 ), 1 2 , : Vergilius, P. ( 1980 ) Aeneidos cliber secundus ), Edited by R. Austin, Oxford : Clarendam Press , . ( 2009 ) : .
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Lucian from Samosata and his neglected libel titled as To an uneducated book-collector
Vassiliki Belogiannis, MPhil Candidate on Classical Literature
To Dr. Orestis Karavas my schoolmaster for imparting the light of knowledge and inspiration Summary Even if Lucian is one of the most important spokespersons of Greek Literature during the first centuries AC, his life and writings havent really intrigued philologists in order to elaborate on their views and findings as regards to his written inheritance. One of his most intense writings, the libel To an uneducated book collector remains hardly studied and commented by the modern researchers of literature, even if this text touches in many ways the different tasks of Greek and Roman antiquity with a sense of humor that differs from rude to worth-telling. In the article below as brief as possible a presentation of the precious libel is being cited. Age-old Lucian Throughout the entire length of progression of Greek philology that has been meditated on writings from the 1st and 2nd century AC, Lucian was considered as a highly controversial -certainly notorious- literary personality. A blatant ideological divide which separates the Syrian scholar from grammarians of the next centuries -who were strongly motivated by Christianity- was enough to mark him with the most repulsive descriptions such as blasphemous or ridiculous ( or )1. However, despite those various negative comments that were occasioned by the different expressions of his satirical wit, Lucian has managed not only to remain memorable as regards the
1
Sudas dictionary refers:
. Culture Journal June 2012 19
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following grammatological studies, but also influenced many of the contemporary thinkers and writers2. It has been said that Julius Verne was inspired his De la Terre la Lune writing by Lucians True Tales ( )3. Closer to the current literary era, K.P. Cavafy comes to dedicate a whole poem to the famous one4. Since the authors death eighteen hundreds of years have been served, however, the precise date of his birth and action remains unattainable. Nevertheless, most of the philologists affix his birth in somewhere around 120 AC, whilst hes rather believed to have died in 180-190 AC according to data derived by reading his writings themselves. However, we are able to be aware of his living in the Imperial period, during the reign of Antonines, when Syria was under the authority of the Roman Empire, and his meeting closely the acne of the Second Sophistic movement, which so deeply affected his worldview and his writing style5. Born in Samosata of Commagene, a wide Syrian province, Lucian drafted about 82 literary manuscripts written on a perfect ancient attic dialect, many of which are nowadays defaulted as illegitimate. These manuscripts are conventionally divided into two wide categories, writings with dialogue and writings without dialogue. Hes traditionally considered to be the founder of the fictional novel, whilst his fame, once hated and sometimes admirable, was
2
See Mystakidou M., Trips to the moon, Eleftherotypia, 25.07.2009: pp.9 and
Mastrodimitris PP.D., Makrygiannis and Lucian about History, Nea Estia, 953, 15.03.1967: pp. 376.
3 4
See Mystakidou, opp.cit. See Nikolareizis D., Recreational pursuits of our scholars, Nea Estia, 222, 15.03.1936: pp.
436, Cavafy K.PP., Greek scholars at Roman houses, Nea Estia, 602, 1927: pp. 585 and Cavafy K.PP., Poems 1897-1933, vol. I, 1984, Athens, Ikaros: pp. 49. Konstantinos Cavafy borrowed the titles of his poem This Famous ( ) by the eminent narration of a Lucians dream in his writing titles as , 11.
5
For further information about the cultural and literary production of the period Nesselrath
H.G., Introduction to the knowledge of antiquity, vol.I, 1997, Athens, Papadimas: chapter: The Imperial period. Culture Journal June 2012 20
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spread while the writer was still alive 6. In conclusion, Sudas dictionary describes his natural end most likely under the effect of some mythical rumor according to which Lucian was supposed to be massacred by stray dogs at the age of 75. Nonetheless, this dying version is strongly contested by the modern philological skepticism. In my opinion, the way that Lucian was supposed to have died does hardly correspond to historical reality. Instead, it was perhaps the copiers community -consistent mostly of religious persons in the acne of Christianity- that had tried to reciprocate the insult to Lucian for what was considered as contempt to the divinity by him. As far as I am concerned, the fact that the Syrian writer was said to have been devoured by stray dogs is far from coincidental, since Lucian frequently narrates of stories where the main character expires after his circumcision by passerby stray dogs7. We could apply this reasoning to assume that the age-old (mostly Christian) grammarians have attempted to get their revenge by offering him the false rumor of his very favorite coda, which is nothing but a killing by dogs. Furthermore, the researcher can infer that the pattern of division by wildlife is often found in ancient Greek mythical tradition, just like the stereotypical battle between a mortal and Death in Modern Greek folk songs. Facts about the author in brief The great satirist, as Vaggos Papaioannou called him8, was a child of a petty family without any particular prosperity who hadnt fall back on the field of literature and intellectual from the outset of his professional career. The author himself outlines his course towards humanities through an essay titled
6
See Papaioannou V., Cicero and Lucian at Thessaloniki, Nea Estia, 1403, December
1985: pp. 59 and Karantonis A., With Lucian in the island of immortals, Nea estia, 1263, 15.02.1980: pp. 287.
7
As mentioned above, the rumor of Lucians demise by stray dogs is probably not true. In his
inscriptions the conclusion of a division by savage dogs is often encountered with most distinctive the examples of Neanthos (To an uneducated book collector, , 12) and Actaion (Dialogues of gods: Hera and Leto, : , 2).
8
See Papaioannou V., Lucian. The great satirist of Antiguity, 1976, Thessaloniki,
Konstantinidis. Culture Journal June 2012 21
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as About a dream or Life of Lucian ( ) which refers to his initial involvement in the art of sculpture under the urging of his parents. However, fate forces him to quit this occupation just after his first day of exercising, since his uncle and employer beats him after breaking a piece of marble by mistake. The same night he dreams of two women, Sculpture () and Education () arguing and demanding him under their sponsorship9. Eventually, Education wins and this is how Lucians route to the scholar education begins10. Long after, Lucian leaves an appreciable forensic career and switches from the field of Rhetoric to the much afflicted domain of Philosophy, right after his first meeting with Nigrino the philosopher11. In the end, he quits this career too and hes devoted to a more monotonous job at the Egyptian government, a fact for which hes going to submit his defense after a long time through his creative pen12.
See Lucians, About a dream or Life of Lucian ( ). See Lucians, Accused twice ( ). When Lucian would abandon Rherotic,
10
she lodge a lawsuit against him, so that the writer has the opportunity to apologize into an unparalleled speech titled as Accused twice. For further biographical information of Lucian, see Papaioannou 1976, op.cit.: pp. 59-86, Kroh PP., Dictionary of Ancient Authors, Greek and Latin, trans. Lypourlis D., Tromaras L., 1996, Thessaloniki, University Studio Press: pp. 303305, Nesselrath 1997, op.cit: pp. 278, Sirinelli J., Children of Alexander, trans. BiniSotiropoulou S., 2001, Athens, Zacharopoulos: pp. 422-428, Trd M. - Sad S., Le Boulluec A., History of Greek Literature, vol. II, trans. Karamanos Xanthaki G., Pothou
V., Kyriazopoulos A., 2004, Athens, Papazisis: pp. 197-199 and 236-245. See also, Harmon A., Lucian, vol. I, 1921, Cambridge-MA-London, Loeb Classical Library: pp. 173 and De Romilly J., Ancient Greek Literature, trans. Mikrogiannaki-Christopoulou Th., 1988, Athens, Kardamitsa: pp. 300-304.
11 12
See, Lucians Nigrino (). See Lucians Apology (). Lucian wrote this project in order to defend himself
directly as regards his last career choice. The need for apologizing gets generated because of a previous writing of Lucian named as About those who run after salary ( ), where he criticizes the intellectual men of the time, who prefer to resort in courts of the rich in order to work as teachers for their living. However, there theyre made to endure various acts of humiliation by their employers. Culture Journal June 2012 22
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Lucian and his era Before a reader begins to meditate on the libel, he has to take into account that theres no real match between Lucian and his living era. The blooming Roman Empire extends hospitality to a crowd of fake-schoolmasters who promise they can lead their rich patrons to both long intellectual leaps and social distinction through their magical teaching tricks. On the other hand, multicultural consistence of the Roman Empire had brought a varied crowd of people and cultures to co-existence. In fact, this crowd lives under constant collision of attitudes, values and cultures. Simultaneously, classical literature gets fashionable, although mode does not focus on classical ideals, too. During such a multiform era lives Lucian, when everything can be sold or bought; authority, education, love and friendship. Its important to be elucidated that Lucian does not observe that general corruption as regards the field of education and humanities through the eyes of a nave and astonished rustic man. Contrarily, his birth place was an important station of commerce and a spot of hostility for various foreigners and different schools of oratory. Besides, after his decision to treat on oratory, the Syrian scholar begins with a roaming during which hes going to be a witness of charlatanism, shadow education and often parastate13. The libel As in many of his other manuscripts, thus in his libel To an uneducated bookcollector Lucian refers at first to the subject of lack of education with some tempestuous honesty. Traditionally, the libel is concerned to be written at about 168 AC and it is included in the category of Lucians writings without dialogue or letters. Nevertheless, a more extensive observation at the text could raise many questions as regards the main categorization of the mentionable libel. In fact, Lucian does not import any straight conversation into the libel with the form we are used to meet dialogues in ancient Greek texts as some kind of mimesis. However, the author gets to ask Apaedeftos (, the uneducated man) questions directly for which he also
13
See Nesselrath (1997), op. cit.: p. 274. Culture Journal June 2012 23
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receives not oral responses, but simple-minded signs and nods. We could interpret this dramatic trick as an emphasized exposition of Lucians mental superiority in comparison to Apaedeftos, since the ignorant Syrian man seems unable to defend himself by structured speech and arguments, as his talking failure makes him act like a buffoon for readers. So this writing look more like a direct conversation, where Lucian is the only character that uses (human) oral speech as the man with the higher quality of intelligence contrary to Apaedeftos who hardly involves actively in the libelous debate. Wherefore, the existence of this particular communicational practice between the two principal characters of the libel sets a new frame of questioning about correctness of its current categorization. On the other hand, the text is reasonably described as a libel as it conflicts, scoffs, humiliates and sneers a certain person who primarily constitutes the motive that triggered Lucians pen. Within thirty steles Lucian manages to debase the object of his deriding, to document his contention with anecdotal stories and facts, to use many of the common oratory techniques for persuasion and, finally, to humiliate Apaedeftos through phrases of escalating emotion and culminate in a crescendo of anger, where the author sounds stiff. Then, problematic of the text does not only refer to the difficulty of its precise categorization. The hefty theme of the libel deserves of assiduous studying and deliberation, too. At a poor glance, one may assume that carried away by his indignations for the arrogance of a compatriot, Lucian clasps his pen and writes this essay just to humble him. All the more so, the letter ends with a warning against the recipient; Lucian severe criticism is not finished yet with those famous lines. Im of the opinion that the uneducated man is nothing but the motive of the writing, since ignorance appears frequently as the main subject of the libel but not as the sole. Consequently, the libel could be considered as a manifest of key-ethical issues, as it introduces of many topics that are in a close reasoning relationship between them, such as moral inconsistency among theory and practice, losing all sense of proportion, hypocrisy, lack of self-knowledge, conceit, exhibitionism, charlatanism etc. Much more, the author refers allusively to the injustice of the social and financial division of people between rich and poor, which determines access
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to education, to the risk of parasitism, the rise of materialism and the depravity of the population who lives under slavery14. Apaedeftos as a historical persona and a symbol The possible existence of such a provocative personality in the familiar environment of Lucian has been a fortunate fact for us, the posterior philologists who have the chance to enjoy an instructive, humorous and full of information about the special conditions of that era writing. However, any attempt to verify the historical existence of Apaedeftos or prove that hes nothing more than an artificial figure constructed by the author for the literary needs ends in query. Nevertheless, all along the thirty steles dotted information -once vague and sometimes convincing- is formulated about the ignorant mans origin, sexual orientation, scandals and the way he acquired his financial prosperity. All these particular details in the corpus of narration could substantiate the opinion according to which Apaedeftos existed for real. On the other hand, symbolic aspect of the protagonist is obvious and substantial. The researcher has only to combine historical information relating to the contemporary society to understand the way in which Lucians uneducated man turns progressively into an invidious representative of an entire social drift which is described by their moral paradox and unconformity. In the frame of this -once modern- senselessness, members of that social drift claim either they can teach some superior wisdom (which in fact they dont get at all) or they belong to the class of the most witty and gifted people of that current period, although they only know the wealth of classics superficially and right from the tags. Caricature In Lucians narration, the ignorant man is described as unable to defend himself with verbal and reasoning arguments, nonetheless, always ready to show himself off through his material fortune, which contains -amongst else14
For an introduction to the libel see Papaioannou, 1976, op. cit.: p. 104, Hopkinson N.,
Lucian. A selection, 2003, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: p. 119-120 and Kondylakis I., Complete works of Lucian, vol. 14, 1911, Athens, Feksis: p. 6. Culture Journal June 2012 25
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an enviable book- collection. Therefore, the satirized man doesnt seem to have the necessary skills and abilities in order to utilize sufficiently his great acquisition. As Lucian gets to realize this sort of offence, he feels angry enough to make an effort to expand his hate to the libels readers or listeners. On the other hand, all the personal information that the author offers within his libel reminds more of some yellow press that an honest checking of Apaedeftos real level of knowledge. Thus, were being informed that Apaedeftos was parasiting by an old childless masters side and that he managed to place his name illegally as a payee heir into his lords testament. This attack reaches the peak when the Syrian writer reveals -as if it happened by the way- Apaedeftos reveling sexual activities and when judging arrives to the relationship between the uneducated man and books, the later one gets ridiculed and humiliated through rough comments that find him guilty of discord, misreading and misunderstanding as regards the content and meanings of classical texts. To conclude, its important to be noted that the motive of lack of education is not innovating, but it is met again and again in the lines of different Lucians writings as a matter for more thinking. Detecting Lucian through the libel; spoydaeogelion () Nowadays, its widely concerned that most of the Lucians writings offer scattered information and clues about the authors life and personality that reinforce our endeavor to restore his historical and moral profile. In this libel the writer comes to admonish his compatriot who seems to reflect the immoral attitude of an entire social streaming consistent by uneducated wisemen. So, Apaedeftos gets punished for the crimes of all the deceivers, the ignorant and careless people of that time. I firmly believe that -even though it is carefully disguised- the didactic discourse of the project should not be disregarded by the reader as the libel constitutes to some extend an implicit exhortation to moral consistency. Besides, Lucian attempts to criticize any discordance between the theory of how a man is supposed to live and human actions at last throughout whole his bibliography. It is precisely this inconsistency, this gap that divides the particular worldview of men who allege themselves as savants and the
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actualization of this ideology that is keenly denoted by Lucian in a neither consequential nor grandiose way, but with humor and essence, too, so many readers were hastened to underline the spoydaeogelion of his method15. In this project, the author involves actively and hes personally outraged by the abusing attitude of his compatriot. The indignation against Apaedeftos outrageous hypocrisy gets so peaked that Lucian does not hesitate as he divulges of spicy details about the ignorant mans love life and taunts him constantly. Always rebellious and under the request of creating a better new world, Lucian reveals his critique accompanied by plentiful the convincing arguments. Therefore, in fact, his criticism remains orientated to the provocation of some emotional and intellectual awakening of readers and listeners. But the author makes absolutely no counter-proposal to improve the situation and the limit that kind of deception. It could probably be said that he kind of attempts to bestow some justice by threatening indirectly any ignorant concerned with a public denounced fabricated by his stylus. An alternative explanation of the absence of anu clear counter-proposals may be the fact that Lucian does not show off himself as a wise pattern for his fellow citizens at all. All these frequent references to his barbaric origin and his caustic sarcasm about it could advocate up this thought. Even when the author gets to mention himself within his texts, he does it in a way that is far from egotism or boasting16. Another element of Lucians rhetorical method, as it can be seen in his writings, is crossing the line of discretion (tact). Therefore, he very often gives background information away that is usually referred to the opponent's personal life, but pnly a little information is really related to the termination of ignorance of another man and has virtually no testimonial value. However, the
15
During antiquity spoydaegelion refers to the joke, the banter which discloses the Within the libel he writes: , 19. Culture Journal June 2012 27
ridiculous side of daily serious issues.

16
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minor clues reported are intended to underestimate the moral value of Apaedeftos and provide readers with empathy against him of such an extent that in many cases he becomes mudslinging. If we try to reconstruct Lucians likely political ideology we will face plenty of guiding signs, yet weak enough as historical evidence, but kind of reinforcing to our conjectures with some plausibility. However, I strongly believe that Lucian was a supporter of democratic ideology. This is because thought the entire length of his libels he cites myths and anecdotal stories that debunk the tyrants and overstate their lack of prudence. Moreover, he usually refers keenly to their use of being purchased, to their dazzling by material property and their carrying away by flatterers, as a result of their substantial ignorance. Finally, his apparent protest in which the rich ones are able to have at their disposal goods and services which theyre unable to use (such as, for example, access to education) indicates a request for fair settlement of injustice stemming from the social distribution of people in classes. As a writer, Lucian seems to love tragic endings of people to whom the action of each story dedicated. The strong majority of figures of his unpublished stories are experiencing an unexpected and gruesome death end. For example, Orpheus is massacred by the Thracian women, Pentheus gets beheaded by the Bacchae, the followers of Dionysus, the young tyrant Neanthos gets devoured by stray dogs, Evangelos gets wildly beaten by judges, just as Thersites gets abused by Odysseus. The examples given in the libel do not dry up here, Phaedra finds death by her own hand, Proteus is on fire, Dionysius remains doomed to his clumsiness and lack of talent, Geryon gets murdered and Bellerophon suffers unfairly for a long time. We could say that through this regular pattern of using mostly tragic conclusions Lucian declares his own faith to the Solons quote "bless no one before his death" according to which even the rich do not escape by a painful end. As regards Apaedeftos, the author is often presented as an eyewitness of those events that expose irreparably the immorality icompatriot17. Action is not limited to the disclosure of scandals, but goes
17
See
, , 25. Culture Journal June 2012 28
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further to the mentioning of distinctive admonition towards the ignorant man as a wanna-be reformer of his negatively criticized culture. Certainly, any advice to the ignorant Syrian man does not only reflect of Lucians effort to improve his compatriot, but embraces the request to change the whole attitude of the respective social drift and also his attempt to unclothe supposed wise men from their false and void validity. Information about books and paleography as issued from the libel The To an uneducated book-collector writing provides a lot of information regarding the style of publications of the 2nd century AD and titles of the bestselling books of the same period. Concerning the outer appearance of books, were coming in for the period in which the parchment as a graphic material makes its modest emergence, but the papyrus seems to prevail even though its price was much higher. Beyond the physical substance of books, there are scattered information within the libel related to their form that we lead us to presume the prevalence of cylinders compared the emerging documents as , volumes. Indeed, as the author talks about gold hubs, parchment and epigrams, he seems to point out rather rolls than codes. However, as we go on reading the writing, we find that the sense of luxury and a tendency for splurge has permeated the field of publishing books, since ignorant men prefer to collect overly ornate books as they ignore the real value of their content. They even pick especially the most decorated in external form. Along the 2nd century AD, the possession of books was much regarded as a source of prestige and self-promotion. At the same time interest in the classics of Greek literature revives more than ever and traders were looking for the most classic book, the oldest one and the most coveted 18. Of course there are many people who obtain the oldest books to equip their libraries in order to be dressed up by the image of "the sage one". A financial wherewithal purchasing is enough to help anyone seize a little treasure of knowledge and go on competing with educated ones, who often live in poverty and deprived of such a possession.
18
See Reynolds L.D.-Wilson N.G., Copiers and scholars, trans. Panagiotakis N., 1987,
Athens, ....: p. 47-48. Culture Journal June 2012 29
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We moreover deduce that, thanks to all these points of the 2nd centurys daily life, book trade flourishes. Many of the infamous manuscripts of classical literature were found in large private libraries of Rome as spoils from the former Greek territory. During this period the pattern of after-Alexandrian Latinism and Hellenism gets established and puts forward many issues related to language with most typical the conflict between Atticism and Asianism, a dispute that will discredit the historical period and set as dual the proper style of literary language19. he project as a comment on Education of the 2nd cen. AC Scholars of the history of Greek literature, at their overwhelming majority say that the hellenization of the inhabitants of the Roman Empire during the 1 st century BC and 1st century AD led gradually -combined to other factors- to revival of the classic spirit. In fact, many are those who are studying and imitating classical models throughout the exaggeration of the language of classical literature, the Attic dialect20. Lucian, on his side, declares regularly his aversion to the immoderate use of Attic types in literature and the broader verbal expression of the time. However, the shift in the glorious past does not only affect the field of speech, but penetrates in daily public lifestyle too, dress code and eating habits. Whilst everyone wants to create a private collection of classical literary writings as required by the contemporary trend, were sure that copying of manuscripts was intensified during the 2nd century BC21. Thus, in the libel there is an indirect reference to regular traders who artificially stale several manuscripts to satisfy the demand of ancient writings, but also to profit by raising the price at the argument of the products "scarcity". The libel also refers to the hypocritical imitation of the great men and the obsession with the
19
See Reynolds & Wilson, 1987, op. cit.: p. 62-97 and Trypakis K.., Atticism and our
linguistic issues, Records of Athens Academy, Retained session in April 10th 1984, dir. G. Mixailidis-Nouaros: 10.04.1984.
20 21
See Trypakis, 1984, op. cit. See Reynolds & Wilson, 1987, op. cit..: p. 47-48. Culture Journal June 2012 30
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ascetic appearance of wise men22. So, as the allegedly wise men are nothing more than owners of expensive books, detached from the knowledge
contained in them, Lucian gets angry and indignant in view of this abusive dealing with the glorious past, so he taunt them tirelessly. Various historical sources indicate that many men of the 2nd century liked to impersonate the scholars and the cultured ones by adopting a thoroughly sloppy appearance, seem to be ascetic and taking advantage of the prestige that can be derived from the same impression. Indeed, this is the well-known Second Sophistic period, a period full of uneducated "authority" that used to sell their teaching services for high fee. According to Lucian demanding exchange for teaching indicates exactly a complete lack of true education 23. Within the considered libel the author seems to categorize those ignorant men into three sub-categories: those who, although they have only received basic training, they remain uneducated, then those who pretend to be educated by always bringing a book to present testimonies for their high culture and even tend to rely just on the titles of the most acclaimed books of the era without having actually studied them, and, finally, the sophomoric ones, those who were educated by their congenial men and do not possess any skills rather than part of writing and reading, let alone the interpretation of classical works. We could say that Lucian turns his arrows against all those empty advisers who nevertheless pretend to be educated with some kind of latent competition. However, the libel does not overlook the lot evils that ignorance brings out such as facile manipulation, deception, ridicule, lack of critical thinking and easy moral erosion. The pure and simple demonstration of the author lies perhaps in a smaller, less obvious degree. Some want to study,
22
Lucian usually criticizes wisdom based just on external appearance:
, , Hecaromenipus or Hypernefelos ( ), 5.20.

23
See Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit..: p. 58-77. Culture Journal June 2012 31
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but the financial requirements of teachers do not allow them access to education, which has now been commercialized24. On the other hand, many others may have the necessary financial comfort to attend classical training, but they are not tempered, hard workers or intellectually qualified to attempt. However, they dare to claim they know everything in detail25. From whats mentioned above we can conclude this unit by saying that Lucian lived at a time, when the study of classical literature had reached at its peak, but the classical culture itself is not growing as rapidly as one might suppose. This is because the quality of education is not upgraded, as a matter of the emphasis in sterile memorization of various passages of classical works to impress, while the value of content, the moral and didactic interpretation of ancient literature has been placed in the background. Oratory and philosophy. Thought and Language within the libel. Both the multiple readings and the so-called "interpretative circle" let us discern the author's vacillation between two sectors that used to be keystations of his life and professional career throughout the length of the libel; philosophy and oratory. Nowadays, sources that are at our disposal admit Lucians turn from the art of rhetorics to the science of philosophy only a few years before writing this project and just after his meeting with Nigrino the neoplatonist26. Certainly, Lucians studies on sophistry do not point out any huge incompatibility to philosophical meditation since sophists had a clear enough philosophical point of view which led them to keen conflict against the opponent -pure philosophic- movement of neoplatonism. However, effects of the two rival intellectual awes acted on Lucian and are now clearly reflected in mainly in the author's views on hubris and moral consistency.
24 25 26
About the education system of that period see Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit.: p. 19-21. , , 4. See Papaioannoy, 1997, op. cit: p. 68-69. Culture Journal June 2012 32
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On the other hand, we know that Lucian worked for long as a professional orator oftentimes taking part in judicial trials. Despite the fact that writing of this libel follows Lucians swift to philosophy, his oratory experience is not eliminated, on the contrary, his previous adeptness affects the structure of his language considerably, so that no one could ignore his lawyer past. From the first lines of the libel the author attempts to gain sympathy of the audience by using many of those tricks that ensure favor, attention and orientation. We need to study the text word by word to perceive the delicacy with which he organizes his emotional invocation in order to invite the audience to seize his personal indignation. As were going along reading the text, frequent attacks on Apaedeftos morality are found, where Lucian does not boggle to decry him about issues that are hardly related to the topic of ignorance for which the man is typically criticized through the libel. We can also identify many insulting characterizations combined with relative proofs -which are rather consisted by skillful arguments and parables than objective presumptions, apart from a few exceptions- while he also refers indirectly and modestly to his own morality. Concerning the language, the excessively atticistic spirit of the main period does not seem to have affected Lucian in real, despite his oratorical education. Thus, as a typical fan of (philosophical) midway, the Syrian scholar might choses attic dialect for his literary operations, but he refrains from the current imitating extravagance that is usual in expression and literature during the 2nd century AC. In conclusion, we can say that Lucians authorial persona used those elements that were in compliance with his personality without taking supporting any of the two basic linguistic movements of that period at the beginning of what were now calling linguistic issue. At the same way, he seems to embrace many of the great philosophical ideas of the Roman period barren of being totally agreed with the positions of a certain philosophical movement27.
27
Besides, within his essay Hecaromenipus or Hypernefelus ( )
he claims that he failed to discover a philosophical system which is beyond all doubt. Culture Journal June 2012 33
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Cooperative actions within the learning framework on the basis of projects in the subject of Biology in the 1st Lyceum grade
Babou, D., Secondary Education, Msc (c), despkas@hotmail.com
Abstract The present research aims at studying the 1st Lyceum grade students perceptions in relation to the Group Inquiry Projects implementation in the subject of Biology. An improvised questionnaire based on open questions and structured in 4 thematic pivots in combination to field notes was used. The participants in this research were students of all four departments of the 1 st Lyceum grade of an Attica Northern suburbs school (85 students in total) while the teaching suggestion was implemented in the 12 th chapter of Reproduction Development of the unit Sexually Spread Diseases and Maternal Nursing Benefits both for fetus and mother in the subject of Biology of 1st Lyceum grade. The data process resulted in the fact that Group Inquiry Projects were particularly appreciated by students elevating both the collaboration dynamics and motives increase for learning while their implementation is concurrently reinforcing students self-esteem and metacognitive ability. Key words: Learning through projects, cooperative learning, group inquiry projects.
1. Introduction When the school classroom is organized according to the Group system and Inquiry Compositional projects are implemented, these projects are then called Group Inquiry Projects (Kapsalis & Nima, 2008). The combination of interdisciplinary and team spirit stimulates students interest improving both their attitudes and self-esteem and their abilities to cooperate extending to their learning and knowledge maintenance. The present research suggests a learning framework which combines cooperative actions and inquiry compositional projects in secondary education. Both teaching methods are combined to form the ideal framework for experiential learning, skills natural
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development as well as team spirit development in all educational grades students.
2. The research 2.1 The objective and research inquiries Over the past years in the Secondary Education Greek School, in particular, students are invited to participate in volunteer programs such as Environmental Education, and so forth, which are actions primarily based on the project method. Innovative actions, group cooperative procedures and inquiry projects from the domains of natural sciences, art, literature and other are also integrated in the teaching of subjects by many teachers. The present research was motivated by the previously mentioned actions. In particular, the implementation (through the students own eyes) of group actions in the 1st Lyceum grade subject of Biology was studied. 1st grade students of all 4 departments of the same school participated for the time period from 24-1-12 until 31-3-12. More specifically, the learning framework is related to the 12 th chapter of Reproduction Development of the unit Sexually Spread Diseases and Maternal Nursing Benefits both for fetus and mother. The criterion to select this project was based on the writers personal interest as well as the results probable utility in future researches carried out both by her and other individuals. The objective and inquiries of the present research are hereby formulated: Research objective: It aims at studying the 1st Lyceum grade students viewpoints related to the function of Group Inquiry Projects in the subject of Biology. Research inquiries: They are as follow: To what extent can the implemented teaching method integrating Group Inquiry Projects: 1. Develop and create new learning motives among students, 2. Increase students self-esteem, 3. Increase students meta-cognitive ability, 4. Develop cooperation skills and motives among students.
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2.2 Theoretical standpoints on Projects and group teaching According to Matsagouras (2007) the Project Method, even though it could be implemented in individual work, is mainly an implementation of Group teaching. Without absolutely removing frontal teaching (a thing that is not possible) the pursuit is to make students work in groups and carry out activities instead of merely answering questions (Group Inquiry Projects G.I.P.). Carrying out projects is based on group and experiential learning as well as on the interdisciplinary approach of knowledge and forms the best way to implement cross-curricular teaching, investigatory and collaborative learning while the student is concurrently receiving the good feelings emanating from knowledge and school work is not being addressed as a compulsory work or, to sound more lenient, as a drudgery. Students collaboration and group works form the main attribute of G.I.P. methodology. Students are divided into groups and each group undertakes the responsibility to carry out on their own and in a manner mostly wished the subject matter process. Students collaboration is carried out throughout the stages that follow. They work jointly at school and, many times, at home, too. Information is gathered from various sources and following that the subject matter is analyzed and composed by all of them. The subject matter of the group is divided into parts and everyone is responsible for his / her own field of investigation while they are obliged, within a specific time period, to make a presentation of the information processed by all of them as a group. Students exchange viewpoints, agree or disagree, communicate among each other and find solutions that are accepted by the whole group every time. In this manner, students are activated, undertake responsibilities and learn to work collectively (Koptsis, 2009). As it is mentioned by Anderson et al. (2004), bibliography on group learning indicates how the structures developed within a classroom seem to favor high level bondages among students; therefore, the students interactions within the framework of the small group society is conducive to multiple benefits. Students work in small groups, cultivate critical thinking (Matsagouras, 2004) and special relationships among them, previously absent, start to be constructed (Anderson, A.; et al, 2004). According to Gillies (2004). One of
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the basic principles being the basis for group teaching is that should the members of the group comprehend that collective success is the prerequisite for individual one, there will be, then, mutual assistance to achieve the goals of the group. Individual knowledge and individual social development is produced and promoted by the entirety of learning experiences obtained within environments of social interaction (Frydaki, 2001). The experience obtained by students throughout projects process forms a significant source of learning while the students needs, dispositions and interests are critical (Korre, 2010). It is about a student-centered teaching model according to which the student is responsible for his learning as being of a curious and studious nature while learning itself can be pleasant and tempting for him (Pigiaki P., 1998). According to relevant researches carried out by Steinberg and Kincheloe 1998, Kellett 2005 (in Matsagouras, 2011) the projects educational significance lays in that students thinking, creativity and initiative are activated through their direct and active involvement in all the Inquiry Project phases. Besides, the interest in the subjects allocated is increased because students conceive, in practice, the contribution of the subjects taught to comprehend the world and to confront daily problems and important life issues on a local and global level. In addition to that, they aim at the development of reflection, critical and self-critical thinking, personal
responsibility about human choices and actions, the prevailing standards, values as well as socio-political and moral dilemmas involved in modern multicultural societies. They are deemed to promote collectivity and cooperation provided that students, within the framework of Inquiry Projects, cooperate in groups to study the subject matter and carry out joint works of a scientific base concurrently creating channels of communication among school, local society, its problems and its carriers. Moreover, the issues examined on local, national and global level prepare students in thinking and acting as responsible citizens of their country and of the world. It is realized, therefore, that cooperative forms of teaching, under particular circumstances, are conducive both to the students academic performance and the reinforcement of their interpersonal relationships.
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2.3 Methodology - Data collection method The qualitative method of non participatory observation as the most suitable to carry out, in reference to information and data collection regarding students everyday life and under the circumstances given, is eventually selected for the specific pilot research (Educational inquiry in practice) (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, pp. 30,39) as well as in terms of its aims (to investigate any changes in the students attitude and behavior during their transition from traditional teaching to Group Inquiry Projects). On the basis of this general aim, the in depth examination of possible changes regarding the students attitudes and behavior during their transition from one teaching form to the other was deemed appropriate. The 1st Lyceum grade students comprising two departments of an Athens suburb school form the sample of this pilot research. The particular school is situated in one of the most developed areas of Athens since it is resided by a middle and upper civil class population with a relevantly powerful economic capital. It is deemed a relevantly big school in terms of the number of its students but with a moderate performance level concerning the panhellenic entrance examinations. The departments student force participating in the research is characterized by a relevant homogeneity in terms of school performance (3rd High School Grade scoring). Students, in their majority, are moderate and no one of them was found to have learning difficulties by KEDDY (Differential Diagnosis Centers and Support). The Group Inquiry Projects implementation, in reality, was materialized in students of four departments of 1st Lyceum grade, divided into four groups of five students each (total of students per class, 20-22). Surplus students were regularly placed in groups. A total of 16 groups were formulated and questionnaires with open questions were distributed to each one of the students after completion of the Group Inquiry Projects method
implementation (24-1-2012 until 31-3-2012). 69 supplementary questionnaires were received by the total of 85 students. Sixteen (16) questionnaires were not filled in due to the negative reply statement of the students parents regarding their participation in the pilot research.
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2.4 Data collection tools
The Questionnaire The initial thinking of administering individual interviews would be a timeconsuming procedure (within the framework of the pilot research) for both sides (the students and the researcher). Thus, under a co-evaluation of the method pros and cons such as low participation percentage, difficulty to check, in terms of validity and reliability, the information collected or the risk of a different interpretation of the same question (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 90-102), the drafting of a written questionnaire to be filled in by students in their free time was decided. The 1st Lyceum grade students of all 4 departments were given questionnaires with open questions (Annex 2 The Questionnaire) following their parents guardians written consent (Annex 1 Letter to students parents about their participation in the pilot research). Guiding, complex, annoying, ambiguous and negative questions were omitted. The questionnaire was primarily read in the classroom and questions not clearly comprehended by students regarding the information required were clarified. The students were asked to fill in and return it to the teacher in a predetermined time period (until 6/4/2012). Students anonymity, to avoid probable prejudice from both sides, was preferred. The pilot research questionnaire was constructed in a unified unit of 15 open questions which are closer to the research qualitative nature. Besides, a large number of open questions in a relatively small sample require a long time for processing (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 90-102). The research inquiry questions were fully met by the questionnaire while the students were informed, in a separate paragraph, about the research content and the reasons of its administration as well as confidentiality, anonymity and guidelines for filling in.
2.5 The non participatory observation The non participatory observation method with open type field notes that was selected is a flexible method which is used in combination with other methods of data collection such as, for example, interviews or questionnaires
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(Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 117-137). It is a basic tool in researches of the pedagogical domain. The researcher is present in a particular space under his true capacity and observes situations and facts. When he wants to observe a class, for instance, he sits at the back of the classroom keeping notes. A technique making the researcher invisible is the ideal in this case (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 175). The use of such a tool could facilitate the study of how students interpret what is happening around them (that is the Group-Project implementation) and how this affects their behavior afterwards. Observations done by the researcher teacher for the time period of project assignment to students and without focusing on the research inquiry questions but with as much spontaneity as possible and without prejudice were recorded. As regards the latter, in particular, the researchers personal agenda was used to record personal feelings and reflections about the research procedure (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, pp. 31-32). The observations recording (a sheet with two columns, notes and comments) was made during the class (at site) and mainly at the moment when each departments students, in groups, were discussing about the issues of their project in the classroom. Following that, after the class (during the interval or at home) the field notes as well as her comments were filled in the specific daily sheets by the researcher. A total of 36 sheets corresponding to 9 sheets per department, one for every day of teaching Biology, were filled in by the teacher (9 lessons were totally carried out per department between 24-1-2012 and 31-3-2012). A sample of field notes and comments from the first department of 1st grade for 6th March 2012 is illustrated in Annex 3.
2.6 Research validity and reliability Since validity and reliability of the data collected forms the issued to be pursued, they can be secured by triangulation through the crossing of various data. Thus, the more methods to detect research data are used, the higher probability lays for data validity (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 180). According to Lacey (Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 183), the combination of more different data collection methods provide elements
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supporting one another and all together comprise a comprehension wormscrew. For these reasons, questionnaires, field observations and the personal agenda were used by the researcher in order to achieve the best possible full scale view and comprehension of the research situation. In terms of our research reliability, the sample used, both in number and type (all levels students) forms a representative sample of this pilot research.
2.7 Data processing During qualitative analysis, the initial stages of research drafting, the nature of analysis techniques to be used are not easy to be precisely determined. The qualitative analysis techniques are less standardized in relation to the quantitative ones in which their determination is more precise. Data codification, in both kinds of research, forms the basic means of their analysis (Faulkner, Swann, Baker, Bird, & Carty, 1999, p. 127 & Bird, Hammersley, Gomm, & Woods, 1999, p. 331-332). When reference is made to codification what is meant is the determination of categories and the data and information integration to the corresponding categories, per case. In qualitative analysis, one more thing to be decided about is what the most suitable categories to integrate data and comprehend them are. Between the two aforementioned data analysis methods, the one of thematic analysis, as the most suitable in relation to the one of discourse analysis, was chosen for the present research. Discourse analysis focuses on a specific text or a number of texts closely interweaved among each other. But in the case of our research there are a lot of and various data sources (questionnaires, field observations and agenda), their writing was done in different ways and their content is different and inappropriate for discourse analysis. Our data were organized and codified in the following thematic units identical to the research pivots: 1. New motives for learning, 2. Students self-esteem, 3. Students meta-cognitive ability, 4. Skills and collaboration motives among students.
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2.8 Results and data analysis The 69 questionnaires collected as well as the researchers observations and personal agenda were codified each one separately in 4 thematic units and were being concurrently studied analyzed. Based on their analysis, in relation to the first unit concerning the creation of new motives for learning, most students regard the lesson through the G.I.P. as particularly interesting, different, light and informative while we escape from the ordinary and predetermined lesson of the book. Besides, they can learn better by substantiating our knowledge as well as broaden their knowledge in relation to the book that provides the basic things. It is also mentioned that we search to a larger extent (that is information) and are not merely bored by the particular book, thus, we learn. The subject of Biology is mentioned by a female student to contain quite difficult scientific terminology which is incomprehensive to students and quite tiring without the G.I.P. through which they are given the possibility to cooperate, communicate and better study, while at the same time, we are provided with the opportunity to learn things which I have always wanted to study in depth. Biology was mentioned by a male student to be tiring and unsubstantial because the book is closely written Another one stated that the use or not of G.I.P. could make no difference whereas a third student mentioned that it could be the same amusing and educating without G.I.P. if the appropriate procedure was followed. It was also mentioned that this method is not the suitable one for all chapters and a combination of methods should be done. The majority of students viewpoint that the subject could be done more hours per week (two at least) instead of one according to the current situation because it is pleasant since I can learn about my body and feel happy every time they have Biology is of special interest. In the second unit regarding the increase in the students self-esteem, most students believe that they are able to assist their fellow-students because we acquire knowledge that makes us able to do this. Some of them do not feel able to do this because they themselves face enough difficulties in comprehending the notions but they are willing to help through the cooperation conditions created. Another viewpoint of significant interest is that the class participants can contribute to a better flow of the lesson and
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knowledge acquisition while all unknown aspects of the subject can be covered. The third unit concerned the students meta-cognitive ability. Students believe that they learn faster and better through group projects and because I remember better through what I have done with my fellow students, the central points at least, but when I emphasize on the subject. Besides, according to another student everything is a matter of systematic and correct study programming whereas memorization is not a way to learn in contrast to G.I.P.s through which knowledge is consolidated. Another student replied that he still learns by heart and not effectively and that the way the lesson is administered is not responsible for this but the material structure and the large number of useless details for Lyceum students. Another one mentioned that it is up to the students attempt to concentrate and learn a couple of things. There is a common viewpoint by many students that the book is not appropriately-to-our-level written and that the G.I.P. helps overcome this problem. The last unit dealt with the skills and cooperation motives among students and their viewpoints, in their majority, coincided in that working in a group is much more interesting, fun, having a great time, discovering knowledge from which we benefit and that it can not be compared to individual work, it is much easier, conducive to a safer outcome for successful work, teaches us how to work in groups which will be of great help to the rest of our lives, it is not tiring at all but rather relaxing, sharing responsibilities and the workload, more ideas are presented, we learn how to discuss at the same time, my fellow students make corrections and provide supplementary feedback. Those ones that replied differently regarding the aforementioned viewpoint mentioned that it is better to work individually so that each ones idea and opinion is separately presented and because at some moment there are contradictions whether someone works more or less. Additionally, it is a matter of coincidence to work in groups and enjoy it. Reference was also made to scoring in the sense that in individual projects the score is personal showing who has worked and who has not. A student mentioned that I would rather work on my own because cooperating with another person requires
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huge responsibility and attention because should a mistake be made the responsibility lays for the other member of the group. More generally, no cooperation problems or intense annoyance among group members was mentioned because every member was assigned an equal amount of work and that everyone worked on his own duties. It was also obvious that groups were organized on the basis of friendly relationships (hopefully all friends work together) while their cooperation preferences were towards cooperative individuals sharing the same interests with me trying as much as I do so that the outcome is successful. The issue of time was also mentioned in the sense that group work is far more interesting provided that there is adequate time to meet inside or outside school. Moreover, misunderstandings or quarrels among the group members were not mentioned at all.
3. Discussing the results The study of the questionnaires, observations and the researchers agenda showed that students corresponded positively to the Group Inquiry Projects implementation in the specific subject of Biology; the lesson was much more pleasant and different in relation to formal ordinary teaching. Learning was organized by students through free procedures, as per the G.I.P. implementation, in order to acquire the knowledge pursued. Besides, the student-centered teaching model, according to which the student is responsible for his learning as being of a curious and studious nature, confirms that learning itself can be pleasant and tempting for the student (Pigiaki P., 1998) while new motives for learning are concurrently being created. It has been observed that the whole teaching procedure and the teacher-researchers role focus on the creation of an environment suitable for students to learn on their own. The formation of groups with accepted and cooperative members in areas that facilitate learning (school classrooms or meetings in the students houses), means such as the computer or other supplements except for the school book as well as the relatively quiet formulation of a school environment far off tensions and noises are conducive to knowledge and facilitate its acquisition through a natural and unconstrained manner. It seemed that the method implemented introduced the students
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active participation and self-actualization possibilities both in acting and thinking, made students feel responsible and significant individuals, able to confront school life situations while their self-esteem was simultaneously being increased (Dervisis, 1998). The students were obviously satisfied with the result and group members showed responsibility in cooperation without special problems while, at the same time, their activation was large and pleasant in order to acquire knowledge far beyond the one provided by the school book. What was not obvious through the present research and about which the group discussions psychoanalysis could form another case study for a future research, was the manner through which the groups were selected. The researcher left the students to freely select the group members, a fact that provided no information at all whether students accept some fellow students diversity or the manner under which it was addressed. According to Slavin (1982) the G.I.P. implementation develops the group members emotional intelligence conducive to the students positive attitude towards school, a fact not absolutely confirmed but a positive attitude in terms of knowledge in Biology and group members cooperation was at least obvious. The students viewpoint that G.I.P. is not suitable for all subjects and all chapters is noteworthy. It should also be taken into consideration the increase of Biology instruction hours in order to become more assimilative and constructive and the method to be better administered. Reference is also made to a closely written, hard-to-understand book whereas the G.I.P. implementation helps them comprehend in depth all these notions.
3.2 Confinements and a need for further research The most significant confinement of the present research is that it run over many partial issues. As a result, it was not possible to penetrate to some of them. But this can be justified by the fact that the subject matter was much avant-garde; therefore, the study substantially forms a preliminary research aiming at depicting a more general tendency, a fact which has been achieved according to our belief. A future research may focus on more basic and interesting issues.
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4.3 Conclusion The present research proves that the G.I.P. implementation in 1 st Lyceum grade Biology was positively received by the majority of the school students. Besides, it has been studied and has been in accordance with the bibliographical speculations about the creation of new motives for learning, increase of students self-esteem and their meta-cognitive ability as well as the cooperation motives and skills.
Bibliography Anderson, A.; et al. (2004). classroom climate and motivated behaviour in secondary schools. Learning Envinments Research. Bird, M., Hammersley, M., Gomm, R., & Woods, P. (1999). E - . : . Gillies, R. (2004). The effect of cooperative learning on junior hight school students during small group learning. Learning and Instructiom. Faulkner, D., Swann, J., Baker, S., Bird, M., & Carty, J. (1999). . : . Slavin, R. (2006). : . , . , . (1998). . , Gutenberg , ., & , . (2008). . : . , . (2009). Project. : . , . (2004). . : . , . (2007). . : . , . (2011). - . : . , . (1998). , . , .
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, . (2001). . : .
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Investigating autobiographical memory: gender differences in valence and emotional intensity in childhood memories of adults
Lempidaki Maria 1, Kalerante Evaggelia 2
Student, Department of Psychology, The Open University. Lecturer, University of Western Macedonia
Abstract
Gender differences in the recall of autobiographical memories (AMs) remains an underresearched area of cognitive psychology. The present study builds on Davis (1999) to investigate gender differences in valence and emotional intensity in emotional childhood memories. 60 participants aged between 30 and 60 years old were presented with either positive or negative emotional cues and were asked to recall memories of emotional childhood events. Results revealed a significant gender x cue type interaction [ANOVA, F(1,58)=0.49, p=<.05] with females recalling more positive emotional memories than males (t=2.45, df=58, p<.025). Significant gender differences in total number of recalled and emotionality ratings were also found. A possible reconciliation between emotional intensity and social-cultural accounts of AMs is explored.
Keywords: autobiographical memories, reminiscence, valence, social constructionist, emotional intensity, gender
Introduction
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Autobiographical memory (AM) concerns memories of events that occurred at a specific time and place in our life and is thought to be a type of episodic memory according to Tulvings definition. Tulving argued that episodic memories are always temporally specific and are characterized by experiential awareness or autonoesis, i.e. they involve a clear awareness of the self in the experience (Tulving & Lepage, 2000; Wheeler et al., 1997). Although experiential awareness is a key characteristic of AM, most theorists agree that it is distinct from episodic memory in that it invokes self-impinging emotions and a sense of recollection, and is associated with personal meanings (Conway & Rubin, 1993). Since AMs are self-involved, they begin to form gradually in early childhood as the notion of the self emerges. Nelson and Fivush (2004) see language as having a central role in the emergence of AM: parent-child conversations about the childs past foster a sense of self and distinctiveness and help the child organize *their+ memories into narratives that emphasize personhood, motivations, outcomes, emotions, and values (p.488).
Within this field of inquiry the recall of emotional memories has attracted considerable research interest, as it has been amply demonstrated that most freely recalled memories tend to be emotional in nature (Davis & Schwartz, 1987; Kihlstrom & Harackiewicz, 1982). It is for this reason that Davis (1999) argued that framing gender differences within a socialconstructionist account which emphasizes the role of the socialization of emotion can enhance our understanding of the impact of gender. According to this view, females are socialized into more affectionate and expressive roles, with emotion being a more salient dimension for them than for males. Social-constructionist theorists also emphasize the role of maternal reminiscing style in the formation of AMs. For example, differences in maternal narratives about the past have consistently predicted differences in childrens recall of AMs (Fivush & Fromhoff, 1988; Reese et al., 1993). Mothers have also been found to have more elaborative memory narratives with girls than with boys (Reese & Fivush, 1993; Fivush, 1998; Harley & Reese, 1999; Nelson & Fivush, 2004).
A different account centering on affect intensity has also been proposed. According to this account, emotionally intense experiences are more readily recalled than less intense ones (Banaji & Hardin, 1994). In line with this account, Fujita et al. (1991) found that women tend to have a higher accessibility of emotional childhood memories and concluded that this can be attributed to their tendency to have more intense emotional experiences. However, Culture Journal June 2012 49
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interpretation of these results may be limited since no ratings of emotional intensity for the events recalled were obtained. When Seidlitz & Diener (1998) controlled for emotional intensity at the time of encoding, they found no evidence for the intensity of affect proposition. In the same vein, Conway (1990) posits that people tend to recall more memories associated with mild positive affect than with intense emotions. A more recent study by Talarico et al. (2004), however, showed that emotional intensity was a strong predictor of AMs recall with valence being a more moderate predictor, although no gender differences were explored.
Within this field of inquiry the recall of emotional memories has attracted considerable research interest, as it has been amply demonstrated that most freely recalled memories tend to be emotional in nature (Davis & Schwartz, 1987; Kihlstrom & Harackiewicz, 1982, cited in Davis, 1999). It is for this reason that Davis (1999) argued that framing gender differences within a social-constructionist account which emphasizes the role of the socialization of emotion can enhance our understanding of the impact of gender in the recall of AMs. According to this view, females are socialized into more affectionate and expressive roles, with emotion being a more salient dimension for them than for males. Sociocultural theorists point to the role of maternal reminiscing style in the formation of autobiographical memories. For example, differences in maternal narratives about the past have consistently predicted differences in childrens recall of AMs (Fivush & Fromhoff, 1988; Reese, Haden & Fivush, 1993). It has also been found that parents use more emotional language with daughters when recounting past experiences (Adams et al., 1995), while mothers have more elaborative memory narratives with girls than with boys (Reese & Fivush, 1993; Fivush, 1998; Harley & Reese, 1999; Nelson & Fivush, 2004).
A different account centering on affect intensity has also been proposed. According to this account, emotionally intense experiences are more readily recalled than less intense ones (Banaji & Hardin, 1994). In line with this account, Fujita et al. (1991) found that women tend to have a higher accessibility of both happier and unhappier childhood memories and concluded that this finding can be attributed to womens tendency to have more intense emotional experiences. However, interpretation of these results may be limited since no ratings of emotional intensity for the events recalled were obtained. When Seidlitz & Diener (1998) controlled for emotional intensity at the time of encoding, they found no evidence Culture Journal June 2012 50
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for the intensity of affect proposition. In the same vein, Conway (1990) posits that people tend to recall more memories associated with mild positive affect than with intense emotions. A more recent study by Talarico et al. (2004), however, showed that emotional intensity was a strong predictor of AMs recall with valence being a more moderate predictor, although no gender differences were explored.
These conflicting findings suggest that gender differences in valence and emotionality remain to be abundantly addressed. The present study was designed to explore these topics further and investigate the influence of gender, valence and emotionality on the recall of emotional childhood AMs. Building on Daviss (1999) study, we employed the Galton-Crovitz method to elicit participants emotional childhood memories and emotionality ratings. Based on existing literature we expected to find gender differences in both valence (positive vs negative) and emotional intensity, with females recalling both more positive and negative memories. It was also expected that females ratings for emotionality associated with the events recalled will be higher than males, in line with emotional intensity accounts.
Research hypotheses H1: Females will recall more positive emotional memories than males. H2: Females will recall more negative emotional memories than males. H3: Females will overall recall more emotional memories than males. H4: Females mean ratings for emotionality will be higher than males.
Method
Design A quasi-experimental design was used to test our hypotheses. Hypotheses H1 and H2 were tested using a 2x2 mixed ANOVA with gender (male or female) as the between-participants factor, and cue (positive or negative) as the within-participants factor. Two simple effects TCulture Journal June 2012 51
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tests were further employed. The DVs were the numbers of positive and negative memories. Hypotheses H3 and H4 were tested with two independent-samples T-tests. For H3 the IV was participants gender (between-participants) and the DV was the number of total memories recalled. For H4 the IV was participants gender (between-participants) and the DV was participants mean ratings of emotionality.
Participants The group of participants comprised 30 males (mean age: 43.6 years) and 30 females (mean age: 42.3 years) aged between 30 and 60 years old, who were recruited among friends, colleagues and relatives of the researchers. Half of the participants were English and half were Greek. The recruitment procedure was identical for all participants and potential participants were initially told that the study aimed at investigating the recall of childhood events and experiences. They were not screened for medical or psychological conditions as their personal circumstances were well-known to the recruiting researchers. As an additional measure of precaution, all participants were asked to report any health or mental health conditions that may prevent them from participating in this study; those with reported physical or psychological conditions were excluded. The gender and age of the participants were recorded but their contributions remained anonymous.
Materials The materials comprised an informed consent form, a detailed instructions sheet, a debrief form, a printed A4 answer sheet and a pen. A set of ten visual stimuli was presented to the participants on a laptop computer. Each stimulus comprised a picture and a short sentence indicating the emotional event to be recalled, and was presented on screen for exactly two minutes. Five stimuli referred to positive emotional experiences/events (positive cues) and five stimuli referred to negative emotional experiences/events (negative cues). For instance, participants were asked to recall their best achievements when at school and fall-outs with childhood friends. Retrieval cues were associated with six different emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear/anxiety, guilt and self-consciousness (see Davis, 1999). Cues were pooled together in a single presentation and their order was randomized so as to disguise the purpose of the experiment.
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Procedure Participants were tested individually with half of them tested by the first experimenter and half of them by the second experimenter. They were told that a series of PowerPoint slides would be presented and that they will be asked to recall specific childhood events or experiences. Although no deception was deemed necessary, they were not told that we were specifically interested in gender differences. Informed consent was obtained and participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any time and have their data destroyed. They were further informed that their contributions would remain anonymous and that all data would be destroyed at the end of the study. Prior to the beginning of the study participants read the detailed instructions sheet and were urged to ask any questions they had.
After a short introductory screen, the visual cues were presented, with each cue presented for two minutes. Participants were asked to recall and report briefly as many event-specific memories as they could remember within this time limit. To protect them from potential distress or uneasiness related to painful or embarrassing memories, they were told that they could either not mention these events or record them as instances without giving further information. After having written down their memories, they were asked to go through them and give an estimate of the age they were in when the events occurred so that nonchildhood memories could be discarded. They were then asked to go through their memories once more and rate the emotional valence of reported events on a scale of 1-5 (1 = not emotional/neutral, 2 = slightly emotional, 3 = quite emotional, 4 = very emotional, 5= extremely emotional). Participants were then debriefed and urged to talk about their feelings and thoughts about participating in this study.
Results
A total of 1157 memories were analysed. All participants participated in all conditions and provided four different scores: number of positive memories recalled, number of negative memories recalled, number of total memories recalled and a mean rating of emotionality.
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H1 & H2 A two-way mixed ANOVA revealed a statistically significant effect of gender on the number of memories recalled [F(1,58)=6.79, p<.05]. The effect of cue type on number of memories recalled was, however, non-significant [F(1,58)=1.04, p=.31]. A third ANOVA analysis showed that the gender x cue type interaction was significant [F(1,58)=0.49, p=<.05]. For all ANOVA analyses our hypotheses were one-tailed, and therefore, the p-values were halved. Figure 1 shows graphically the effects of gender and cue on the number of memories recalled by participants:
Figure 1: Mean numbers of memories recalled for gender and cue condition.
Follow-up pairwise Bonferroni comparisons on gender with adjusted alpha levels of .025 per test (.05/2) revealed that females recalled significantly more memories than males in the positive cue condition (t=2.45, df=58, p<.025); in the negative cue condition, however, Culture Journal June 2012 54
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results did not approach significance (t=2.04, df=58, p<.05). The following table summarizes our findings:
Gender Positive cue Male Female Total Negative cue Male Female Total
Mean 8.67 11.10 9.88 8.50 10.30 9.40
Std. Deviation 3.98 3.72 4.10 3.05 3.76 3.51
N 30 30 60 30 30 60
Table 1: Summary of findings for memories recalled per gender and cue condition.
Based on these results, our experimental hypothesis H1 was accepted and our null hypothesis rejected. For H2, our null hypothesis was accepted. H3 Participants total number of memories recalled were analyzed with an independentsamples T-test. Overall, females recalled more emotional memories (M=21.40, SE=1.15) than males (M=17.17, SE=1.14), t=-2.61, df=58, p<.05, r=0.32. On the basis of these results, our experimental hypothesis was accepted and our null hypothesis rejected.
H4 The fourth hypothesis was that females mean ratings for emotionality will be higher than males. It was found that females ratings (M=3.85, SE=0.11) were substantially higher than males ratings (M=3.26, SE=0.09). The following table summarizes our findings:
Gender Male Female
Mean 3.26 3.85
Std. Deviation 0.50 0.59
N 30
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An independent-samples T-test revealed that differences in emotionality ratings between genders were statistically significant (t=-4.14, df=58, p<.005, r=0.48). On the basis of these results, our experimental hypothesis was accepted and our null hypothesis rejected.
Discussion
This study addressed the question of whether females have a better recall for positive and negative emotional childhood memories. It also investigated gender differences in the total number of emotional memories recalled. A final question was whether childhood events recalled by females were more emotionally intense, in line with AM accounts of emotional intensity.
With regard to whether females have a better recall for positive and negative emotional childhood memories, our predictions were partly confirmed: females recalled significantly more positive memories than males. However, results for negative events did not approach significance. These findings do not fully support Davis (1999) and Fujita et al. (1991), who reported enhanced recall for females for both positive and negative emotional events. Interpretation of these findings, however, may be limited in that the scores of three male participants in the negative cue condition were far beyond the confidence intervals of the mean (Appendix E), skewing the results (Skewness=1.115, Std. error=0.427). Time restrictions did not allow us to adjust their scores and carry out further analyses on the data. Yet, other theorists (e.g. Talarico et al., 2004), argue that the evidence concerning valence effects is inconsistent and contradictory: whereas some studies have reported increased recall for positive memories, other studies have found a memory bias for negative events. Alea (2010) concluded that emotional intensity, rather than valence, is a stronger predictor Culture Journal June 2012 56
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of differences in AM recall. This led her to suggest that emotional intensity, as opposed to simple valence distinctions, is taking a centre stage in autobiographical memory work (p. 155).
With regard to total number of emotional memories recalled, it was found to be significantly higher for females than males. Despite the modest effect size (r=0.32), this finding supports other studies which report increased recall of emotional memories for females (e.g. Davis, 1999; Fivush & Buckner, 2003). One plausible explanation comes from social-constructionist theorists, who see AM as being embedded in and influenced by sociocultural contexts. According to this view, womens better recall for emotional memories is mainly a function of parent-child reminiscing interactions and socialization processes (Bloise & Johnson, 2007; Davis, 1999). According to this view, mothers more elaborative reminiscence style with daughters may result in more elaborative, in-depth processing with multiple, longer-lasting associations being formed between encoded representations, benefitting recall (Davis, 1999). This explanation is supported by Craik & Tulving (1975, cited in Rutherford, 2010) who see depth of processing as a major determinant of memory recall. In this sense, a more elaborative reminiscence style at encoding will result in more elaborative processing with multiple, longer-lasting associations being formed between encoded representations. One weakness of this explanation is that depth of processing cannot be accurately defined and operationalized. Furthermore, gender studies in AM tend to be inherently biased towards a social-constructionist perspective, possibly underplaying other important influences.
Regarding our emotional intensity hypothesis, our prediction was confirmed: significant gender differences in the emotional intensity of recalled events were found, with females providing significantly higher ratings of emotionality than males. This finding is in agreement with the emotional intensity literature which sees see emotional intensity as a major influence in AM recall. According to Talarico et al. (2004), the intensity effect is robust in the AM literature and has a larger effect than the combined intensity and valence effect. To account for it they propose that emotional intensity during encoding may enhance attentional mechanisms benefitting recall. Although this explanation appears to contradict social-constructionists, reconciliation of these accounts may still be possible.
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Gender differences in the socialization of emotion as proposed by Davis (1999) may mean that emotional aspects of events have increased salience for females as opposed to males, while emotionally intense events have also been found to have increased salience (Talarico et al., 2004). A possible explanation is that these two different aspects of AMs may actually be mediated by similar processes. Allocating more attentional processes to an event either as a result of emotional intensity or as a function of more elaborative reminiscence, would result in it being filtered in to receive more processing (Treisman, 1960 cited in Naish, 2010). This will, in turn, result in deeper and more elaborative processing enhancing recall, in line with Craik and Tulvings account presented earlier. Although this is not an exhaustive explanation, it is quite attractive and one that future research in this field may find it interesting to investigate.
Overall, the findings of the present study have to be considered in light of certain methodological issues. The first issue concerns validity and reliability which may have been undermined as a result of inter-individual differences and the modest sample size. This was particularly the case for the two cue conditions, as evidenced by the large standard deviations in the number of recalled memories (Table 1). Furthermore, ratings for emotionality may also be particularly prone to individual differences. It is possible that with a larger sample size, these concerns would have been more effectively addressed.
Robinson (1976) argues that studies of AB memories tend to lack sampling control. A potential sampling bias was identified in the current study: raw data revealed substantial differences between the two experimenters participant groups. For instance, male English participants contributed the vast majority of extreme values in both cue conditions as well as emotionality ratings. This difference was more notable for males. Since the recruiting and testing procedures were identical for all participants, these differences could be attributed to the different cultural and socializing environments of the two groups. A number of studies looking at cross-cultural differences in the recall of AMs have found that individuals from more individualistic societies recall more AMs which are also more elaborate and detailed (Wang & Conway, 2004; Wang & Leichtman, 2000). Although it would have been intriguing to investigate whether this finding extends to emotional childhood memories, time restrictions did not allow us to extend the present study.
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Lastly, it was not possible to verify participants accuracy in the dating of memories or even the existence of the events recalled - participants may have felt compelled to contribute non-existent memories as a result of experimenter desirability. Rubin (1982) found that errors in dating tend to be small and unbiased; however, other studies have identified inaccuracies in the recall of memories. To reduce these confounding effects, participants were explicitly told that we are only interested in real, accurately-recalled memories and that contributing no memories for a particular cue word is acceptable. However, we could not verify the extent to which participants complied with these instructions. Future research in this field needs to take account of these limitations. A design combining the diary-recall and the cue-recall methods, although more time-consuming, would be better able to eliminate instances of false recall and further explore the issue of inaccuracy in memory recall.
Conclusion
The findings were partly in line with AM literature. Females had increased recall for emotional memories and higher ratings of emotionality. The effect of valence did not prove to be consistent across cue type. Reconciliation between emotional intensity and socialcultural accounts of AMs was attempted.
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Alea, N. (2010). The prevalence and quality of silent, socially silent, and disclosed autobiographical memories across adulthood. Memory, 18 (2), 142-158.
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Rutherford, A. (2010). Long-term memory: encoding to retrieval. In Kaye, H. (Ed.) Cognitive Psychology. Milton Keynes: The Open University.
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The Appendices Appendix A
The Open University DD303 ALE Project Participant Consent Form
Name...............................................
I agree and give consent to take part in this M4 Autobiographical Memory project. I have been fully briefed by Maria/Michelle that this is a project that will involve recalling memories from my childhood. I agree that my data may be included for analysis and report in an Open University study.
I understand that I may refuse to participate in any experiment and may withdraw at any point by simply saying so.
I understand that if I have any concerns or difficulties I can contact Maria/Michelle who will answer any questions that I have until I am happy with the outcome.
I understand that my data will be treated with confidentiality
Signed
Date
Culture Journal
Appendix B
I NS TRUCTI O NS We are conducting a study about peoples autobiographical memories and we would like you to take part in it. Specifically, we are looking at the recall of memories for events that have taken place in peoples own past. This will take up no more than 20 minutes and will involve you writing down some of your memories. All participants will remain anonymous.
WHAT WE WOULD LIKE YOU TO DO: You will be presented with ten visual cues and ten brief descriptions of events. Each slide will be presented for exactly 2 minutes. During this time, please write down all memories that come to mind from your childhood (between 0 and 14 years of age) on the answer sheet provided. We do not need to know specific details of memories, just a sentence or two giving the main points. Please, note that the memory should be for an event that occurred at one particular place and time, rather than repeated generic events. For example, I fell out of a tree and broke my leg. Please, follow the instructions in the answer sheet, which will guide you through parts 2 and 3 of the experiment. It is important that you do not read the instructions for parts 2 and 3 before having completed part 1. PLEASE, NOTE THE FOLLOWING POINTS:You have the right to withdraw at any time and if you do not wish to disclose a memory you can either: a) State that you have a memory for a good event or a bad event and the age at which it occurred but do not give any other information.
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OR b) You can choose not to mention it at all. Everyone is different and you may feel that you should remember more, or you may be surprised that you remembered so much; this bears no reflection on you. This study is not a test, we are not trying to find out if your memory is good or bad we are only interested in the memories you have and the age at which they occurred. If you have read these instructions and are willing to participate in this study, please sign the consent form.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND PARTICIPATION
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Appendix C
DD303 Project Procedures for debriefing Once the experiment has been completed all participants will be fully debriefed on the following point
1. Participants will be informed that this study is based on measuring the amount of childhood memories each participant could recall.
2. We will also tell them that emotion with regards to gender was playing a part and were trying to establish if males or females recall the most emotional memories.
3. We will also inform them that there were two condition groups for this study one being negative cues and one being positive cues. At this stage we will also inform them which condition they took part in.
4. The nest stage of the debriefing will be to ask them if they have any questions that they would like to ask.
5. Finally we will thank them for their time in completing the study.
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Appendix D
RESPONSE SHEET
Age of participant:.
Sex of participant:.
PART 1
Please, use the second column of the table below to write down childhood memories (up to 14 years of age) of specific events. You can write about your memory in a few words or keywords, or write only a title that is meaningful to you, or state that you have a memory using an asterisk (*) without disclosing anything about this particular memory. Please, use a new line for each memory and do not exceed the time allowed. Before you begin, you are kindly advised to read the instructions sheet once more and ask any questions that may arise. Important! Do not proceed to part 2 and part 3 before you have completed part 1 and part 2 correspondingly.
Thank you for your participation.
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Slide 1
Slide 2
Slide 3
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Slide 4
Slide 5
Slide 6
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Slide 7
Slide 8
Slide 9
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Slide 10
[Page left intentionally blank]
PART 2 Please, go through your memories in the above table and use the third column to state the age you were when they occurred: for example, 6 years old. Do not worry if you cant remember your exact age when the event happened; an estimate of age will be fine. After you have completed this part, please proceed to part 3. [Page left intentionally blank] PART 3 Please, go through your memories in the above table once more and use the fourth column to rate the intensity (1-5) of emotion experienced during the event described in each memory. Please, use the following scale:
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[VOLUME I ISSUE III] 1 = not
emotional/neutral 2 = slightly emotional 3 = quite emotional 4 = very emotional 5 emotional = extremely
[End of response sheet]
Appendix E
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Culture Journal
Dear colleagues,
CALL FOR PAPERS
We send to you the information about the possibility to submit an article for the international scientific journal Culture journal, ISSN: 2241-1720 Papers submitted to the journal should be original work and substantively different from papers that have been previously published or are under review in a journal or another peer-reviewed conference. Particularly we invite submission of papers describing innovative research on all aspects of education and related areas. Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, scientific and technical quality, potential impact, and clarity of writing.
Topics:
Culture sciences Medical Anthropology History Lifelong Learning Special Education Psychology of education Educational Policy Literature Philosophy Education sustainable development Management of education and educational policy Quality of education Information and communication technologies in teaching/learning Teacher education Distance education Methodology of educational research
Culture Journal
Adult and continuing education Vocational education ICT learning History of education Anything concerning education and teaching
We are also planning to publish a special issue concerning medicine, philosophy of medicine, history of medicine
Sincerely yours, Alex Argyriadis
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INSTRUCTIONS
In order to get more information about how you can send your paper to Culture Journal please read the instructions we provide in the text below.
Culture & Science is published every three months and its main target is to provide continuous education and information to professionals. Studies referring directly or indirectly to the ancient history, language and culture are accepted.
Research studies: Original Articles are scientific reports of the results of original research, including experimental, retrospective or perspective studies which are conducted basing on a research protocol.
Reviews: Interesting topics relating to cultures and sciences well developed, written by two Authors, at least. NOTE : The text of an original or a review study is limited to 10 typed pages, including an abstract, a maximum of 7 tables and figures (total), and up to 40 references.
Articles-comments: of the Editorial Board.
Interesting cases: They are accepted only if they are about new data or problems and only if a new methodology is followed. They are always accompanied by a summary in the English language consisting of approximately 200 words and 3-4 key words. The text of the study is divided into Introduction, Description of the case(s), Conclusion. The bibliography should be absolutely specific to the topic.
Culture Journal
Letter towards the editorial: They include judgments on published articles, precursor results of researches critics on the journals, etc. They are published according to the judgments of the Editorial Committee and should be signed. They should not be of more than 500 words.
Submission of studies
Submission of studies implies that it reports unpublished work, except in abstract form and is not being submitted simultaneously to another publication. Accepted studies become the sole property of our Journal and may not be published elsewhere without consent from the Managing Editor. The texts are submitted to the following e-mail address :
Acceptance of studies
Every submitted study is judged by at least two (2) adjudicators, of the Journal. In case of disagreement a new adjudicator is being assigned and the decision on the publication or not, is being made by the Editorial Committee. The names of the adjudicators remain strictly confidential. The authors are informed within 4 weeks about the acceptance of the study. Usually, a study is given to the authors for modification before the publication. The modified study should be returned to the Journal within 3 weeks, otherwise it is considered withdrawn.
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All manuscripts should have the following structure :
The first page includes the following order :
Title of the article. The title should be concise and informative using terms that can be readily indexed. The subtitle (if there is one) can be also written.
Names of the authors. The author's full names (surname, first name). After the Surname and first name of each author follows the superscript and a comma which separates each author. The superscript declares the current position of each author (the name of the department and the institution to which the work) and should be written in the next paragraph after the end of the authors . For example : Papadopoulou Maria1, Kanellou Helen 2, 1. Msc, place of work 2. PhD, place of work
If two authors are of the same level at their work then the number of the superscript is the same.
Abstract. The abstract should include no more than 250 words, divided into the following subheadings: Background, Method and Material,
Results and Conclusions. Avoid abbreviations and reference citations in the abstract.
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Key words. Below the abstract authors should provide 3-5 key-words which assist in cross-indexing the article.
Corresponding author. The name, address, telephone number or e-mail of the author to whom correspondence should be sent.
In the second page begins the text of the article.
If the article is a research study, it should follow the structure : Introduction, Methodology, Results, Discussion, Tables and References.
If the article is a review or any other study, other descriptive headings and subheadings can be used. All review articles undergo the same editorial process as original research reports.
Cite all tables and figures in the text, numbering them sequentially and place them before references in the same order as they appear in the text, with Arabic numbers (Table 1, Table 2) followed by a brief title before each table.
If you cite a picture which has been published elsewhere, then the source of origin should be noted and the written permit of the editor who has the exclusive right of republishing it. In case there are pictures of people they should either accompanied by a written permit of using the pictures as they are, or otherwise no faces must be discernible. The pictures must not be more than the dimensions of the pages of the Journal (width 17 cm height 24.5 cm).
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References. The Vancouver Citation System is followed, or the Harvard system.
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Culture Journal

[VOLUME I ISSUE III]

The scientific journal for culture and education

Contact: mail@culturejournal.net EDITORIAL BOARD

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Instructions for authors....79

Culture Journal June 2012

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The atomic model approach to disability

Culture Journal June 2012

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Culture Journal June 2012

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The tyranny of developmental psychology

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Culture Journal June 2012

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Culture Journal June 2012

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Culture Journal June 2012

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New technologies in teaching Latin

Key words: technology, group-collaborative, student-centered

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2. Teaching Latin at school

Culture Journal June 2012

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3. Lesson plan and work sheets

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According to the procedure:

Relevant internet sites:

Culture Journal June 2012

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examsos.youblog.gr/2008/11/18/147 blogs.sch.gr/larmoisiades/files/2008/09/keimena.pdf GROUP C

apostolos/963.blogspot.com/2010/os/blogspot_1855 html latinika/keimena/oo2 Lat.B.Keim.pdf WORK SHEETS FOR STUDENTS

Culture Journal June 2012

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Culture Journal June 2012

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Culture Journal June 2012

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Vassiliki Belogiannis, MPhil Candidate on Classical Literature

Sudas dictionary refers:

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Konstantinidis. Culture Journal June 2012 21

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ridiculous side of daily serious issues.

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, , 25. Culture Journal June 2012 28

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Athens, ....: p. 47-48. Culture Journal June 2012 29

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