Volume IV

ISSN: 2241-1720
Registered in the International Catalogue -Publications Series in Paris VOLUME IV SEPTEMBER 2012
The scientific journal for culture and education
Contact: mail@culturejournal.net EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor: Alexandros Argyriadis Members: Alexandros Argyriadis Agathi Argyriadis Christin Coumadorakis Alex babalis Alex Tsallos Kostas Efthimiopoulos Symeon Nikolidakis Steve Stand
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Bullying in Ages 4-7; Teachers & School Environments Intervention in the Greek context3
Can transactional models shed more light on the origins and development of disturbing behaviour in young children?..............................................14
Memory Cultures and History. The example of psychopath.....23
Homeric heroes psychogram: The case of Telemachus in the first Odysseys rhapsody ()30
Traffic Education in Greek Primary Education..37
The Cretans tribulations and his attitude in terms of the thematic and narrative analysis46
Instructions for authors59
Culture Journal | September 2012
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Bullying in Ages 4-7; Teachers & School Environments Intervention in the Greek context
Angela Karachaliou 1; Evgenia Theodotou 2 BA Early Childhood Studies, Akmi Metropolitan College, Athens, Greece Tel: +30 6978655217, Fax: +30 210 6199320, E-mail: angelakarachaliou@gmail.com 2 Course Leader Early Childhood Studies & Special Needs & Inclusive Education, Akmi Metropolitan College, Athens, Greece Tel: +30 6945745449, Fax: +30 210 6199320, E-mail: etheodotou@gmail.com etheodotou@amc.edu.gr
1
Abstract This piece of research is a case study that investigates the intervention of teachers and the schools environment as far as bullying is concerned. The children that were observed attend a multicultural school in Athens. A review of the current literature in Greece and in the United Kingdom formed the basis for the offered description and analysis of the phenomenon. This paper examines the essential definitions of bullying, victim and bully. Moreover, in this research a range of forms of bullying, reasons for and potential intervention strategies are presented. Triangulation method was applied. Being more specific, a systematic observation of sixty three children from four to seven years old; an interview that contained twelve open-ended questions, divided in three categories, namely knowledge, intervention and teaching methods; and finally reasons that may justify any form of bullying. Six teachers who work in the same school that children attend were interviewed, in order to enlighten the findings of the observation. This research was brought to a conclusive end with a proposal for school bullying intervention strategies. Nevertheless, these results offer a wide range of intervention strategies in order to protect children from acting as bullies and become victims.
Key terms: bullying, victim, bully Corresponding author: E. Theodotou
Culture Journal
[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] Introduction
Over the past few decades, there has been expressed a lot of interest in society concerning the controversial issue of bullying and the way that this dysfunctional behavior affects childrens well being. Being more analytical, the forms of bullying that have developed in a school environment and the intervention of teachers in the Early Years is a rather interesting topic to investigate. There is an extent bibliography that concerns the forms of bullying that developed in a school community, but also in the society, as adults, especially in the United Kingdom. The first research was conducted by Dr. Dan Olweus, in 1973, who aimed to investigate the forms of bullying and since then lots of researches were published until today (OMoore & Hillary, 1989; Vail 1999; Borg 1999; Miles, 2006). Other interesting pieces of research that have been conducted during the past few years concerned the connection of bullying with gender (Wolke et al., 2000), as well as the frequency of bullying that takes place in primary and high schools (Borg, 1999; US Department of Education, 1999). It is obvious that during all these years bullying has been investigated in depth.
In the early years settings, however, it is perceived a comparative lack of research into bullying meaning the classification of the bully and the victims. It is possible that early years practitioners are using a different dictionary to inform and prevent children from bullying. Certainly, there is a wide range of documents that teachers have access to, in order to be informed about the policy or methods of prevention (Department for Education, 2010), additionally to the anti-bullying policy that each school may develop (Wandsworh Council, 2011). Nevertheless, in these documents there is only a brief mentioning of the word bullying. The question that arises is if the bullying as word in Greek context, specifically; and if the lack of researches on bullying in the early years is translated as an absence of any form of bullying at these ages. This studys hypothesis is that the forms of bullying are linked to the intervention of the teachers and the school environment. Therefore, the
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aim of this study is to investigate the relation of teachers and school environments intervention in combination with bullying in the early years settings and to investigate if there is any link between these variables.
Methodology
Any phenomenon, in order to be understood, requires an effort. As a result, a researcher can use a number of methods to investigate it. A scientific research demands an organized plan of procedure or a circumspectly while clearly planned and logically designed plan of action (Leedy, 1989). This leads to the result that the researcher uses a specific scientific approach and adopts a specific type of study. Additionally, s/he uses a given scientific method and technique, in order to direct his/her investigation. In this study, a scheduled observation was used as a research methodology. The data that was collected from this procedure aimed to identify the frequency with which specific behaviours or types of behaviour occurred in the classroom and measure their duration. The scheduled observation would allow the study of the educational processes in the actual setting; it would provide more detailed and more precise evidence than any other data sources, and it would stimulate any change while verifying when the change occurred (Bryman, 2004). The children were observed, through the scheduled observation, during their free play at lunch time and they were divided into four groups aged from four to seven years old, in a total number of sixty three children, which were in general equally divided in classrooms at the beginning of the school year. As the children were divided according to their age, the stratified random sample was the sample technique that was used. Each group was observed three times, during a period of three weeks for twenty minutes, once every week. A table was used, in order to observe any form of bullying that may occur (see Table 1). In this observation, there were different types of bullying noted and when any of these took place, the researcher checked it on the board.
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The frequency of these actions was checked every time. This table contained five different forms of bullying and it was used twelve times. As a result, the researcher was using a separate table for each grade for three times, as there was a three weeks long observation. The categories that were chosen for this table were the most common forms of bullying and the most usual place that can take action is the playground, based in research according to Roland (1990) and Siann et al. (1993). Nature of Bullying Never One Time Two Times Three Times More than three times
Being teased in an unpleasant way Being called hurtful names Being left out of things on purpose Being threatened with harm Being hit, kicked or pushed
Table 1. Observation table
Nature of Bullying Being teased in an unpleasant way Being called hurtful names
Explanation A child is irritating another child either verbally or physically A child is offending a peer by judging his/her appearance, cultural background, skin color etc. A child or a group of children excludes another child, because of his/her look, his/her behavior etc. A child is exposed in hurt A child is physically harassed
Being left out of things on purpose
Being threatened with harm Being hit, kicked or pushed

Table 2. Explanation of the categories
An interview with the groups teachers was also used in order to be compared with the findings. A tape-recorder was used, so that the interview report was more accurate than writing down notes. Through these interviews, teachers asked to answer questions that concerned the
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identification of bullying in a classroom, but also the way that s/he intervened, in order to prevent any form of bullying in the classroom. These interviews enhanced the research from the point of view of an adult and the way that s/he perceived the forms of bullying at the age groups that were examined. Results
For the description and the analysis of the data Microsoft World Excel and QSR NVivo 9 were used. The research that took place in the setting that children were observed came up with interesting results about the forms of bullying that can be appeared in a school; and the intervention that teachers and schools environment may have. In the first part of this research, four groups of children participated aged from four to seven years old, in a total number of sixty three children, which were in general equally divided in classrooms at the beginning of the school year. The summary of the results showed the frequency of repetition of the forms of bullying that were observed in all the groups of children. Being more analytical, through this research we aimed at finding out how frequently any nature of bullying was noticed. Consequently, with a scale that starts with Never and ends up to More than three times, the results were the above: 50% (n=31) was Never, 25% (n=15) was One Time, 10% (n=6) was Two Times, 10% (n=6) was Three Times and 5% (n=3) was More than Three Times (see Figure 1).
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5% 10% NEVER 10% 50% ONE TIME TWO TIMES THREE TIMES MORE THAN THREE TIMES 25%
Figure 1 Frequency of forms of bullying
In the second part of the research, there were six teachers that were interviewed. All of them worked in the same setting that the research was conducted and the average year of their working experience in education was fourteen years The program that was used to summarize the answers of the participants is QSR NVivo 9. The questions of the interviews schedule were categorized in three groups: knowledge, intervention and teaching methods and reasons given about bullying. The first category had six questions. In a total amount the 87% (n=5) of the teachers presented a great knowledge as far as bullying is concerned. For example one question asked about the meaning of bullying (What does bullying mean to you?). All of the participants, 100% (n=6) of the teachers answered that bullying is linked to intimidation and violence that affects another person and it can be observed more than one time as a behavior. As Mr. 1 mentioned: repetition of force, physical violence or cohesion, through mentally making or psychologically convincing somebody to do something. The second category contained four questions, in which 85% (n=5) of the teachers presented intervention strategies and teaching methods that apply in the classroom to avoid any forms of bullying. For example, one of the interviews question described three different cases and teachers were
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asked how they would react, in order to intervene (If there is an incident of bullying in your classroom, how would you intervene: a) in case of physical bullying; b) in case of emotional bullying; c) in case of psychological bullying?). The 100% (N=6) of the teachers declared that, in any case, they would intervene immediately and their first action would be to discuss both with the victim and the bully, in order to measure the severity of the incident; and then they would inform the Headmaster of the school. A typical sample is that of Ms. 1, who declared that In all of these, I would intervene immediately. Firstly, I would talk to the victim and then to the bully. I would explain to the bully the feelings of the victim and I would expect him/her to behave and to apologize. Finally, in the interviews schedule there were also two more questions, which did not belong to a specific category. In one question that concerned any form of bullying that teachers may ever encounter (Have you ever encountered any forms of bullying during your working experience among children?), 100% (n=6) of the teachers could recall an incident. As Ms. 2 described I remember very clear this incident. I was attending school and I was ten years oldThis incident took place forty years ago and I still remember it very clear []. The last question was asking for any antibullying policy the school may have (Are you aware of any policy against bullying at your workplace?) and 100% (n=6) of the teachers agreed that there is no such policy, as they is no need for that, due to the fact that [] there is no need, just to define what we believe bullying is at this school and what actions will be taken, if there is any form of bullying []
Culture Journal
[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] Discussion
The forms of bulling in the early years settings is an area that it is not highly investigated in the current Greek literature. The aim of the present study was to investigate the interventions by teachers and the schools environment as far as bullying or prevention of bullying was concerned in the age four to seven, in the Greek context. The frequency of any form of bullying at these ages was investigated, in a total number of four groups of sixty three children, aged from four to seven, who attended the same setting. Moreover, six teachers, who worked in the same setting with the groups of children, were interviewed, in order to investigate the level of their knowledge about bullying, the way their knowledge affects childrens behaviour and their intervention. The three of the four weeks of placement, children were observed in groups, where there were selected five different types of behavior to be observed, in matter of repetition. By the end of the scheduled observation, the investigation came up with the result that there are no forms of bullying in this particular school and the teachers needed to enlighten those results, in matter of reasoning these results. As far as the knowledge that the teachers had about the forms of bullying, the results were impressive. The majority of the participants were aware about all the forms of bullying, as they are classified by many researchers (Olweus, 1993; Ericson, 2001; Carney & Merrell, 2001; Smith et al. 2002). Summarizing the answers from all the questions that concerned the knowledge of teachers about bullying, all teachers involved were aware of bullying and the signs through which you can recognize if a child is a victim of bullying (Olweus, 2009). It can be argued that since it was a small group of children it is easy to prevent and control any forms of bullying. In the category that concerns the intervention of the teachers, all teachers under consideration followed the same procedure. In any case, all the teachers would discuss with the victim and the bully; and they would try to find out the reasons for the incident (Glasner, 2010). As part of teachers intervention was concerned, the teaching methods that they applied in the
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classrooms seem to play a pivotal role. By the end of the interviews, all teachers claimed that [] because of the role of the institution to promote anti-bullyingthe role of each teacher is to model best to behave, to show children how to expect them to behave. Through the interviews of the teachers, some interesting strategies were offered, in order to prevent the development of bullying. These strategies may apply to each case and they can be useful to any practitioner or other professionals who work with children, as long as the circumstances allow this. The phenomenon of bullying is contemporary and every professional who deals with children needs to be informed and be prepared to confront any such case. Each research work is completed successfully, but in the same time there are some problems that need to deal with. As this paper is a case study, the results may not apply to all cases. In conclusion, this case study came up with some interesting results. Despite the fact that, according to the current literature, there is a lack of investigation in the early years settings as far as the forms of bullying are concerned; this research showed that in a small school there are not developed severe incidents of bullying and the teachers are informed in a high level about the intervention strategies against bullying and they are able to prevent any of them, through discussion. As a result, it would be interesting to research the topic and find the differences that may exist between the young ages and the older children, but also the differences between a small school and a larger one.
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[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] References
Borg, M. (1999) The Extent and Nature of Bullying among Primary and Secondary School Children. Educational Research, 41pp. 137-153. Bryman, A. (2004) Social Research Methods. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Carney, A. & Merrell, K. (2001) Bullying in Schools: Perspectives on Understanding and Preventing an International Problem. School Psychology International, 21pp. 364382. Department for Education (2010) Excellence and Enjoyment: Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning. [Online] Available from:
http://www.devonldp.org/do_download.asp?did=300784 [Accessed November 10 2011]. Ericson, N. (2001) Addressing the Problem of Juvenile Bullying. OJJDP Fact Sheet #27. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Glasner, A. T. (2010) On the Front Lines: Educating Teachers about Bullying and Prevention Methods. Journal of Social Sciences. [Online] 6(4) pp. 537-541. Available from:
http://www.libsearch.com/view/1354904 [Accessed November 10 2011]. Leedy, P. D. (1989) Practical Research Planning and Design. 4 ed. New York: Macmillan. Miles, G. (2006) Stop Violence Against Us. [Online] Available from: http://www.bullyingresearch.extravirgin.net/resources/Summary+2+ Final.pdf [Accessed: December 27 2011]. Olweys, D. (1993) Bullying at School: What We Know and What We Can Do. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Olweys, D. (2009) Bullying and School Violence. Athens: E.PS.I.P.E. OMoore, A., M. & Hillary, B. (1989) Bullying in Dublin Schools. Irish Journal of Psychology, 10 (3) pp. 426-441. Roland, E. (1990) Bullying: An International Perspective. NY: Beekman Books Inc.
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Smith, P., Dowie, H., Olafsson, R., & Liefooghe, A. (2002) Definitions of Bullying: A Comparison of Terms Used, and Age and Gender Differences, in a Fourteen-Country International Comparison. Child Development, 73 pp. 11191133. Siann, G., Callaghan, M. & Lockhart, R. (1993) Bullying: Teachers Views and School Effects. Educational Studies, 19(3) pp. 307-321. US Department of Education (1999) Annual Report on School Safety. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Vail, K. (1999) Words that Wound. The American School Board Journal, September: 37-40. Walsh, M. & Wigens, L. (2003) Introduction to Research: Foundations in Nursing and Health Care. Cheltenham: Nelson Thomes Ltd. Wandsworh Council (2011) Wandsworth Safeguarding Children Board: Anti-bullying Strategy. [Online] Available from: http://ww3.wandsworth.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/esh6ew5nwtuy3nn3qtw pdqsp7hmyz5x6spsvgedc2hcybsefacywdfezzuhq7g25npltmojqsmm fkdvlshq2673caef/AB+Strategy.pdf [Accessed November 10 2011]. Whitney, I. & Smith, P. K. (1993) A Survey of Nature and Extent of Bullying in Junior/Middle and Secondary School. Education Research, 35(1) pp. 3-25. Wolke, D., Woods, S., Bloomfield, L. & Karstadt, L. (2000) The Association Between Direct and Relational Bullying and Behavior Problems Among Primary School Children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(8) pp. 989-1002.
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Can transactional models shed more light on the origins and development of disturbing behaviour in young children?
Lempidaki Maria 1, Kalerante Evaggelia 2
1
Student, Department of Psychology, The Open Universitymlempidaki@my.open.ac.uk
Lecturer, University of Western Macedonia- ekalerante@yahoo.gr
Introduction Disturbing behaviour in children has attracted a lot of attention within the discipline of developmental psychology. The challenges that it presents to both the child and the environment and the fact that traditional approaches have been found to be inadequate in fully accounting for it, point to the need for explanations that encompass the diverse social, biological and cultural factors. This paper will focus on the more common externalizing emotional and behavioural difficulties in young (preadolescent) children. It will explore the extent to which transactional models inform our understanding of problem behaviour and argue that contrary to cause-effect models of development which explain only some of the factors involved, transactional models provide a comprehensive approach which serves to integrate the diverse levels of explanation as well as their bi-directional, dynamic interactions. Definitions and conceptualizations of disturbing behaviour One of the challenges that theorists in this field face is the lack of a unanimously agreed, all-encompassing definition of disturbing behaviour. One of the reasons for this is that the boundary between disturbing and normative behaviour is not clear-cut, making diagnosis a rather vague procedure. Problem behaviour tends to be normatively & subjectively defined with most diagnoses being based on teachers and parents perceptions of the problem. Behaviours, therefore, which are challenging and/or inappropriate in a given context or for a particular age group are regarded as disturbing. Herbert (1991) defines disturbing behaviours as being inappropriate in their intensity, frequency and persistence. This view, however, also
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makes assumptions about normality and appropriateness and does not take account of contextual variations.
The difficulty to accurately define disturbing behaviour is reflected in the fact that different developmental models have offered different definitions and explanations which tend to focus on some of the factors involved, placing an emphasis either on the child or on the environment. Medical explanations, for example, focus on the biological basis of what they term disorders, locating their origins within the intrinsic characteristics of the child which they believe unfold in a pre-determined way over the course of development. Although they are useful in accounting for behaviour which is predominantly rooted in organic causes, the explanations offered are clearly limited in that they do not take under consideration the underlying non-biological factors. In many cases it is the social context and the demands that it places on the child that affect the manner in which symptoms are manifested. Also the medical models deterministic view of development has been challenged by many theorists. Sameroff and Chandler (1975) have showed that biological disorders were not associated with behavioural problems in later life as might be predicted by the medical model. Social environment models, conversely, locate the cause of behavioural and psychological problems within social factors affecting the child, such as inadequate patterns of parental care. This model reflects the active environment-passive person category as proposed by Riegel (Sameroff,1987) and is supported by traditional behaviourist approaches which assume that behaviour is the product of environmental influences with the person being a passive receptor in this process. This view has been criticized for promoting the idea that development is not a continuous process and that the childs behaviour is contingent on the differing environmental stimulation. Also, it ignores biological factors as it does not take sufficiently into account individual differences which have been found to play a significant role in behavioural outcomes. Therefore, it seems that deterministic views of development in which outcomes are the result of one-way cause-effect relationships fail to fully account for disturbing behaviour. Research within these perspectives has lent itself to re-interpretation by theorists who acknowledge that both nature and nurture are complicit in problem behaviour. Anastasi (1958) was among the first who highlighted the importance of considering both the childs and the environments role in this process. In this vein, Culture Journal | September 2012 15
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Bell (1968) questioned the social environment interpretation of the Sears et al. study (1957) and proposed instead a reversed direction of effect in which the childs temperament actively shaped their environment, while the parents subsequent responses were an attempt to discipline the child and manage their behaviour.
Transactional model of development Taking this idea further, Sameroff (1991,1997) and Sameroff & Chandler (2000) elaborated a transactional model of development in which the different emphases of medical and social environment models were synthesized in a novel approach which attempted to provide a comprehensive account of developmental influences. This model sees development as determined by complex transactional processes, namely the continuous, two-way interactions between the child and the environment. During their dynamic exchange, both parties mutually influence and modify one anothers states across time, so that the childs behaviour at every particular point embodies both his/her personal characteristics and internalized past experiences. In this model, continuity is not implied as deriving from either party alone. As Sameroff (1987) explains, transactional processes are continuous in the sense that former transactions impact on subsequent ones forming, thus, a chain of events leading to particular developmental outcomes. According to Sameroff, disturbing behaviour is the result of regulation failure between the child and the environment. Regulation refers to the reciprocal regulatory processes between the social context and the child which serve to promote the experiences required for a normative developmental outcome. If the childs behaviour does not fit the normative pattern of the caregiving environment, regulations which address the individual differences of the child have to be made. If these fail or prove to be inadequate, disturbing behaviour is the foreseeable developmental outcome (Sameroff,1987). Kochanska (1995,1997) provided support for Sameroffs idea suggesting that environmental adaptations to the childs temperament through appropriate maternal behaviour are crucial to the developmental outcome of the child. For example, he found that parenting style based on secure attachment is more appropriate for fearless children whereas low-power discipline seemed to suit inhibited children better.
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Goodness of fit Consistent with this is the goodness of fit concept coined by Chess & Thomas to highlight the view that the child has to be considered in relation to their social context (Woodhead et al., 2005). Disturbing developmental outcomes are likely in cases where there is a poor fit between the child and their environment (Lerner et al.,1989 cited in Oates & Stevenson,2005). So in terms of distinguishing between disturbed and non-disturbed behaviour and its development the concept of goodness of fit helps to explain the different processes at work with the internal working model and the transactional model adding a level of depth to the explanation. The internal working model refers to the young childs representation of relationships as a template for future relationships whereas the transactional model broadens this focus looking at the consequences for the active childs subsequent development where an interaction forms the basis for future interactions both with caregivers and the environment in general. Strong evidence for this case comes from cross-cultural studies such as the Weisz et al. study (1993), which demonstrated that the same behaviours were considered to be welladjusted in one social setting and maladjusted in another.
The role of risk factors in development Transactional models acknowledge a number of risk factors that may impinge on normative developmental patterns, such as the childs temperament, attachment classification, paternal caregiving styles and sociocultural factors. However, they do not seek causal explanations but look at how associations between these factors impact on development. Difficult temperament is a risk factor that has been found to be a strong determinant of behavioural difficulties in children as it remains relatively stable across the lifespan. The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study reported a strong correlation between temperament and non-violent offences supporting the biological basis and enduring quality of temperament (Henry et al.,1996 cited in Woodhead et al.,2005). Social environment studies, on the other hand, have demonstrated that negative mothers attitudes towards their infants are correlated with childrens behaviour problems at the age of five (Bor et al.,2003 ibid.). Culture Journal | September 2012 17
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Transactional models, however, have argued against the unproblematic portrayal of one-way causations pointing to the fact that the processes through which temperament affects developmental outcomes are complex and bi-directional. For example, there is a significant two-way association between infant temperament and parenting style in mothers: irritable infants have been found to evoke less responsive parenting which in turn could lead to insecure attachment styles and later disturbed behaviour (Waters et al.,1980, ibid). This study illustrates an important point that transactional theories make: that children have the potential to produce their own experiences by modifying their environments mainly through the impact their behaviour has on their caregivers. Starr & McCartney argue further that as the child becomes older and more independent, their impact on the environment becomes more direct as they actively seek environments that suit [their] behavioural predispositions (Starr & McCartney, 1983 cited in Oates & Stevenson, 2005, p.203). This idea supports transactional ideas for childrens involvement in their behavioural outcomes suggesting that social environment beliefs which see the child as a passive victim of circumstances have to be treated with scepticism. Infant attachment style is also considered an important factor, as the quality of early relationships can influence childrens later behaviour (Oates & Stevenson, 2005). Mothers sensitivity to their infants, a factor affecting attachment style, has been found to be correlated with later child disturbance. Murray found associations between mothers postnatal depression and insecure attachment in infants. He also argued that children of depressed mothers were more often reported to have behavioural problems pointing to reduced responsiveness and increased hostility of mothers towards their infants as mediating factors (Murray, 1992; Murray & Stem, 1991 cited in Woodhead et al., 2005). However, it would be an oversimplification to assume that maternal mental state alone is accountable for problem behaviour. Attachment theorists stress the fact that multiple factors, such as genetic factors, mothers mind-mindedness, quality of marital relationship (to name but a few), contribute to the development of attachment styles. In this vein, Newcombe suggested that maternal depression is linked to the socio-economic status of the family and maternal employment, and explored how a complex network of interconnected risk and protective factors can lead to externalizing behaviour problems in the child, lending support to transactional models. More importantly, she showed how controlling variables which affect the Culture Journal | September 2012 18
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lives of families and children in studies of child development can lead to false conclusions highlighting the importance of considering the familial and social environment of the child (Newcombe, 2003). Another factor that has also been found to be related to adverse developmental outcomes is fathers absence (Flouri & Buchanan, 2002). Lamb (1997), however, suggested that other factors related to the fathers absence, such as little social support to the mother or pre-divorce mental conflict, mediated childrens problem behaviour. This finding underscores Newcombes arguments and emphasizes the usefulness of models which consider the multiple influences involved as well as making the important suggestion that realistically we can only expect to be able to view the origins of disturbed behaviour from the position of each individual child.
The role of protective factors in development The role of protective factors in preventing disturbing behaviour has been the focus of developmental research as it helps explain why some children are more resilient to risk factors than others. Crockenburg (1981) found that irritable children of mothers who had social support were less likely to become insecurely attached acknowledging, thus, the role of the social context as a protective factor. Other studies have pointed to higher IQ as a protective factor against criminality in boys (Flouri & Buchanan, 2002). However, the effects of risk and protective factors are not definitive and, according to transactional models which acknowledge the continuity of developmental processes, need to be considered in relation to the diverse experiences and transition points in the childs life. Going to school, for example, where particular standards of classroom behaviour are expected, can amplify a childs behavioural problems (Klein & Ballantine, 1988).
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Limitations of the transactional model Despite their evident usefulness in capturing the multiplicity of factors involved in potential explanations regarding childrens problem behaviour, there are some limitations to the application of transactional models that need to be carefully considered. Woodhead et al. (2005) argue that there are multiple developmental pathways to disturbing outcomes which do not necessarily involve social and emotional difficulties emerging from troubled familial relationships. Furthermore, manifestations and perceptions of problem behaviour can be influenced by wider socio-cultural contexts which can mediate and magnify risk factors effects. Bronfenbrenner (1977) proposes that a person is also affected by the multiple interactions that occur between and within different settings and the broader socialhistorical context of a given culture or society, offering, thus, a more comprehensive account of the distinct levels of contextual influences within which person-context relations are embedded. Transactional research has the potential to broaden its focus to incorporate these processes into explanations of disturbing behaviour addressing, thus, the inadequate conceptualisation of the environment and its role in child development. A further limitation identified by Sameroff (1987) is that complex transactional processes are difficult to operationalize within specific research designs, limiting, thus, transactional models applicability. It seems that although tracing the interactions between multiple influences is a very useful approach in exploring behaviour, in reality it is difficult to disentangle the interwoven contributions of different levels of explanation. Yet, one of the main reasons why we need to understand the origin and development of disturbed behaviour is so that we can act in a preventative and/or therapeutic way. It can, therefore, be argued that there is somewhat of an imperative here despite the difficulties involved in the application of the transactional model to the benefit of young children.
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Conclusion Overall, it has been shown that disturbing behaviour is the outcome of multiple processes and factors over the period of development. When one considers the number of interrelated factors contributing to child development it becomes apparent that the transactional model has much to offer: taking into account ethical and validity issues, there are few opportunities to study the complexities of child behaviour and imply cause and effect. Transactional models, despite their limitations, seem better suited to capture this complexity as they shed ample light on the complex developmental pathways and the dynamic, bi-directional interactions between the factors affecting development emphasizing the childs agency in shaping their own experiences. In doing so, they make a strong case for the argument that the unproblematic separation of nature and nurture and an unrealistic emphasis on either one of them can only produce inadequate explanations of disturbed behaviour.
Bibliography
Anastasi, A. (1958). Heredity, environment, and the question How? Psychological Review 65: 8195. Bell, R. Q. (1968) cited in Woodhead et al. (2005) pp. 78-79. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist 32: 51331. Crockenberg, S. B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infantmother attachment. Child Development, vol. 52, pp. 85765. Flouri, E. and Buchanan, A. (2002). Father involvement in childhood and trouble with the police in adolescence: findings from the 1958 British cohort. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 17, pp. 689701. Herbert, M. (1991). Clinical Child Psychology. Chichester, Wiley. Klein, H. A. and Ballantine, J. H. (1988). The relationship of temperament to adjustment in British infant schools. Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 128, pp. 585 95.
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Kochanska, G. (1995). Childrens temperament, mothers discipline, and security of attachment: multiple pathways to emerging internalization. Child Development, vol. 66, pp. 597615. Kochanska, G. (1997). Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: from toddlerhood to age 5. Developmental Psychology, vol. 33, pp. 22840. Lamb, M. E. (Ed.) (1997). The Role of the Father in Child Development. New York, John Wiley. Newcombe, N. (2003). Some controls control too much. Child Development, vol. 74, Number 4, pp.1050-1052. Oates, J. and Stevenson, J. (2005). Temperament and development. In Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (Eds). Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Milton Keynes, Blackwell Publishing/The Open University. Sameroff, A. J. (1987). The social context of development. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed). Contemporary Topics in Developmental Psychology, New York, Wiley. Sameroff, A.J., and Chandler, M. J. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In F.D. Horowitz, M. Hetherington, S. Scarr-Salapatek and G. Siegel (Eds). Review of Child Development Research (vol. 4), Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Weisz, J. R., Sigman, M., Weiss, B. and Mosk, J. (1993). Parental reports of behavioural and emotional problems among children in Kenya, Thailand and the United States. Child Development, vol. 64, pp. 98109. Woodhead, M., Rhodes, S. and Oates, J. (2005). Disturbed and disturbing behaviour. In Ding, S. and Littleton, K. (Eds). Childrens Personal and Social Development, Milton Keynes, Blackwell Publishing/The Open University.
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Memory Cultures and History. The example of psychopath.

Alex Argyriadis1, Agathi Argyriadis2 1. Phd, Phd (c) Lecturer AMC alexargiriadis@gmail.com 2. Phd (c) Psychologist, Lecturer - Technological Institute of Kalamata
Abstract This paper deals with the idea of memory cultures. History is a puzzle of memories and cultures that are spread around the world and are well kept. That means that further research should be done in order to excavate this memories and transform them into history and public knowledge. Knowledge is the power, especially the knowledge which provides answers to existential questions: birth, life, illness, death. The events and social processes that are introduced in the construction of knowledge mastery (and implementation) of the social and historical approach are issues more important than determining, for example, the precursors of modern surgical tools or similarities between the ancient and modern technical handling of a particular disease. Key words: history, memory, psychopath, madness
Introduction The study of the psychopath is inconceivable without its historical depth. Numerous personal experiences in the past and the history of psychiatry in general, contribute to the comprehensive understanding of the social reaction to today. A donor in my research says at the beginning of the interview: "I will tell you my own story .. I've lived so many things here .... (shaking his hand)! I will tell you things that are not written in books. These are lessons, stories, experiences you want to get. " The personal history is shaped into public awareness through education. To do so, however, it is required hard research process for the excavation of the information at even great depths. Culture Journal | September 2012 23
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The importance of oral history is great after hauling to the surface and within the memory of that culture. The example of psychopath is typical because it is the symbol of rejection and diversity in all aspects of history, since death was appeared.
1. The beginning of madness Most often individual forms of memory due to their private nature and the fact that only occur once are less interesting for historians. In addition, there must be a separation between those forms, the operation of which depends exclusively from memory and those who primarily perform other purpose role serving both the memory. Personal memories then, the historic essence of the subject and the exponent are reduced to a universal concept. Schizophrenia was known in antiquity by Greek doctors of the second century BC and specifically by Aretaeus the Cappadocian and Soranos of Ephesus who first described it. In modern times was known as "primitive dementia" that was given by the French Ogkysten Morrell and Emil Kraipelin, although it is not dementia (in the strict sense), as the primary disorder does not lead to progressive weakening of intelligence. However, this is only one aspect of the historical truth as the other side is mostly recorded by the testimony of narrators of their own history. Today, schizophrenia is synonymous with madness and is no longer referred to as a diagnosis. Instead, the words "psychotic syndrome" were given as a diagnostic criterion generalizing all diseases into one. The origins of madness are historically placed in the deep past. Since human death and separation of the living from the dead, one encounters the psychopath and the separation from the so-called normal. Since then, the belief in the historical truth becomes constantly depending on the needs of systems: strong-weak, rich-poor, man or woman-of consumerism and modernity.
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The end of faith means that we do not accept the existence of a principle as the foundation of every possible experience while any legitimizing authority, for example God-nature or whatever one wants. The end of faith in history means that we no longer accept any experience that would have to be held within a year of diverse, universal and irreversible a process oriented towards a regulatory fee.(Istor, 2010). The historic journey presents greater interest in accordance to the requirements of modern Greece, and social developments. It is no longer enough then, to become a mere record of events, but according to Foucault, when considering the madness it must be sought objective and in-depth through the study of human-true story. The history of the psychopath is written in the scenarios of life and it is not a surprising abundance of the lack of written historical sources about the topic. If it is true that the belief in progress is a relatively late phenomenon, as Compte has been rightly found, in what kind of time Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, were thinking? Actually, in a multitude of years that coexisted within the coupling heterogeneous temporalities, which is engaged into the same texts. One question remains: This new legitimizing basis shall in turn find it impossible to justify the institutions or events under the previous regime legitimacy? Certainly there is a form of faith in globalization, which cares little to legitimize the ancient slavery. There is a new further legitimizing basis. The fact is, without doubt, that we do no longer believe in history as it is written but in memory, to the point of dedicating places to change it a duty and tirelessly to organize commemorative ceremonies. The legitimate memory from one side to prevent repetition of the disasters of the past that did not happen for nothing than to not be repeated ever. (Istor, 2010)
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Culture Journal 3. Memory of culture
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Culture memories are fabricated in different spatio-temporal and social contexts. In Germany for example, the investigation of the cultures of memory began in the 1980's in close connection with the introduction of social history and subsequent expansion in the history of society. In the context of recent history were similar issues in relation to the application of the theory of modernization, focusing on the comparison of populations. Eventually, after a detailed critical review many traditions and places of remembrance proven results building process or invention of tradition (Hobsbawm , 1998). There appears repeatedly that even historians, to any degree, are involved in this process of development, and they have a monopoly on definitions. The range includes the entire arsenal of methodological history of the society in which everyday life, attitudes and extends up are counted to the interpretive oral history. The memory and narrative of oral history, through appropriate processes can be made public, be rescued and turned into education. The connection of memory not only occurs in time but in space too. There were areas for certain reasons that cultures have created their own memory which can be tested for their relation to unity and hence to the state, but also to their particular composition. The site plays an extremely pivotal role in various forms of memory as well as today the placement of a monument, such is not the result of arbitrariness or personal preferences. For each city there is a topography that memory in the same way ever presents and specifies a hierarchy in this way of the value of memories. Sometimes the topography of memory is associated with the historical, social and economic context. Thus, the explanatory power of intellectuals repressed many times these oral forms of culture and memory in the context of the social upper / fittest. Seremetakis makes "multiple entries" in the everyday culture considering it as a historical record of emotions and sensations over a landscape of people, things and places. The historical experience is recorded through the body. Thus, there is an entire semantic circuit that connects the sensor with action, memory, and thus the finite history (Seremetakis, 2008). According to Jean Bodin history has three forms: human history, natural history and sacred. The first refers to man, the second to the nature and the third one to the creator. Thus, the same events can be viewed from multiple inputs and perspectives. The period of the triple occupation of Greece and the civil war that followed, was Culture Journal | September 2012 26
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containing as every period of modern history many unknown aspects of international dimensions. Many times in the history of the country it was adopted elitist behavior, ambiguous interpretation to those who had no enforcement. (Istor, 2010).
Conclusions According to the anthropological approach, all forms of human societies provide medicine - that is, a system of special knowledge-, a set of practices and therapists who monitor and study the phenomena that cause suffering and threaten human life. Whether these, threats of intervention translated as gods or collapse of the 'bodymachine ", are equally closely. both by the empirical observation and with symbolic interpretations. This eventually formed the central issue how, over the course of history through symbols was made some kind of dominant knowledge (Comaroff, 1982), and how other types of medicine are marginalized. In critical medical anthropology (Vaer, 1993, Scheper-Hughes, 1990, Singer, 1989), the concept of "knowledge authority" is a dominant term, referring to the expert's knowledge, and the power of the medical gaze "archeology of the clinic" (Foucault, 1973) and the introduction of medicalizated knowledge in our eveyday life (Lindenbaum / Lock, 1993). Knowledge is the power, especially the knowledge which provides answers to existential questions: birth, life, illness, death. The events and social processes that are introduced in the construction of knowledge mastery (and implementation) of the anthropological approach are issues more important than determining, for example, the precursors of modern surgical tools or similarities between the ancient and modern technical handling of a particular disease. The medical, scientific discipline like vehicle - perhaps train, with each of the carriages filled with knowledge (whether based on myth, the belief, either in empirical and experimental procedure). From this perspective, the study of the history of medicine aspires to interpret this train journey through the landscapes passing. Therefore it focuses on the socio-cultural context - not only to changes in the content means (technology), decoration (clinical), passengers (patients), the addition of new wagons and the deletion of other (scientific discoveries). However, it is the engine that provides the driving force to the rest of vehicle exactly to the point at which they can identify the links between past and present, namely the analysis of power
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relations that are being developed within the limits of institutions, which create organization and application of medicine. The Hippocratic Secretariat introduced a code of conduct for doctors in training, a first attempt to map rules to govern the behavior of the doctor and the medical (King, 1999). This effort is also a method of consolidating a body of trained therapists and one occupational money their way - a topic that will be discussed in subsequent parts of the tribute, for example in relation to the emergence of alternative medicine in modern times. The process of creating the dominant organized medicine in ancient Greece differs in discussions about the interpretations and applications of Hippocratic medicine. For example, while the philosopher-physician stubbornly persist in the theory of miasm as an element crucial for the credibility of Hippocratic medicine, other scholars (eg, historians, poets, zoologists) promoted a theory of transmission from person to person (Vaiopoulos). Despite the fact that the medications are not a central issue in theories of Hippocrates, different groups of specialists began to emerge, constituting perhaps the forerunners of modern pharmacists. They incorporated a wide range of vegetable substances (herbs) to actions of "diet" (as health promotion) recommended, thus expanding successfully those practices necessary to maintain the balance between the four juices of the body, one of the most basic theories otin Hippocratic medicine (G. Papadopoulos). The ratio of intellectuals and 'healthy' on 'diet' as a lifestyle change methods of training athletes then used as 'simple' uneducated paidotrives. Conventions in force until today.
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Culture Journal Bibliography
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Adams, W. L. (2008). The listening cure. Time Magazine, 21 February 2008. Angermeyer, M. & Matshinger, H. (1999). Social representations of mental illness among the public. In J. Guimon, W. Fischer, N. Sartorius (Eds.), The image of madness (pp. 20-28). Basel: Karger. Angermeyer, MC, Buyantugs, L., Kenzine, DV, Matschinger, H. (2004). Effects of labelling on public attitudes towards people with schizophrenia: are there cultural differences? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109, 420-425. Angermeyer, M. (2009): Subjective experiences of stigma. Social Science & Medicine, Volume 56, Issue 2, Pages 299-312. Anthropological Perspective, New York: Cambridge University Press. Baker, P. (1989). Hearing Voices. Manchester: the Hearing Voices Network. Barnes, R.C. (1993). Mental illness in British newspapers. Psychiatric Bulletin, 17, 673-674. Bertaux, D. (1977). Destin personnels et structures de classe. Paris: P.U.F. Lindenbaum S., Lock, M. (1993), Knowledge Power and Practice. Berkeley: University of California Press. Lock, M., Gordon, D. (Eds.) (1988), Biomedicine Examined, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Seremetakis, N. (2009). Divination, Media and the networked body of modernity. American Ethnologist, Vo.36, Issue 2, pages: 337-350 Sontag, S. (1978). Illness as Metaphor. London. Penguin Books. Ploumbides, D. (1989). History of psychiatry in Ellada.Thessaloniki: Triapsis Ratio King, G. (1999). Dictionary of medical folklore. Athens: Ant. Vitta Seremetakis, N. (1997). Crossing the House of Culture, History and Gender in Greece. Athens: Ant. Livani Trakas, N. (2007). The medicine in ancient times. Athens: Archaeology & Arts Culture Journal | September 2012 29
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Homeric heroes psychogram: The case of Telemachus in the first Odysseys rhapsody ().
Nikolidakis Symeon, Philologist, simosnikoli@yahoo.gr Abstract In the present paper, reference is made to Homeric heroes psychogram, namely Telemachus. The heros negative emotions are prevailing, especially those ones of sensitivity, passivity and weakness transforming him into a prey. Rhapsody a is a characteristic paradigm of Telemachus state of mind being in deep sorrow and completely passive which comes in full contrast to his external godlike appearance. Even though frustrated due to the current situation of the wooers trespassing his property, he does not loose his nobility and hospitality when goddess Athena appears before him as a stranger. Her presence as a deus ex machine is determinant in activating him to gain control over the situation. Psychologically speaking, Athena is shown as the psychoanalyst curator who, through the power of discourse, gains the patients confidence and enables him to confront his problems and take on responsibilities. Telemachus overall change of attitude takes place exceptionally soon and in the name of action economy whereas such a change typically needs to undergo a transitional period. The character of counselor-curator is perfectly managed by Homer establishing him as the master of the heroes emotional world. Key words: Athena, curator, emotions, Homer, psyche, psychogram
1. Introduction Sorrow and psychic fading situations are often encountered in Homer, mainly in Odyssey. Heroes usually become preys to their emotions. Pain, sorrow and crying prevail over them making them weak. In contrast to the man model of the Iliad in which he is presented strong, lacking weaknesses and ready to fight, in Odyssey, emotions are often transformed, characters are enfeebled while the central characters express a man being in pain, suffering, having weaknesses and sensitivities. When heroes relax during lunchtime, rest or meditation the scenes of sorrow usually appear. Heroes seem to be preoccupied, to comprehend the needs of human nature and to make an effort to go along with it in order to pursue the human psychism. Heroes seem to become preys to their beliefs and difficulties which acquire certain dimensions. Some of these scenes are being studied in the present paper, heroes undergo a psychogram and the way of expressing sorrow within the framework in which the deepest motives are integrated is being analyzed. In particular, Homer manages to penetrate into the heroes inmost psyche and shapes complete characters by integrating them in the prevailing conditions and making them mystics of the normative framework in which they are
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integrated. The reader can form a complete opinion about them since stereotype adjectives which, according to the situation, reflect their psychic condition are used. He is undoubtedly a psychograph in the sense that he precisely analyzes emotional conditions, describes human pain and founds the discipline of psychology. Rhapsody , verses 117-173 In this scene, goddess Athena arrives from mount Olympus in wing sandals and with the assistance of the wind in Odysseus palace in the form of an old friend of his, Mentis. She observes the situation there and sees Telemachus running to welcome her and offer an abundant dinner as a sign of hospitality. It is remarkable that Homer describes Telemachus before his meeting with Athena1. Telemachus is presented in deep sorrow, indignant at the prevailing conditions within the palace while he seems to have desisted from anything since he is typically present at the wooers gatherings. He feels alone, does not participate in games or wine drinking while he thinks of his father and shows endurance to the moment of return. His inner world is in contrast to his external characteristics, since under the stereotype adjective godlike, he is presented as a god having beauty and power potentially identical to those of Apollos. As soon as he encounters the stranger, his thoughts and pursuits are abandoned and he runs to welcome him, as a sign of his morality, nobility and sensitivity. He feels awful about the situation in the palace removing, thus, the stranger away from the wooers and placing him aside as he wishes to welcome him in a different manner, as a sign of his noble origin that a stranger, his beloved fathers old friend, deserves. He seems to be weak to react against the prevailing situation and feels hurt due to the current difficulties. He is isolated without courage and strength to defend his fathers property. In more analytical terms, he is presented to sit surrendered in deep meditation and unable to react against anything. The image of Odyssey was continuously returning in his mind all the time and was living with the hope that he would be back to save him and turn away the wooers trespassing his property. The vocabulary used for these descriptions refers to the description of psychic suffering integrated into the framework of dignity. Telemachus psychic fading is conducive to apathy. He faces difficulties in managing everyday affairs without any psychic resistance to react while he is isolated, in other words,
, , , , . , , (Homer, Odyssey, 117-124)
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desisted from life. Hope and dreams are ceaseless. The change is due to come alone for him and without their contribution. Dream forms the basic pattern of psychic pain situations since the symptomatology of sorrow is identical to states of dream, apathy and desisting. This psychic disorder is particularly characterized by reduced selfconfidence, lack of interests as well as reduced pleasure and activities of any kind. Melancholy has an impact on the mans overall state of mind on social, individual and emotional level while negative emotions are generated. Such individuals think about negative events, are desperate and expect solutions without being involved in actions. Telemachus is young. On the basis of humanistic psychology, therefore, the human being whose emotional and psychic needs are not covered experiences sorrow as the outcome of loss or a beloved persons death and hopes for his return (Beck & Alford, 2009: 4-6). According to the behavioral theories, an individual lacking reinforcement upon non depressive behaviors is presented with sorrow resulting in problems of social contact behaviors such as positivity, care and attention (Andrews, 2010: 12-14). In the case of Telemachus, the fathers loss is the explicit justification of this sorrow deeply marking the childs frame of mind. The prevailing situation within the palace does not help the hero since negativity, indignation and hatred are accumulated without permitting him to react in the correct manner. Athena, acting as a deus ex machina, is here to intervene by positively reinforcing Telemachus, activating and helping him to confront this situation in order to gain control over his emotions and psychic disposition. What is apparent from this scene is that Homer, in an early stage of pursuing the human psyche, must have realized the role of intervention and positive reinforcement for people in sorrow. Athena seems to pull Telemachus before his responsibilities and advise him. She actually acts as a healer that will comprehend difficulties and give hope and courage making the hero stubborn and showing him the course of hope. 2. Rhapsody , verses 174-225 As the wooers were observed to pay attention to Phemius song, Telemachus starts discussing with his guest in order to hear news about his father and his relationship with Mentis. His morale is fortified by Athena-Mentis and his is also challenged to talk to the wooers. Athena-Mentis has managed to gain Telemachus confidence because he provides him with convincing answers, reassures him about his identity and refers to Laertes, a precious person. In this scene, Telemachus is presented in deep sorrow, on the one hand, and furious, on the other hand. He is in sorrow due to the situation and furious because all these years he has been listening to the fact that he is the son of an important man whom has not met
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and has not lived with2. His absence generates bitterness and despair since he also doubts whether Odyssey is his real father. Thus, at a moment of weakness, he wishes that he would be the son of another father, less glorious, with whom he could live. Lost in his despair, he denies the heroic ideal of the era and as a result of an anger and indignation outburst he wishes he would be beside a fortunate, virtuous and unimportant man. He regards himself unhappy being the son of Odyssey since a short life sealed by a glorious death does not form the essence of existence to him. This rejection is superficial and evanescent since after the relaxation and emotional coercion he appreciates the glory he receives as the son of a glorious man. This attitude is undoubtedly characterized by juvenile impulsiveness without being reassured by the stranger that his words are right while he trusts him regarding his experiences and preoccupations. His disappointment extends to despair without being able to control this emotional exaltation. Confession helps him confront his emotions, evaluate and classify them as well as make an effort towards an outlet balancing between his beliefs and preoccupations. The scene seems to be rather one of confession than one of a typical discussion. Moreover, Athena acting as psychoanalyst gains Telemachus confidence when he trusts her regarding his problems and preoccupations. Afterwards, she tries to further encourage him as she advises and stimulates him in order to pull him away from inertness by attempting to oppose against the wooers that dissipate his property. Under modern terms, this scene refers to the typical structure of psychoanalysis and integrates us within the framework of a healing session in which the curator gains the patients confidence and by making him confront his problems he manages to make him vigilant and guide him towards quest. More particularly, she informally acts as a counselor, intervenes and activates Telemachus through a substantial intervention by pulling him out of the former state of sorrow. Homer seems to perceive the power of discourse and its contribution to healing sorrow. He also comprehends the pair of healer healed and this is why he puts Telemachus talking to Mentis. The power of
: , . , . 245 , , , , . 250 : : . (Homer, Odyssey, 240-255)
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the healer to confront sorrow and his role as a counselor and not as a friend is also apparent. After that, Athena advises him in order to strengthen his frame of mind as she wishes to turn his adolescent immaturity into masculine maturity so that Telemachus is awakened and takes on duties and responsibilities to protect his fathers home, as being the original son of a glorious man. 3. Rhapsody , verses 360-410 After Athenas departure, Telemachus heads towards the wooers. Phemius continues his song about the Achaeans return from Troy while the song awakens Penelopes yearning and she comes down from her bedroom asking him to stop. Telemachus, after Athenas advice, and being confident to his powers, orders her to go upstairs and engage herself with the domestic affairs. Penelope obeys him and returns upstairs to lament about Odyssey. In this part, Penelope is presented being loyal to her husband and queen of the Ithaca palace. According to the customs of that era, she does not show herself alone in front of men but along with two servants-escorts having her face veiled with a scarf. Her words towards Phemius express her dedication towards Odyssey as well as her sorrow about his loss. She seems to be modest, serious, discrete, dignified and obedient. She admires her sons transformation and obeys. Telemachus seems to have changed after the discussion with Mentis. He decided to take initiative and to cease being passive towards everyday challenges. It seems that the discussion with Mentis was catalytic for his psyche while his personality was changed from being immature and irresolute to dynamic and dignified, ready to fight for the dignity of his house and defend his fathers name and property. By leaving behind obscurity, he dynamically comes into the forefront taking initiative and threateningly stands up for against the wooers underlying that he is the head and commander of the house. Penelope was undoubtedly pleased by the change of this attitude as her desire was the wooers to be confronted by her son without him being a prey to them. He seems to be preoccupied and organizes a meeting in the island. He uses the dramatic method to confront the wooers. This means that he is aggressive and he frankly blames them about their arrogant behavior. Telemachus change seems to have taken place exceptionally soon while the transformation was immediate and remarkable in terms of action economy. Nonetheless, in the discipline of psychology such an important change is impossible to take place in such a short time. In order to have the change and the individual transformed from a passive receiver to an active entity, a period of inner process to remove negative emotions should pre-exist. Gradually and as the time passes, moments of sorrow are limited by the individual itself and it gradually starts taking initiatives. This period, characterized as transitional by the psychologists, may last from a few weeks up to some months and is
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deemed as the intermediate time of change. Feelings of anxiety, anger, guilt and desisting are replaced by the corresponding ones while expressions of negative feelings are present at the same time (Knaus, 2006: 33-36). In terms of time economy, Homer places this change in such a short time and its functionality is immediately changed.
4. Conclusion Homer is undoubtedly the founder of the discipline of psychology. The confrontation of psychic situations is however at an early stage since counseling is the empirical observation and not an institutionalized disciplinary branch. The counselor, whether it is about a friend or a stranger, plays undoubtedly a crucial role in Homer and it is nothing else but everyday facts and situations observation. He is a master in managing the heroes emotional world. War heroes seem weak to manage issues or situations when in peace. Their emotional world is disturbed. War violence had made them adapt to the inhuman world of war clashes. Survival was associated with fraud and death. In times of peace, in Odyssey, it is as if they start their life from the very beginning. They can define positive emotions related to the other human beings and try to love and to be loved. Adaptation to a situation, as a transitional stage, brings sorrow and despair. The heroes claim powerless to actually return to human societies and define social reality. The problem also lies among friends and relatives, such as Telemachus. He lacks all those feelings deriving from paternal love without being able to experience his fathers appreciation and acceptance and feels isolated, melancholic and remote. What is pretty certain is that the relationships are broken off as the outcome of the heroes long absence and the relatives deprivation of their presence. ibliography Andrews, L. (2010). Encyclopedia of depression. California: California University Press Beck, A. & Alfrord, B. (2009). Depression: Causes and treatments. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press Buffiere, F. (1956). Les mythes d Homere et la pensee grecque. Paris: Les belles letters Finley, M.I. (1977). The world of Odysseus. London Foley, H.N. (1998). Individual poet and epic- tradition: Homer as legendary singer. Arenthusa 31 Horrocks, G.C. (1981). Space and Time in Homer. New York: Ayer Company Publishers
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Kirk, G.S. (1965). Homer and the Epic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Kirk, G.S. (1978). Homer and the Oral Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Knaus, W. (2006). The Cognitive behavioral workbook for depression. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications Latacz, J. (2000). . . : Romilly, J. (1984). Perspectives actuelles sur l epopee homerique. Paris: College de France Seaford, R. (1994). Reciprocity and Ritual: Homer and Tragedy in the Developing City-State. Oxford: Oxford University Press Pepin, J. (1976). Mythe et allegorie: les origins grecques des contestations judeochretiennes. Paris Said, S., Trede, M. & Boulluec, A. (2001). . . - , . : Stanford, W.B. (1954). The Ulysses theme. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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TRAFFIC EDUCATION IN GREEK PRIMARY EDUCATION
Iliaki Chrysoula, Western Attica Health Education Head, ciliaki@hil.gr
Abstract Traffic Education forms the subject matter of the present paper. It is part of Health Education and has a dual role. On the one hand, it aims at teaching children proper road behaviour both as pedestrians and drivers and, on the other hand, it aims at the cultivation of a number of social skills. A series of steps taken by national carriers in collaboration with international organizations make the implementation of the program more feasible. Thus, Traffic Education has been a subject taught throughout all school grades over the past years. Road safety seems to acquire new dimensions in the way it is presented through the innovative actions of the expanded Flexible Zone program. In the first place, Health Education Heads should be well-trained in order to train teachers on how to carry out the activities. The school acquires a crucial role related to the childrens overall moral, spiritual and physical development. Last but not least, the child is taught how to become a consistent and responsible model-citizen to secure not only its own safety but other peoples safety, too. Therefore, the overall collaboration among Health Education Heads, schools and students seems to be conducive to the desired outcome. Besides, the European Union and inter-state cooperation on this issue seems to be the means to effectively support this effort.
Key words: children, flexible zone, innovative actions, road safety, traffic education
1. Introduction
The number of road accidents seems to be growing in Greece. It is vital for education to get involved with a form of children socialization which will formulate attitudes allowing them to co-exist within society. Up today, the Greek educational system has concentrated more on knowledge provision and less on information and sensitization about social issues. The positive aspect here is that along with the educational Culture Journal | September 2012 37
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dynamics at schools getting involved with various subjects, there are also the innovative actions, health education, environmental education and cultural issues heads. Their object of action is the formulation of modern citizens that could co-exist, be powerful, make suggestions and be able to solve everyday problems.
Traffic Education is the object of Health Education and its objective is dual. The student should be able to protect him/herself, to move around the city with safety, to be aware of his/her rights as a pedestrian as well as to be aware of his/her obligations. Traffic Education does not merely aim at the childs protection but also at its familiarization with the means of transport so that, afterwards, s/he becomes a responsible driver showing respects to his/her fellow beings.
It is observed that Traffic Education, even though having a confined object that is road safety only, is, however, an informal subject of civilian education because the child learns that human societies function under rules and laws and that as citizens they should gradually acquire attitudes and behaviors proper to normative conditions defined by the state and citizen.
The issue of Traffic Education is integrated into the broader framework of health education issues, all the units of which point to a healthy, autonomous, balanced individual. School education acquires a special content as considerations and issues related to society, state and international organization become fields of information and training both for students and teachers. Therefore, Traffic Education as well as all innovative actions programs are associated with the new perception about modern school.
The material available about Traffic Education contains thematic units comprehensible by primary education children and its utilization brings forward the principle that the child reveals knowledge and broadens its interests. The modernistic element of Traffic Education programs drafting is the simple formulation of mechanical terms related to prohibitions and pedestrians and drivers rights, psychologically and socially speaking, such as the use of discourse, convincing argumentation and special educational issues namely the utilization of pedagogical theories about the students intellectual perception, mathematic concepts, language patterns etc. It is observed that it is about a thorough work aiming at the students information, training and familiarization with the Traffic Education principles. The inter-reaction developed between the Greek educational system and the international organizations such as Unicef and the European Union special departments is significant so that the methods and teaching of special issues on Traffic Education form the object of investigation and consideration.
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2. Thoughts and considerations for traffic education in education Over the past decades, people have been living and developing activities within an organized road environment while they form the active elements of a complete traffic system which is governed by the Traffic Code rules and stipulations. The code explicit aim is the road network users protection especially children and individuals with special needs. Despite the fact that the history of the Greek Code started in 1962, Greek citizens have been institutionally taught its content since 2000, within the only framework of training candidate drivers for the driving license. Moreover, Traffic Education and childrens training helping them to be able to rationally manage the road environment in which they live and move, has made its first steps during these same days without an explicit definition of it up today. As it has been already incorporated, as an innovative activity, in the Flexible Zone program and within the framework of typical school education, it will be conducive to the curriculum general educational aims by projecting the childrens moral, spiritual and physical development. Thus, traffic education becomes, by omission, the hope for a safer present and future road environment in which the children as well as other users corporal and mental safety will not be at risk. The issue deriving is, of course, whether there will be researches to totally elevate in all their dimensions the problems stemming from the lack of Traffic Education of the overwhelming majority of users mainly those that are responsible for the childrens protection and education (Sotirakou & Baka, 2005).
Issues on Road Safety comprise a very important field and refer to the European guidelines asking member-countries to drastically reduce the number of road accidents, a procedure that can be carried out through Traffic Education. It is wellknown that the human being as a factor forms the center of a dynamics about Road Safety and that is why a distinguished position in this field is held by it. Traffic Education is conducive to the sensitization about correct road behavior. It has become well-understood that traffic education can not achieve its aim unless it is integrated into the educational system as a matter of consideration and study. In particular, what is sought after is the utilization of school pedagogical and psychological structures which will use and improve the themes formulated by European and international organizations. The current decade (2011-2020) has been defined both the United Nations and the European Union as the Road Safety decade. On the part of European Union, actions about the co-ordination of national efforts are carried out (Icarus Program etc).
Since 2005, the Greek educational system has been trying to align with the expanded European program on road safety. Seminars and conferences have been attended by representatives aiming at the formulation of an argumentation on educational standpoints and school books relevant to traffic education. The Ministry of Education has proceeded to the compulsory teaching of Traffic Education in Culture Journal | September 2012 39
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Primary Education through the subject of Flexible Zone since the school year 200506. The compulsory teaching of it in 3rd grade in 800 Elementary Schools of Expanded Program (EAEP) has been foreseen since 2010. The effort made by the Ministry of Education is supported by various carriers and Companies (Ministry of Transport and Communication, Ministry of Public Order, Ministry of Environment, Planning and Public Works, ELPA, Attica Road S.A., Tram S.A., etc) as well as by Organizations and Associations (Hellenic Transport Association, Panhellenic School Network, Panos Milonas Road Safety Institute, etc.). The experience acquired, in this way, has been very important and it is transferred to the various school grades sensitizing all students from the Kindergarten up to the Senior High School. The issue of traffic education being developed as a unified model through all educational grades is of major importance. Elements on the issue of road safety are added by the child and specific attitudes and behaviors relevant to the more general citizen-model characterized by consistency and order are developed. The expanded familiarization and training system presupposes the trainers and teachers training in all grades. The health education heads role is rather important here as the meetings, seminars and conferences provided are conducive to teachers training. The outcome of the aforementioned generate an aggressive model of sensitization which is based on the philosophy that the proper Traffic Education is not a matter of improvising and it is not only those to get a driving license that will benefit from it.
Traffic education is effective when it is first introduced in the Kindergarten because in this environment proper behavioral models are developed and established. The Kindergarten, as the initial socialization carrier, is conducive to the childs gradual establishment of attitudes and behaviors, mainly as the outcome of imitation. The Kindergarten teacher through the appropriate teaching material namely games, activities, stories cultivates the idea of traffic education by providing the child the first knowledge about the power and thread of vehicles as well as the value in its life which must be protected by it. The issue of protection is associated with welfare, the attention that must be given so that now, as a child, avoids risks and as an adult not to cause accidents. The young student starts to comprehend the value of laws and rules and forms its personality within the existing social framework. The parents role is also very significant mainly for infants and elementary school children. Parents have a role on various levels e.g. when Traffic Education is taught to Kindergarten and Elementary School students, it should be taken into consideration that children form the major instrument for parents sensitization regarding proper traffic behavior. The parents role is dual as, on the one hand, parents form the behavioral role model for their children because it is completely useless to teach children various things at school which are not carried out by their mothers or fathers such as talking on the cell phone when driving or not fastening the seat belt or exceeding the speed limit. The reason for this is that they all form educational examples completely opposite to what children are taught at school. It is obvious from the researchers experience that young children are a very good stimulus for their parents e.g. if a parent has not fastened the seat belt the child draws his/her attention to it. And there is nothing worse than a parent being caught in the act. Parents are, therefore, encouraged and motivated by their children to act Culture Journal | September 2012 40
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as models all the time. On the other hand, Traffic Education can not be perceived to be taught only within the school environment, because children spend some time at school but afterwards they convey what has been taught in the street and at home.
Traffic Education is a continuous procedure in this manner. A number of efforts are also carried out by carriers aiming at the parents information about relevant issues so that they become responsible towards proper Traffic Education.
3. The health educations heads role in the issue of traffic education
From the aspect of Health Education Heads, there are continuous efforts to inform and make apropos the tools available to the teacher both on a national and international level.
Within the framework of a serious, continuous and co-ordinate effort:
A) The Health Education Heads should:
Be appropriately trained so that they are able to train the trainers being involved with Traffic Education e.g. to have a Certified Training Possibility for trainers for Traffic Education programs from the responsible Ministries and the Aristotle University. To secure the suitably drafted and modern educational material for all grades.
B) Schools should:
Have computers suitably equipped with the corresponding software for interactive applications and games based on comprehension and consolidation of the Traffic Education basic concepts. Traffic Education Parks should be completely utilized. Seminars held by appropriately trained celebrities (idols) about safe driving, traffic and, most of all, cast of mind should be attended by students. The experience of more developed countries e.g. Sweden on the issue of Traffic Education and Road Safety should be used.
C) Children should:
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Understand and implement the rules governed by Traffic Education it is necessary for every child to comprehend the concepts of time and space, left-right, near-far away, before-after. It is important for them to learn the basic elements of vertical and horizontal signs as well as to know and recognize the road. In arterial roads, they should walk on the pavements and use pedestrians zebra crossings properly. They should also recognize the sound and light signs. Be able to distinguish shapes and colors and this forms the essential need to collaborate, play and live this experience within the framework of school community. It will eventually be the child to help change the notion of the traffic policeman from a competitive to a friendly and counseling one. It is the game that helps develop this action taking into consideration that the children of this age need to experience everything through their bodies: Develop behaviors that will guarantee safety both for them and other people regarding usual routes (e.g. house-school) and in terms of their role as pedestrians, bicycle riders or car passengers. Develop behaviors which will be in favor both for them and their families through the use of passive safety supplements (seat belts, helmets and proper cell phones use).
It is observed that for the formulation and realization of health education programs what is necessary is the collaboration and information among the heads of health education, school and children. The school should develop a contact model with the carriers in order to correspond to its multifarious work and the education that should be realized on various levels. If the one issue lays within the carriers and childrens collaboration, the other one lays within the construction of an educational model to make traffic education comprehensible so that the educational carriers viewpoints are gradually formulated in the students automatic responses and attitudes. Discussion is, therefore, made about active learning in which the child is gradually lead from understanding to acceptance and, eventually, realization.
At the same time, Traffic Education is conducive to the broader Social Education of the young man, since it forms a fine socio-interactive implementation. In other words, through the road education the person is also socially education as the pivotal consideration in which he is submitted is to think about his fellow beings and their life (Kordolaimis).
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Traffic Education is both training and educating unit of the formal educational system, incorporated in the modern school perspective that is a school able to utilize social consideration and contribute to their solution. Countries and international organizations were sensitized by the growing number of road accidents in the big cities in such a way so that an information and sensitization system targeting citizens about issues related to life safety and security is organized. Emphasis was placed on the projection and elevation of a moral regarding both pedestrians and drivers. The school environment was deemed the appropriate place to cultivate attitudes and behaviors conducive to students sensitization so that, as mature citizens, to be able to perceive all kinds of risks both as pedestrians and drivers. The Greek educational system has commenced, as from 2005, a systematic teaching of principles and standpoints about traffic education through the health education programs. What is important is the utilization of an educational carrier, the innovative actions in order to train teachers, write books, to create project groups so that educational material for all grades is available. It is regarded as a responsible stance by the Ministry of Education conducive to parents and childrens change of attitude. Especially in the Kindergarten and Primary Education, viewpoints and attitudes about traffic education seem to be transferred from children to their parents.
The incorporation of Traffic Education and road safety issues in the school curricula is the means to achieve the youngsters organized and systematic training on such issues. Traffic Education Parks form parallel actions with common pursuits. The training in these places address pre-school and Elementary School children being in a phase of shaping their character and personality, a fact that enables the educational objects deep assimilation. National campaigns are of the same nature regarding Traffic Education of school age children in order to achieve adults information about the childs placement within the traffic system as well as the risks and particular difficulties encountered by it when walking in the street.
The positive fact here is the inter-state agreement within the European Union framework about the utilization of research findings related to traffic education results at schools to be hopefully conducive to the improvement, enrichment and further development of the program.
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Culture Journal Bibliography
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, . & , . (2005). . 3 . , 10-11 . 2005
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Limbourg M., Dieter Gerber, A parent training program for the road safety education of preschool children Original Research Article, Volume 13, Issue 3, September 1981, 255-267
Pease K., Preston B.,(2001) Road Safety Education for Young Children, British Journal of Educational Psychology,305-313
Siegrist S.(1999), Driver Training, Testing and Licensing - towards theory-based management of young drivers' injury risk in road traffic, Results of EU-Project GADGET, Work Package 3
, . & , . (2005). . 3 . , 10-11 . 2005
Thomson, J. and Tolmie, A. and Foot, H.C. and McLaren, B. and , Department for Transport (Funder) (1996) Child development and the aims of road safety education. [Report]
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Zeedyk M., Wallace L.,Carcary B., Jones K.,(2001) Children and road safety: Increasing knowledge does not improve behavior, British Journal of Educational Psychology, v.3,573-594
Jessor, R.(1990)Road Safety and Health Beahavior: Some Lessons for Reasearch AND Intervation, Health Education Research, V.5,281-283
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The Cretans tribulations and his attitude in terms of the thematic and narrative analysis
Eleftheria Kotzampasaki, Philologist Abstract In the present paper, Dionysios Solomos The Cretan is being examined. The Cretan defines the starting point of a new period in Solomos poetry characterized by the turn towards tradition and, simultaneously, the dialogue with the European philosophy and poetry. The pivotal reference of the subject matter is about the failure of the 1821 revolution in Crete and the flow of refugees as its outcome. The subject matter of the paper investigatory question is about the Cretans tribulations and his attitude in terms of thematic and narrative analysis. The poem presents the shipwrecked Cretan trying to save his beloved woman in the middle of the rough sea. The storm ceases abruptly and a Moon-dressed divine figure appears in front of him. When the apparition is lost, a majestic eerie sound carrying away the shipwrecked mans soul will be heard. When the sound fades away and the man reaches the beach he will lay his beloved one there, however, she will be dead. The objective here is to study the Cretans tribulations as well as the stages followed by him in order to save his beloved one from the rough sea. At the same time, a systematic development regarding the narrative time course of evolution will be done. The analysis method of the data to be referred to is the brief presentation of the heros adventures, the content commentary and the drawing of conclusions. The stages of the investigatory procedure correspond to two chapters: in the first chapter under the title thematic, all the elements comprising the answer to the investigatory question about the Cretans tribulations and their impact on his soul will be cited. This chapter contains the heros tribulations, the stages followed (battles, loss of comrades, shipwreck, loss of daughter, etc.) up to the final ending. In the second chapter under the title narrative organization, a systematic presentation of the narrative time throughout the work will be done. During the course of this chapter, issues of narrative technique, discourse patterns used in the work as well as the time levels generated by the lyric narrative will be examined. At the same time, some viewpoints of people having studied the Cretan will be quoted about which there is detailed citation reference regarding the origin of sources. Finally, the conclusion sums up the research findings which derived from an overall work consideration. Key Words: Dionysios Solomos, The Cretan, thematic approach, narrative organization
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1. Thematic Approach 1.1 The heros tribulations throughout the work and the stages through which he underwent to the final outcome. In this chapter, a systematic examination in terms of thematic regarding the heros tribulations and his attitude towards the hard situations confronted by him will be done. First of all, a reference needs to be made whether it is about a complete poem. Polylas characterized the poem as an extract 3 it is obvious from the beginning of this extract that it is the continuation of the poem that the deceased had composed or, at least, had drafted the first seven chapters. In one of his studies, Linos Politis advocates that4: The Cretan is not an extract but a complete poem with a beginning, middle and an end. He believed that what is available out of this poem is just an episode from a longer epic-lyric poem which Solomos was drafting but never wrote. The poem to be examined is characterized by the following stages: the Cretans struggle against the waves in the middle of the night storm. The unexpected transformation of the storm into serenity and the wondrous vision of the moon-dressed figure follow after that. The dissemination of the sweetest sound that succeeds the experience of the moon-dressed figure and tends to assimilate the hero comes afterwards. The final element is his arrival at the beach and the tragic realization that his beloved one, whom he was holding in his arms, has passed away. What is observed here is that the Cretan starts the narration of his tribulation in the sea in media res by referring to the rough sea and the shipwreck. More analytically, what is presented is as follows: 1.2 The heros tribulations in the sea Nature, therefore, which represents the external obstacles, is presented aggressive against the Cretans efforts. This point forms the first stage of the tribulation. The speaker invokes a good lightning to glow again in the prevailing calm darkness to show him the way to the beach now that the tension of the rough sea has faded away. Nature, in the peak of the tension, will become hostile because it maximizes the distance between the Cretan and the beach and leaves him unprotected in the middle of the storm that bursts out. The major point here is that the Cretans wish came true but with the only exception that instead of one lightning three of them came together exclusively targeting the girl. An undivided entirety that brings turmoil to the shipwrecked heros conscious leaving him speechless is created by the sky, the earth, the sea, the light and the noise. Nature, through its own power, forces the Cretans psyche and impedes him against the fulfillment of his supreme moral duty to save his beloved one.
3
Linos Politis The Cretans structure, offprint, volume 15 of the Corfu chronicles, Corfu 1970, p. 402 4 Peter Macritz, Casts of poetry-Solomos, Kavafis, Seferis, Estia bookstore, I.D. Kollaros & Co, Athens 2008, p. 105
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1.3 The transformation of the storm into serenity and the appearance of the moon-dressed figure. In chapter 20, nature cancels, in a mystic way, its violent flow it calmed down and became all calm and clean, it interspersed scents, like a garden and accepted all the stars. The appearance of a divine figure that charmed the Cretans sensations, the emergence of the moon-dressed figure is prepared by these verses. The attention of the suffering hero is drawn by this moondressed figure as nature is filled with its transcended beauty. Eratosthenis G. Kapsomenos mentions that5: it is Aphrodites sweet and celestial appearance. The moon-dressed figures divine character is pin-pointed by most commentators different interpretations. G. P. Apostolakis believes that 6 the moon-dressed figure revives and depicts the beauty of life and nature reflecting, at that moment, in the Cretans mind. In chapter 20, the suffering hero is unable to give an explanation about the origin of his experience and refers to a hidden mystery. The term hidden mystery forms the preparation for what is about to follow concerning events that belong to the sphere of the supernatural; the sudden transformation of nature and the absolute serenity that presage the appearance of the moon-dressed figure, the presence of which expresses both the unification and separation of the Cretan and the girl. In chapter 21, in which the tribulation of the Cretans psyche is developed, the space is distinguished for a second time with the moon-dressed figure being the central point, flooding the night with light and turning towards the Cretan. This figure that is born in the sea, steps on the water without puckering it up, a verification of her divine figure. She unfolds her stature, opens her arms and mobilizes the shipwrecked mans reaction. The vision being comprised of positive predicates only (love, humbleness, beauty, kindness) transforms nature into a temple, night into day magnetizing this way the Cretan but not the girl. The heros vision is attracted; the natural landscape subsides while the reader is carried to another era by the mnemonic coherences. He is staring at her in an ecstasy and feels that he knows her as this woman forms the idealized figure that he had created in the remote past. He does not remember whether he had actually seen this figure as a picture in a temple, or it was a love idol a creation of his fantasy or a dreamy figure of his infantile age. But the memory of the moon-dressed figure comes back sweet and unforgettable as a dynamic presentation in front of him in a supernatural way. The apparition, after having penetrated into the Cretans mind and soul and read his torments, reacted in a dual manner. First of all, she sweetly smiled at him expressing her compassion towards the hero and after that she wept feeling pain and sorrow about his torments. His hand is transformed by the divine tear that gives him more power than he had when being young fighting against the Turks. In verse 37, the Cretan calls the
5
G.Kehagioglou, Introduction to Solomos poetry, a selection of critic texts, Crete university publications, an establishing donation of the Pan-Cretan Association of America, Iraklio 1999, p. 414 6 Panag. Nakoy, elementary schools supervisor, Solomos and his patriotic work, publisher ToylasMavrako, Patra 1957, p. 165
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moon-dressed figure a goddess, whereas he was allusive about her divine origin before that. After having told her about his torments, the Cretan will eventually beg the moon-dressed figure to save his beloved one as she is the only person left to him as a hope for the future. The figure will correspond to the shipwrecked mans plea by giving him a tear that will open to him the way towards transcendental justification yet full of impediments that is of high level moral tribulations. 1.4 The sweetest sound dissemination and the impact upon the hero In chapter 22, the sweetest sound dissemination succeeding the experience of the moon-dressed figure and tending to assimilate the hero forms one more stage of his tribulation. This sound, music, melody (it was not merely a sound or voice) was the Cretans accompaniment while swimming towards the beach. The charm of nature over the shipwrecked man will exclusively tempt his hearing with the fine, sweetest and indescribable sound. The sound is of no human origin it is no words, nor can it be reiterated by the echo near him. The Cretan makes an effort to trace the sound identity by turning to three sources: it is not the voice of a girl, neither a Cretan nightingale, nor a sweet fabioli. Polylas notes7 It was an indescribable impression which perhaps nobody had ever experienced. He is the first man when he took his first breath and all the sky, the earth and the sea were cut out for him in all their perfection and rejoiced in his soul. The circle of the options is not the sound and it will end up with a heros affirmation conquered by the conflict experienced and the tribulation of his soul: as soon as love and death are strong opening to him the path to the idea. The dissemination of the sweetest sound transforms the hero making him loose the fighting and aggressive moral of the warrior. Only after the fear fades away, the hero comes back to himself, remembers the girl and his effort. Thus, upon his arrival at the beach, he realizes that his beloved one has passed away. This final consequence in co-ordination of the motives of the action and the content of the Cretans effort (arrival at the beach salvation of the beloved one) unifies the three phases of the heros tribulation in the sea. The majestic sound completes its circle and nature returns to its regular state and is discharged from the hidden mystery by which the Cretans soul was magnetized. 1.5 Arrival at the beach and the death of the Moon-dressed figure In the end, the Cretan will be left alone to complete the high mission and confront the most shocking test that is his arrival at the beach and the tragic realization that his beloved one, whom he was holding in his arms, has passed away. It is observed that the Cretan, even though being at the zenith of his calamity, struggles, dedicated to his duty as he is directly threatened by the hostile nature in order to carry after that his effort to save his beloved one. Chapter
7
Linos Politis The structure of the Cretan, offprint, 15th volume of the Corfu chronicles, Corfu 1970, p. 410
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22 refers to the heros final end. The strong hand dragging him to the beach along with his dead fianc will afterwards become the hand of the beggar who is eagerly given alms by everyone in sweeping eyes. The Cretan tends to conquer the equalizing high idea, yet he is still based on the conflicting one 8. The central heros determinative tribulation is associated with a high moment of the idea that equalizes with another radically opposite one in order to achieve the outcome of a Great Poetry. In an Italian note, Solomos claims that9: A balance of powers between the shipwrecked mans soul packed with a great moment of the idea that is to bring to the beach the body of his fianc regarding her as alive and the external impediments of nature, packed with another majestic moment of the idea. A juxtaposition of balancing powers verifying the tribulation pattern is observed. In this juxtaposition, the one side is represented by the Cretans psyche / moral will aiming at the salvation of his beloved one by carrying her alive to the beach. This is a morally higher objective that presupposes selfsacrifice since he struggles against the waves. On the other side, the external impediments of nature are the representatives of the adversary power. These impediments include the apparition of the moon-dressed figure and the sweetest sound. The hero is magnetized by the vision of beauty and goodness and his struggle is paralyzed. Following that, the sound that excites his soul forms the zenith of his tribulation. Both the rough sea and the experience of the moon-dressed figure and the sweetest sound function as adversary powers. Therefore, the negative aspect of nature is represented by the storm whereas the positive one is represented by the moon-dressed figure and the sound. It is realized that the positive expressions of the spirit of nature function catastrophically for the hero. Thus, the natural element contradicts the heros moral power and effort by forming a climax of powers corresponding to the three phases of the tribulation. The first phase contains a contrast in terms of the wild nature. The two following ones (sound moondressed figure) disorientate the heros strong-willed function and paralyze his struggle. In one of his translations, Linos Politis mentions that10 The moral power under tribulation caused by the calamity and the other one dressed in a charm that eventually makes the loss bitterer. The level of the protagonist shipwrecked Cretans soul is defined by nature. It is obvious that the nature is presented here in two aspects and three different times aiming at the heros disorientation from the fulfillment of his supreme moral duty. To sum up all the above mentioned, it is realized that the hero underwent different material and psychic tribulations which formulate the pattern of tribulation. He experienced wars to defend his country, his familys
8
Demetrius Angelatos, Dionysios Solomos work and the world of literary types, Gutenberg, Athens 2009, p. 203 9 Demetrius Angelatos, Dionysios Solomos work and the world of literary types, Gutenberg, Athens 2009, p. 204 10 Eratosthenis G. Kapsomenos Your black stone is good, interpretations for Solomos, bookstore of Estia, I.D. Komaros & Co 1992, p.83.
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extermination, the loss of his comrades as well as wounds and patriotism. Beyond all these, the hero went through the shipwreck and the loss of the girl he loved, the utmost judgment and the end of this world: death before the Resurrection. The tribulations of the Cretans moral power, therefore, are a way to show his strong character.
2. Narrative organization 2.1 Narration time levels Solomos work The Cretan is developed in four time levels: The first one covers the time of shipwreck and the Cretans wondrous experiences. The second time level concerns the heros prehistory in Crete: the heros carefree childhood and adolescence (21.13-17, 22.25-35), the realization of the slaves negative condition through the view of nature (yearning for the countrys liberation: 22.36-42), fights against the Turks (19.2-3, 22.6, 22.16-20), final defeat, disaster and expatriation (21.29-36). The hero returns to the past and recalls the years when he was fighting and was brave as well as his familys death during the war. The third time level is about the refugees life after the shipwreck and the girls loss: it is about a painful (begging nightmares: 22.713) and a charismatic state (a state of solidarity: 22.5-8, 22.3-4, 22.14). The poetic subject is reduced from an intrepid and dashing warrior to an unhappy beggar who has hard dreams. Finally, the fourth time level deals with the vision of the utmost judgment in which the hero expects to reunite with his beloved one and gain justice with her (19.5-18). 2.2 Narrative time The Cretan is a narrative poem in the sense that it conveys past events to the narrator and the readers present. The hero-protagonist narrates in first person and late time. The narrator is dramatized as he is both the narrator and the participant in the story. The course of this narration is not straight but begins from the middle of the story that is in media res. Nevertheless, the narration is interrupted by precursor (prolepses) and retrospective (analepses) narrations. The time of narration is the epic past full of battles to liberate the country. The present follows in which the struggle against nature is prevailing and the future in which the hero is left in suspense among the present, the sky and the earth. In chapter 18, the story that begins refers to the narrative present. The reader is found at a point when the Cretan struggles against the waves in the middle of the night in order to save his beloved one after the shipwreck. The poetic subject begs for a lightning to enable him to distinguish deep in the horizon the remote and unreached beach. In chapter 19, the Cretan narrates in a retrospective manner to address, according to Genet11, out-of-narration
11
Peter Macritz Casts of poetry-Solomos, Kavafis, Seferis, Estia bookstore, I.D. Komaros & Co, Athens 2008, p. 110
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narrative receivers. The shipwrecked hero addresses a fictitious audience to assure that what is going to be told afterwards is true. He, therefore, returns to the past in order to corroborate his words with a triple oath. He swears to the wounds caused by the battles for his country, to his comrades and to his beloved ones soul who has passed away. At this point, the reader has been removed off the earthly state and is transferred to a transcendental level. As the unit unfolds, a precursor narration follows (verses 5-18, a trump played..looking for somebody). The narration is conveyed to a metaphysical dimension related to the Revelation and the Doomsday. The narrator looks for his beloved one among the dead people so that they are judged together during the utmost judgment. In chapters 20 and 21, the narration is placed at the present when the sea becomes serene conducive to the preparation of the appearance of the divine moon-dressed figure. Nature is transformed through a mystic procedure. The procedure of the appearance is described as a miracle (verses 9-12). Her appearance is associated with transgressing of the natural laws (supernatural element) because, as Eratosthenes G. Kapsomenos12 claims, it is a man-god figure sharing both divine and human appearance. The effect of the divine figure upon the Cretan is escalating: his eyes are full of tears and blurred while he gets the feeling that his thoughts are being read. The Cretans communication with the moon-dressed figure forms the narrative present in which the hero confesses his torments to the goddess. The above scene allows the narrator to talk in a retrospective manner in the past (Ch. 21.30-36) and provide the reader with information about the calamities he faced during the Cretan revolution. The Turks exterminated his family while he left the island finding comfort only in his beloved one. After the events that took place in Crete, the narration is conveyed to the present when the moon-dressed figure abruptly appears (21.37, 22.1-4). In chapter 22.5-14, the reader is transferred to the Cretan narrators present through the phrase in verse 5 from that moment on I... The poetic subject interrupts the narration of events (that is time of the story) and transfers the reader to the time of narration. In verses 5-14 he speaks as a refugee. The transfer to the present is done by the hand in coherence: the narrators hand was raised and after the disappearance of the moon-dressed figure he started talking about it on another time level and within other situations. His degradation is connoted by the information forming the hands personification in verse 6 that he had no more the hand scanning the Turk and looking for a knife. Thus, the vigorous, intrepid and dashing warrior has turned out to be an unhappy beggar stretching out his hand to the passers by begging for some bread. In other words, the utmost point of humiliation has been reached. His sadness is reflected in his tired eyes and he goes to sleep. It is necessary to mention that in verse 6 there is a deviation-retrospection made by the poetic subject to the past to refer to the power he possessed during the battles when the hand was scanning for a Turk and was looking for a knife. Afterwards, in
12
George Kehagioglou Introduction to Solomos poetry, a selection of Cretan texts, university publications of Crete, an establishing donation of the Pan-Cretan Association of America (Iraklio, 1999), p. 414
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verse 14, the hand becomes the means by which the Cretan returns to normal narration talking about the struggle against the waves as well as to the remoter past (battles in Crete). Thus, the hand, the palm that is put on his forehead to calm down ends up the retrospection of the dream conducive again to the next stage of the narrative. Thus, the narrator returns to the time of the story the present at the scene of the shipwreck in verse 15 in which he was using his hand to swim piercing the waves. The Cretan remembers that his hand was very strong in the rough sea. In order to show his strength he makes a comparison with the strength he had in the remote past. It is observed that in verses 22.15-20 there is retrospection to the past about the Cretans heroic fights against the Turks with whom he clashed to liberate his country. After all the retrospections about the past of Crete, the narrator returns to the narration of the struggle against the waves and the course towards the beach (22.21, 22). After the withdrawal of the moon-dressed figure, there were some time transfers by the narrator: he came to the present of the narration, passed to the present of the storm through the dream in order to go over the past of Crete. Now, he is coming back to the time of the story narrating the events taking place in the present. Thus, a Cretans great poetic issue is introduced to the narration, that of the sweetest sound (22.21-34) which started to be heard and charmed the hero. This sound accompanied the Cretan swimming to reach the land. As the unit unfolds (verses 35-42) the reader returns to the retrospective narration in which the Cretans love for liberation and country is referred to. Finally, in verses 22.43-58, the narrator returns to the time of history. Reference is made to the narrative present in which the hero has already been disorientated from his final objective to save his beloved one. The Cretan reaches the beach holding in his arms the dead body of his fianc. 3. Figures of Speech In this poem, Solomos, through the Cretan hero, externalizes his inner world by the use of extensive expressional means (pictures, patterns of discourse, adjectives, etc.). Therefore, it is purposeful to examine the various expressional means which generate a vivid and graphic narration and are used by Solomos in his work. First of all, in unit 18, verse 2, it can be observed that the shipwrecked man invokes the lightning to glow light so that he is able to see in the darkness. It could be said that the lightning is personified as the man talks to that element of nature. Thus, the usefulness of the lightning to glow light is underlined by addressing a wild element of nature by the word good. The pleonasm it glowed again expresses his strong desire to glow the landscape. In unit 19, the narrator addresses to a fictitious audience and tries to convince them about the validity of what will be told afterwards through the triple oath. Thus, the metaphor my chest was devoured is used to connote the warriors courage in the battle since the enemy is confronted in a close fight. The phrase I was burnt in verse 4 is referred to figuratively and a periphrasis
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follows leaving the world. In verse 5, the trump is personified a trump played denoting the one that will proclaim the commencement of the frightful Doomsday. The phrase rip the road (verse 6) is used metaphorically because the use of dramatic present tense makes the narrators speech more graphic. By the use of the metaphor Have you seen the beauty that blesses the valley? the narrative subject elevates the girls absolute beauty. The technique of abstract concepts and physical phenomena personification is often used by Solomos. Thus, the environment participates in the story (verses 15-16) amazed by the girls beauty and song. The sky is also personified when presented to hear the song and is caught by surprise because of the gods voice. As regards unit 19.7-9, it is obvious that in the conversation of the narrator with the souls of the dead, hypophora or anthypophora is prevalent. In chapter 20, in which the sea becomes serene, its calmness is described with metaphors by the Cretan and the leaping sea, calmed down and became all beautiful and clean. The pleonasm calmed down calmness as well as the metaphors used by the narrator underline the lull sea. What is projected by the narrator in this manner is that the sea water was so clean that the stars reflected on it. At the same time, the appearance of the divine moon-dressed figure is also imder preparation. The procedure of transforming nature into an earthly paradise is expressed by the following similes: verse 2 and the leaping sea like a seething bubble, verse 4 a gardens sweet smelling, receiving all the stars, verse 8 less than what is left by the bee on the flower. A contrast in relation to the previous chapter is observed because there is a transfer from the rough sea to the calm sea. The nature (verses 5, 6) is personified by the narrator so as to be transformed through a mystic procedure to decorate every beauty and leave anger behind. What follows is the hidden face that appears before the surprised narrators eyes while a metaphor is used to call it moon-dressed figure. An oxymoron figure is used by the poetic subject to refer to the trembling of the fresh light before the divine view underlying, simultaneously, the contrast generated by the metaphor in her black eyes and golden hair. In chapter 21, the description of the moon-dressed figure continues as she stares at the stars which are personified feeling exultation by her sight. At the same time, the metaphor covered, in verse 2, connotes that the light drenched the moon-dressed figure without hiding her. Her figure is graphically depicted by the metaphor and the adjective cypress-like. Afterwards, in verses 7-8, the illumination reaches its peak and the moon-dressed is glowed by the stars. The zenith of illumination is depicted by various expressional means such as metaphors the night is flooding, the building turned into a temple, exaggeration everywhere is glowing and the use of dramatic present tense (flooding, sparkling). Additionally, the zenith of illumination is presented with the multi-combination (and she was beamed and was not covered and rises and opens and showed and was done) as well as with the excessive figure and the building is sparkling (verse 7). A strong attraction between the Cretan and the moon-dressed figure is observed which is projected by the following elements: the simile of the moonCulture Journal | September 2012 54
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dressed figures glance towards the Cretan as that of the magnetic pin of a compass turned towards north. At the same time (verse 11) the lifting and position figure not to the girl but to me underlines the turning of the moondressed figures glance towards the Cretan and, finally, the use of dramatic present tense in the verb close (verse 11) the movement of the moondressed figure acquires a vivid and graphic sense. The Cretan uses a simile in verse 23 I felt her eyes deep in the heart of my hearts to project the moondressed figures intense effect over his soul. A reference is made by the poetic subject, through metaphors, to his feeling the moon-dressed figure reading his thoughts with her eyes that is the torments of his life. The Cretans pains and torments are too many to bear and he wants to talk about them. There is intense metaphor in the phrases pains sprung up, outpouring of my heart quoted by the narrator to underline his pain. The expression the eye turned into a leaking tap and cannot see is used figuratively because he is deeply thrilled as tears come into his eyes and cannot see the divine figure. Nonetheless, he can hear her eyes deep into his trembling heart making him unable to speak. The narrators tragedy is depicted in verse 38 through the metaphor of the Cretan in suspense as if he is hanging above a deep cliff. Finally, the metaphor tender branch used by the Cretan to address his fianc is a way to ask the moon-dressed figure to save her as she is the only person left in his life. The apparition having penetrated into the Cretans mind and soul and having read his torments reacted in a dual manner: she smiled sweetly expressing her compassion to the hero and then tears came in her eyes because of the sorrow and pain caused by his torments. These emotions are graphically depicted through the metaphor in verse 1 smiled sweetly and the simile in verse 2 looked like my beloved ones as well as the reiteration of the concept of tears (her eyes full of tears the drop of her tear). In verse 6, the hand is personified providing the information that he lacks the hand scanning the Turk and looking for a knife; at the same time, the Cretans degradation is denoted. The figure of lifting and position used by the narrator provides the reader the adversary images of the brave warrior as well as the humiliated, without a trace of dignity and self-esteem, beggar. Verse 9 contains two expressional figures that underline the heros degradation and unhappiness: the personification full eyes and the metaphor full of unhappiness. In verses 17-20, the metaphors close fight, very closely to the Labyrinth and I stepped a gluttonously are used to connote the heros fighting fierceness. After the moon-dressed figure has withdrawn, another issue is introduced as a charm for the Cretan and it is ascribed by the metaphor sweetest sound. His struggle in the sea is paralyzed by this sound and this becomes obvious by the metaphor but the will took long and made me delay. He is captivated by the sound and alienated from the reality and his beloved one. A series of metaphors mention what the sound is not it is not a girls voice in the growing forests, it is not a Cretan nightingale letting its voice, it is not the sweet Fiampoli. The metaphors booming all night out of sweetness and the stars melted reveals how sweet the sound was so that the stars melted. The dawn is also personified to hear the sound and roses falling off its hands. The
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Cretans heart was agitated by the sound and the metaphor Oh, country divine and full of blood came out of its mouth. In verse 46, a personification is quoted by the narrator to refer to the sound He did not want the echo to speak near him. At the same time, there is a simile of the sound like the scents of May filling the air to underline that the sweetest sound is expanded throughout the universe giving a pleasant mood. The sound touched the Cretans soul but could not be captured by his mind according to the multi-connection of the sky and the sea and the beach and the girl. What was heard was so sweet that contributed to the heros disorganization from his moral objective to save his beloved one. Thus, through the presentation of time levels and narrative time the evolutionary procedure through which the Cretan passed is observed. At the same time, all reference to the present, retrospective ways to the past and prolepses reveal the heros course up to his present situation. Finally, the figures of speech used in narration present vividly and graphically the heros memories and thoughts.
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4. Conclusions In the present paper what has been analyzed is the Cretans adventures both through a thematic and narrative aspect and the following realizations were made: Through the Cretans systematic examination, the heros material and psychic tribulations throughout the narration of the events is observed. These tribulations form the absolute legalization of the first general estimation that the tribulation pattern is one of the pivots of the story. The presentation of the investigatory procedure was conducive to the conclusion that the essence of the work is the heros communication with nature which is shared in two experiences. The first one is the appearance of the moon-dressed figure and the other one the succeeding sweetest sound. These two elements have an impact upon the heros soul disorganizing him from his final objective to bring his beloved ones body to the beach. It has been observed that both the divine figure and the sound magnetize the heros soul and disorganize him from his final objective to save both the girl and himself. The value hierarchy is subverted by the experience of the moondressed figure defining his behavior up to that point. In brief, through what has been mentioned in the 1st chapter, it is obvious that the hero is transformed and completely looses the warriors fighting and aggressive moral. The Cretan is correspondingly captivated by the sound being alienated from the reality and his beloved one. It is realized that only after the sound fades away the hero pulls himself together and remembers his objective. Thus, the moral objective of the shipwrecked mans soul is in contradistinction to the external impediments of nature. The magic power of nature forces the heros psyche in order to obstruct him from fulfilling his supreme moral duty. The tribulation of his moral strength elevates the Cretans strong character. The systematic observation of the narrative time is conducive to the fact that the hero, through retrospective figures and prolepses correlates present and past events. Thus, there is a transfer from the narrative present regarding the struggle against the waves to another transcendental level, that of the expectation of the future judgment. At the same time, through the experience of the moon-dressed figure, the hero returned to past memories when he was a brave warrior in order to show the present. The Cretan has ended up a beggar stretching out his hand to the passers by. The conclusion drawn through the various figures of speech used by Solomos is that the narration acquires a vivid and graphic sense. As a result, the reader feels and shares the characters emotions. In conclusion, it is realized that Solomos poem is free of superfluous narrative elements and clarifications while it is concise resulting in the readers charm by its mystery.
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Bibliography
, . . (1969): . : .. . , . (1992): . : , .. , . (1998): . : . , . (2009): . :Gutenberg , .. (2007) .: , . (1970) . ., . (2008): --. : .. & .. , . (2009): . : Gutenberg
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INSTRUCTIONS
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ISSN: 2241-1720

The scientific journal for culture and education

Contact: mail@culturejournal.net EDITORIAL BOARD

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Memory Cultures and History. The example of psychopath.....23

Traffic Education in Greek Primary Education..37

Instructions for authors59

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Key terms: bullying, victim, bully Corresponding author: E. Theodotou

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[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] Introduction

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Being left out of things on purpose

Being threatened with harm Being hit, kicked or pushed

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Figure 1 Frequency of forms of bullying

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[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] Discussion

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[VOLUME I ISSUE IV] References

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Student, Department of Psychology, The Open Universitymlempidaki@my.open.ac.uk

Lecturer, University of Western Macedonia- ekalerante@yahoo.gr

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Memory Cultures and History. The example of psychopath.

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Culture Journal 2. Belief in history

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Culture Journal 3. Memory of culture

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Culture Journal Bibliography

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