Extracts from material produced by Warwick Manufacturing Group for DfEE/DATA training course for Accredited Trainers - Warwick

University 1999

Rapid Prototyping and Tooling (RPT)

Introduction to Rapid Prototyping Rapid Prototyping and Tooling (RP&T) is a set of new manufacturing techniques which may support concurrent engineering by automating the production of physical prototypes from three-dimensional CAD models. Thus, rapid prototyping technique permits a direct integration with CAD/CAM in order to avoid regeneration and loss of geometric data contained in the CAD model and accelerate the prototyping process. A physical model can communicate more information about the product at an early design stage and allows design verification [1]. For example, a physical prototype of a component CAD model can be obtained in few hours without any special tooling. Thus, rapid prototyping techniques provide quicker feedback of physical form to the iterative product design process. The fact that important stages of product life cycle development such as design verifications, tool development and commercial promotion are supported on physical models, constitute a very important advantage of rapid prototyping [2]. Thus, key design characteristics such as accessibility, manufacturability,, ergonomics and others are verified easily in physical models because the designer can manipulate the prototype with his own hands. 1. Conventional Processes for Prototyping Fabrication processes can be classified into three categories: subtractive, additive, and compressive. A subtractive manufacturing process carves out a block of raw material to produce the desired shape. An additive process builds an object by bringing together particles or layers of material. A compressive process applies forces to a semi-solid or liquid material to deform it and obtain the desired shape in which it is then induced to harden or solidify. Most conventional prototyping processes fall into is then induced to harden or solidify. Most conventional prototyping processes fall into the subtractive category including machining processes such as milling, turning, grinding, etc. Machining methods are difficult to use on parts with very small internal cavities and complex geometrys. A conventional compressive processes include casting and moulding [3]. The rapid prototyping techniques enable to produce parts, prototypes or tools by gradually adding material in a controlled way in contrast with most traditional manufacturing methods. Most rapid prototyping techniques apply a kind of selective solidification or binding of liquid or solid particles by different methods such as gluing, welding, polymerisation, or chemical reaction. They are capable of creating parts with small internal cavities and complex geometrys. Also, the integration of rapid prototyping and compressive processes has resulted in quicker generation of patterns from which moulds or tooling are made [4]. Rapid prototyping can be a quicker and more cost-effective method of building prototypes as opposed to conventional methods. The turnaround time for a typical rapid prototype can take few hours or days, while conventional prototyping may take weeks or even months, depending on the method used. However, conventional machining methods for prototyping should not be underestimated. Advances have been made in this area such as the introduction of three to five-axis CNC milling machines. These conventional techniques permit to machine large variety of materials from wax, wood, epoxy, graphite, composites to aluminium, brass and steel. Compressive processes have also been improved like spray metal tooling for plastic moulding processes. The process begins with a model of a part to be moulded and it is secured on a parting surface and sprayed with a sealer and release agent. This allows the metal-sprayed coating to stick better and provides easier release upon completion. An electric arc spraying equipment coats the part with a zinc-type alloy until a shell of desired thickness. The shell is fitted into a mould form, and the back is reinforced. The type of backing depends on the type of moulding process to be used. The other half of the model is then put through the process. The application of rapid prototyping systems for producing the tooling for this moulding process has resulted in even quicker turnaround time [5].
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Extracts from material produced by Warwick Manufacturing Group for DfEE/DATA training course for Accredited Trainers - Warwick University 1999

3 Software Requirements for Rapid Prototyping Rapid prototyping techniques create physical duplicates of 3D CAD solid or surface models. Any lack of accurate geometric description in the CAD model will show up in the physical model. It is therefore essential that CAD professionals are properly trained in CAD modelling methods to represent geometry accurately as rework could prove to be very expensive. A 3D CAD model must be completely bound on all sides to avoid ambiguity and a solid model is preferred because it is a geometric representation of a bound volume. The surface model often lacks data connecting the component skin into a completely bound volume and the capability to describe interior part geometry. Rapid Prototyping Standard Format The CAD model data is converted into the STL file format through a translator. The STL file is a standard format of rapid prototyping systems developed by 3D Systems who pioneered commercial Stereolithography Apparatus in 1987 [6]. The STL file consists of x,y,z co-ordinates, which represent triangles describing the shape of a closed 3-D CAD model. A major concern with the STL format involves the representation of curved surfaces. Triangular facets can describe planar surfaces with precision but pose some difficulties when representing complex curved surfaces. A large number of facets provides better approximation to describe a curved surface but will require an extremely large .STL file size, resulting in longer processing times [3]. 3.3.2 Structural Supports for Parts Most parts produced with a rapid prototyping system require some form of support structure to maintain the part in place while it is being generated. When materials change from liquid to solid, they may also shrink. The result of this loss in volume can cause curl, which necessitates support structures. In addition, any overhanging part geometry must be supported. There are software systems for rapid prototyping to enable automatic generation of supports. Some rapid prototyping technologies do not need additional software to create support structures. They may use the raw material or secondary material to support the part. [3]

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4.Overview of RPT Techniques There are currently at least five different RP&T methods commercially available: Stereolithography, Laminated Object Manufacturing, Selective Laser Sintering, Fused Deposition Modelling, and Solid Ground Curing. In addition, there are technologies under development, such as Ballistic Particle Manufacturing, Beam Interference Solidification, Holographic Interference Solidification, 3D Printing, Shape Melting Technology, etc. (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Classification of RP&T processes [7] The five most important RP&T techniques will be described in order to understand the different ways of building rapid prototypes.

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41 Stereolithography (SLA) An STL file application software sections the CAD model of the desired component into a series of adjacent slices (like slicing a cucumber). This data is used to control a laser beam that draws each slice of the model, in turn, on the surface of a tank of resin. The resin is photosensitive and cures instantaneously to a solid where the laser beam strikes. The model is built on to a platform within the resin tank. At the start of the process the platform is positioned just below the surface of the resin. The laser to form a solid layer, typically 0.25mm thick draws the first layer of the model, the base. The platform then descends in the bath to allow new liquid resin to cover the cured layer and the next model slice is constructed above it. In this way, the whole of the model is built from the base up, as the platform descends in the tank (See Figure 2).

Figure 2: Slicing and scanning layers in Stereolithography One of the alternatives to save time in this process is to solidify the internal cross sections partially. It can be done by scanning the outer and inner profiles of the cross section together with some cross hatching pattern in order to give the part a sufficient internal stiffness. After all layers have been generated, the solidification of the liquid polymer still contained within the cross hatching patterns is done by further exposition to post-curing light [3]. The accuracy of a prototype obtained by SLA process depends on different parameters. These include the ratio of initial laser curing to post-curing, the way of scanning, the type of cross hatching pattern, the density of cross hatching, the speed of post curing, the support structure, etc. [7].

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4.2 Solid Ground Curing (SGC) Solid Ground Curing (SGC) allows to solidify a whole layer of material at once, avoiding the need for post-curing. Illumination of a whole layer is done through a mask including the cross section of the workpiece. The masks can be made of translucent photo-sensitive plastic foils, and a new mask is deposited for each different layer to be solidified [7].

Figure 3: Cubital's system for layer-by-layer Stereolithography . The Cubital system allows to generate the masks by charging electrostatically a glass plate with a toner and the glass plate can be reused for successive masks (Figure 3). After lighting a layer, the unsolidified polymer is first wiped off and replaced by wax that is cooled to solidify in turn. The wax provides a support structure for overhangs and isolated elements of the product. Before a new layer is applied, each layer o1 solidified polymer and wax is milled to the right thickness. After the part is completed, the wax is removed by using hot water, hot blown air, microwave energy, or solvent. Figure 4 shows a toy jeep made from the Cubital prototype [8].

Figure 4: Toy Jeep cast from the Cubital prototype [8]

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3.4.3 Selective Laser Sintering Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) technique is similar to the Stereolithography process, a laser beam scans and solidifies successive layers of bulk powder material preheated to a temperature slightly below its melting point (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Schematic illustration of a SLS system [9] Further heating, up to the sintering temperature, by means of laser beam does selective solidification. Sintering happens when the grain viscosity drops with temperature, overcoming surface tension and creating an interfacial kiting of the grains without full melting [9]. The powder that is not affected by the laser beam remains in place to support the next layer and possible overhangs of the product. SLS industrial applications involve thermoplastics such as PVC, polycarbonate, ABS, nylon and investment casting wax. Laboratory tests have been carried out for new applications with materials such as brass, copper, phosphate coated ceramics, steel, among others [7].

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4.4 Fused Deposition Modelling Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) builds up a model by deposition of molten material onto a base plate or onto previously solidified material. Solidification is completed by cooling of the molten material on the colder underlying layers. The molten material is taken from a solid filament of thermoplastic material, and it is fed into a XY controlled extrusion head at 1 C above melting temperature. In this way, re-solidification is ensured by natural cooling within 0.1 seconds. The flow rate of material considers other important parameters to build up accurate models, including extrusion head travelling speed, layer thickness, wall thickness of the part, etc. This technique can achieve overall tolerances of 0.125 millimetre, causing some parts seem rather rough and making the process less suited for small details at this moment. The FDM technique allows building up parts from different materials such as investment casting wax, wax-filled plastic adhesive material, and tough nylon like filament; and applying different colours as well [7]. On similar principle as above, the Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) Process has been designed to directly produce functional prototypes from CAD models (See Figure 6). It utilises the benefits of layered manufacturing methodologies used in Solid Freeform Fabrication, the superior material quality of welded or cast structures and the accuracy of CNC machining processes. To manufacture a part the CAD model is decomposed into slices (layers). Each slice is manufactured in alternating deposition and shaping steps (http://www-rpLstanford.edu). Material deposition (additive step) is accomplished by plasma or laser based welding techniques, which ensure metallurgical bonds between layers and a controlled microstructure throughout the part. Other deposition technologies used by the SDM process include selective casting of two-component or UV-curable resins and waxes or hot pressing of powders.

Figure 6: Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM)

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4.5 Laminated Object Manufacturing Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) technique produces part consisting of a stack of foils cut to shape and glued to each other. Each foil is first glued to the stack and then the cross section of the part is cut out by a laser beam. Glueing can occur over the whole foil area, by using pre-coated foils with glue or machines with glue deposition mechanism. The velocity and the focus of the laser beam can be adjusted in order to obtain an accurate cutting depth corresponding to the thickness of the foil, and to avoid damaging the underlying layer. Different foil materials can be applied in this process: paper, metals, plastics, fabrics, synthetic materials, composites. For example, the models made of paper foils have a wood like aspect (figure 8). All the material remains inside or around the generated part until it is completed, and the and the unnecessary sections are removed [3].

Figure 7: Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

Figure 8: LOM prototypes showing wood like appearance

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5. Applications of RP&T Techniques RP&T benefits include enhanced visualisation capabilities, reduction in cost and cyde time related with production of prototype parts, ability to perform various quantitative analysis, detect design faults before hardware fabrication, increased part optimisation, etc. [1]. A single RP&T system is able to replace the complexity and expense of using various conventional machine tools to fabricate only one prototype. Rapid prototypes can be used to build fully functional prototypes by equipping them with electrical, electronical and mechanical devices. Different types of tests can be applied on rapid prototypes to design verification. For example, while computer based fluid dynamics analysis are extremely accurate for laminar flow, rapid prototyped parts are very useful for turbulent flow testing. Many different physical models can be produced to perform the required iterations to achieve an accurate result, and therefore time and expenses can be reduced. Chrysler's designers used SLA prototypes in the area of air flow testing to find the optimum size for an ambient air duct. Three prototypes were produced in one day in contrast to four weeks using conventional prototyping techniques. [10] RP&T techniques have been applied successfully to produce patterns for shell investment castings in aluminium, stainless steel, tool steel, copper allow, inconel, magnesium, and titanium [4]. The investment casting process involves forming a mould around an expendable pattern of the desired part. The pattern is then burned or melted out, leaving a cavity in the mould. Molten metal is poured into the cavity and cooled to form the desired solid part (Figure 9). Further studies of RP&T techniques have been developed with the intent of additional improvements to pattern accuracy and surface finish, reductions in shell stress during burnout, and still higher yield of superior investment castings.

Figure 9: Rapid Tooling by Investment Casting

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6. Limitations of RPT for Flexible Prototyping The time reduction achieved by rapid prototyping techniques in the production of physical prototypes may be insufficient for certain situations in design. At the initial stages of design, it is necessary to manipulate various design parameters to test different options. If an iterative design verification requires to modify a prototype two or three times, then the whole prototyping process could take considerable time to arrive at final optimised prototype. Different factors in design may require to be manipulated and visualised immediately after being modified (e.g. aesthetics, shapes, dimensions, positions, etc.) For example, in an automobile dashboard prototype it may be necessary to prove different options in colours and shapes during the interiors design stage. In addition, the position of different elements of the dashboard may need changes due to ergonomic aspects that can only be assessed by human interaction with a full scale prototype. The number of possible variations to test can be so large that the production of physical prototypes for each version would be prohibitive in costs and time, even by applying rapid prototyping techniques. Furthermore, rapid prototyping models are limited by the resolution and dimensions of the rapid prototyping system utilised. Virtual prototypes may provide a solution to assess these types of designs where qualitative testing is a priority. However, RPT technology is extremely important to produce 'real world' prototypes. 7. Summary There is no doubt that the RPT technology has revolutionised product engineering in the past decade. Reductions in design cycle time result from the ability to produce arbitrarily complex, fully functional prototypes with short lead times. This encourages the designer to experiment before deciding on a final design. The RPT technology has also contributed immensely to improve production processes in terms of quality and lead-time. It is growing faster and being used in wide range of applications.

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References [1] Wagner, JOrgen: Steger, Wilhelm; Rapid Prototyping, an Approach Beyond Manufacturing Technology; Proceedings of the IFIP WG 5.10 Workshops on Virtual Environments and their Applications and Virtual Prototyping; Chapman & Hall; 1995. Kanopoulos, Nick; Reducing the Time to Market Through Rapid Prototyping; Computer; Vol. 28; No. 2; IEEE Computer Society; February 1995. Rapid Prototyping; Rapid Prototyping Journal; MCB University Press: 1995. Tromans, Graham; Wimpenny, David lan; Rapid Tooling - The Future for Industry: Rapid News; Vol. 3; No. 3; September 1995. Andre, Larry E.; Time-Compression Engineering and the Quest for Metal: Rapid News; Vol. 3; No. 3: September 1995. Jacobs, Paul, F.; Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing, Fundamentals of StereoUthography; Society of Manufacturing Engineers; 1992. Kruth, J. P.; New Manufacturing Techniques for Rapid Prototyping and Concurrent Engineering; Manufacturing in the Era of Concurrent Engineering: North-Holland: 1992. What is Solid Grounding; Cubital; 1995. SLS Selective Laser Sintering process; Sinterstation 2000 System: DTM Corporation; 1995. Stereolithography; 3D Systems: 1995.

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[3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

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Rapid Prototyping Web Sites [1] http://conceDtual-realitv.com

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