ACADEMIC YEAR: 2012/2013 1ST SEMESTER

Business Communication in English

O UTLINE : W HAT IS COMMUNICATION? COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION JAKOBSONS MODEL OF COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION BUSINESS COMMUNICATION TYPES OF COMMUNICATION o VERBAL COMMUNICATION o NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION o W RITING o READING OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION

WHAT

IS COMMUNICATION ?

I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant. Robert J. McCloskey, former State Department spokesman (taken from Business Communication for Success by Scott McLean) Communication is the process of understanding and sharing meaning (Pearson & Nelson 2000: 6). People share ideas, information, opinions and feelings through speaking, writing and body language. This sharing process may contribute to the operations of teams and the work of individuals. Communication is a two-way activity between two or more people. It is an encoding and decoding process. Generally speaking, encoding is processing the information that the sender (person/entity) wants to share with the receiver (someone else/other entity). After encoding, the message is sent through a spoken or written channel to the other end, where it is interpreted. The process of interpreting is called decoding. The receiver should confirm the receipt of the message and respond to it in order to close the communication loop.
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. SENDER the addresser, the initiator of the communication process, encodes the message. 2. MESSAGE the information meant to be transmitted. 3. CHANNEL spoken channels (face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation, meetings, speeches, voice over Internet protocol VOIP etc.); written channels (letters, memos, reports, emails, blogs etc.) 4. RECEIVER the addressee, the final point of the communication process, decodes the message and gives feedback.

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5. FEEDBACK the message(s) the receiver sends back to the sender. The feedback plays two roles: on the one hand, shows if the message was received accurately or inaccurately; on the other hand, gives the receiver the possibility to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree. 6. CONTEXT age, region, sex and intellectual abilities of the recipient + the setting of the communication process. Context is of outmost importance in intercultural communication. 7. INTERFERENCE anything that blocks or modifies the intended message (e.g. noises, emotions, external conditions etc.). JAKOBSON S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION There are various models of communication that try to explain the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver). One of the best known models that deal with human communication process belongs to Roman Jakobson (1960). Jakobson identifies six communication functions, one for each dimension of the communication process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Referential: the message in a context that the addressee can seize Poetic: auto-reflection Emotive: aim is the direct expression of the speakers attitude about the message Conative: part/kind of message not liable to a truth test and/or that is performative Phatic: part of message used to establish, prolong, discontinue communication, to attract/confirm the attention of addressee 6. Metalingual: elements that make sure addresser and addressee understand each other (Jakobson 1987: 71) A text/discourse has always a dominant function. When communicate, people do not use only a single function, but multiple functions simultaneously: Since the slightest human behaviour exhibits multifunctional communicative potential, the embodiment or enactment of these functions is not necessarily conscious or intentional. Thus every persons communication with another human being continuously involves composites of the following functions, i.e. every communicative cue embodies sixfold message potential (Rawlins 1987: 61)
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Each and every communication process results in some effect. If the effect is the desired and the expected one, than we can talk about effective communication. Effective communication also ensures that the message is not distorted during the communication process. Effective communication takes preparation, practice, and persistence. It is also a reciprocal process that includes active listening. Active listening requires eye contact, objective processing and feedback to the speaker. It may also involve various strategies (e.g. clarifying questions or restatements) in order to make sure that the message was correctly and accurately understood.

The goals of effective communication range from transmitting and, respectively, acquiring information to creating a common perception and even changing perception and behaviour. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1. LISTENING SKILLS/ACTIVE LISTENING

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Active listening is essential in effective communication. Listening skills show the involvement of the recipient in the communication process and his/her responses can improve/modify the content of communication. The responses may take the form of verbal and non-verbal reflections (the recipient indicate message comprehension), attention feedback (minimal responses cues which signal attention and comprehension, e.g. making eye contact) or commentary (responses that communicate listeners own beliefs, opinions etc. about the speakers utterances) (Trower, Bryant&Argyle 1978:200). 2. ASSERTIVENESS/I STATEMENTS Assertiveness is a fundamental communication skill, which involves being direct and respectful without being aggressive. It relies on mutual respect and the idea that you have the right to express your opinions, feelings and needs. I statements help a person sound direct, without being accusatory. Saying no in a polite yet firm manner is another component of assertiveness. 3. BODY LANGUAGE Also called nonverbal communication, body language includes posture, position of hands and arms, eye contact and facial expression. 4. OPEN-MINDEDNESS Effectiveness in communication is accomplished when there is empathy and tolerance, and judgements and criticism of communicated messages are avoided. The recipient do not have to agree entirely with the other persons opinions and beliefs, but he/she should respect them and should make the effort of understanding the situation from the senders position. 5. REFELECTION The recipient validates the thoughts and feelings of the person speaking by reflecting back what he/she has communicated. This can be accomplished by

summarising what has been said, e.g. You feel like you have tried several options and are not sure about what step to take next. This communication skill helps the speaker feel like he/she is being understood and gives him/her the opportunity to clarify and add more detail if necessary. 6. COMPROMISE When a problem exists, both parties involved must collaborate to formulate a list of potential solutions as well as trade-offs that they will agree to. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Business communication can be looked at from two perspectives: 1. Type of communication that encompasses topics such as: marketing, brand management, advertising, public relations, corporate communication etc.

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2.

Type of professional communication that covers a wide range of specialised communication forms, from oral performance (presentations, meetings, negotiations, video conferencing etc.) to written performance (reports, letters, memos, notes, e-mails etc.)

Business communication may also refer to internal communication, which is vital in company because a poorly transmitted message could lead to employees lack of trust or even hostility. There are authors (McLean 2010) that look at business communication as a problem solving activity. Consequently, there are some questions that need to be addressed: What is the situation? What are some possible communication strategies? What is the best course of action? What is the best way to design the chosen message? What is the best way to deliver the message? The concept of business communication is closely related to those of professional communication (all forms of communication within a workplace) and technical communication (a professional task performed by specialized employees or consultants to organize information and maintain accuracy in various types of technical documents), yet different and unique due to its main objective: making money.

METHODS OF BUSINESS C OMMUNICATION A. In praesentia vs. in absentia: 1. Face-to-face communication in meetings, negotiations, presentations etc. 2. Distance communication (e.g. telephoned meetings, video-conferencing etc.) 3. Web-based communication (e.g. emails, forum boards etc.) B. Two or more: person to person - face to face, reading a letter, making a phone call in a small group - planning, problem solving, decision making, written reports, memos, notice boards in a meeting - presenting, bargaining, negotiating agreements using mass media - speaking in public, on radio or television, writing for print media such as newspapers and journals, books, advertising others - training, teaching, entertaining. F ORMS OF
BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Presentations Meetings Negotiations Letters Reports Proposals Memos Emails Etc.

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T YPES OF COMMUNICATION Verbal Communication Verbal communication is when a person puts across a message by speaking. The message can be sent to an individual, a team or a group. The message can be sent in person, via an intercom, over the phone, email etc.

The person sending the message should express the message clearly so that the receiver is able to understand and act, if required, on the message. The receiver of the message should be able to understand what was said. Many times the message may not be received as the sender intended, due to a range of factors including lack of attention or interest. Verbal communication breakdown Communication breakdown occurs when the sender's message does not get through to the receiver or the receiver misunderstands the sender's message. The following are examples of communication breakdown. 1. Inattention: The receiver is not concentrating or is not interested in the sender's message. 2. Physical barriers: The message is not received due to noise, poor eyesight / hearing etc. 3. Poor expression: The sender has expressed himself / herself poorly therefore the message has not been interpreted as intended. 4. Premature evaluation The receiver only hears part of the message, then jumps to a conclusion about the remainder of the message rather than listening to it. 5. Emotions: When the message is expressed with strong emotions, whether it be angry, fearful etc, the meaning of the message may be misinterpreted 6. Gatekeeper: The sender/receivers message is communicated through a third party which may result in breakdown or misinterpretation of the message. 7. Communication chain: The message is sent via a number of parties and relies on the message being unchanged by these parties, eg A sends message to B, which sends it to C, which sends it to D. 8. Denial: The receiver does not want to hear the message, therefore there could be a barrier to the sender's message. The receiver may be fearful of change, they may not want to do a task etc. 9. Lack of questioning: The receiver does not understand the message and does not ask the sender for clarification etc.

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Non-verbal Communication There are numerous ideas, thoughts and feelings that are communicated without words. Only one third of a message is sent in a person-to-person exchange in words alone. People have the ability to read nonverbal cues. These cues are learnt from the environment and through culture and can therefore be misinterpreted. The following are examples of non-verbal communication; yawn tears frown crossing arms averting eyes Silence can be a type of non-verbal communication. Types of non-verbal communication There are six types of non-verbal communication. 1. Body language Body language is the way that we communicate by the use of the body. The parts of the body associated with body language are the face and part of the face, the whole head (with face expressions), hands/fingers/arms/ touching, legs, feet and sitting position. The face is the most commonly used channel of communication. A raised eyebrow means surprise, lips pursed means anger. The face is used to encourage or discourage feedback. The whole head can be used to communicate. A nod means agreement, moving the head up and down communicates interest to the speaker. Legs are often crossed to communicated discomfort, feet may act as pointers to the person we are communicating with. 2. Physical appearance Body shape and size have influence on the way people are perceived by others and can be inaccurate. Hair, clothing and personal style also send a message about who we are and what we are. 3. Voice The way words are said contribute to the message being sent. There are four vocal cues qualifiers - tone, rate, pitch and volume of speech fillers - words used to fill conversations i.e. 'okay', 'well', 'um', 'ah' differentiators - vocal sounds that help us communicate i.e, giggles, yawn, sighs

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qualities - the way the voice is used i.e. husky, firm, questioning etc. 4. Space The way people control space around them, sends messages to others. There are 4 distances within which communication can take place. public - distance in a public meeting social - distance when speaking to strangers including work colleagues personal - distance when speaking to someone of equal status intimate - distance when allowing personal contact and closeness 5. Environment The environment affects the way communication is undertaken. The way the room is organised, the colour, temperature, ventilation and smells affect communication both positively and negatively. 6. Time The use of time affects the way communication is undertaken. In business 'time is money'. People are not expected to waste time and are expected to meet deadlines. An individuals treatment of time communicates attitudes. If a worker is constantly late for work they may communicate lack of commitment to the organisation. Writing Written communication provides a record for the future. Written communication can be studied, reflected on and absorbed at the receiver's own pace. Written communication is permanent and makes a lasting impression. The written word can sometimes have more authority. Words can be written, rewritten, edited until the communication is seen as clear and accurate and is ready to be sent to the receiver. Written communication includes letters, memos, email, minutes of meetings, reports, instructions, diagrams, maps, other pictorial aids etc. Written communication can overcome distance and can be cheaper than face-to-face meetings. It can be useful when information has to be sent to large numbers of people and can reinforce verbal communication. Whatever the reason for writing, the message will be more effectively sent if the text is clear, readable and business like. The following are six steps to help when writing workplace documents: The purpose Why is the text being written? What does the reader need to know/do? How does the reader need to feel?

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The plan Jot down key points to be made in logical sequence. Gather facts that will be included Draft Write the documents with particular people in mind Natural language should be used The text should be readable and flow naturally Edit Read through the document to make sure it is clear Words should be familiar and sentences should be short Final draft Arrange final draft on computer Check Check the document carefully and give it to others to read for errors and readability Make changes Make sure the documents looks professional so that it is appealing to read Reading In most workplaces there is a lot of reading required of personnel. The reading material may include minutes of meetings, Occupational, Health and Safety procedures and practices, work procedures, reports etc. Due to the amount of reading required for many workers, reading skills need to be developed so that time spent reading is efficient and effective. When reading a workplace document, questions to ask beforehand are: Why am I reading this? What is the purpose of the document? What do I expect to be able to know / do as a result? It may be helpful to think in terms of the outcomes of the reading. The outcomes may be: memorising the information getting a broad overview getting evidence finding out what has happened answering a question /topic revising

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getting a range of opinions getting concrete facts

When reading a text, the following procedure may be followed: skim the material to get a good idea of what it is about and / or the main ideas areas to look at include the table of contents, chapter summaries, graphs / tables, illustrations and captions read to find answers to specific questions this makes the reading process an active process as there is a purpose read the material normally, taking notes about the material in your own words also mark the document to aid with revision and relocating the material / points recall what you have read with the material out of sight have you picked up the main facts and ideas review all the headings / notes afterwards to avoid forgetting. O VERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS Personnel in a workplace communicate with peers, managers, supervisors, members of the public, suppliers and others. Barriers to communication can cause problems and misunderstanding with effective communication. Some barriers to communication are: jargon disabilities age status lack of empathy stereotyping unclear or incomplete messages distance lack of time poor spelling - inaccurate sentence structure. Steps to overcome communication barriers should be put in place. All personnel should be interested in overcoming barriers to effective work practices in an organisation. The following list outlines points to consider in relation to overcoming communication barriers. feedback - enables communication to become a two way process with both the sender and the receiver trying to achieve mutual understanding consider the words used - long complicated sentences and unfamiliar words confuse people. Communication should be clear, complete, concise, concrete, correct and courteous. use repetition - repeating messages several time using different examples can help others to understand the messages being sent use empathy - seeing a situation from another person's viewpoint and trying to understand others opinions concerns and attitudes makes better communicators timing - poor timing can result in messages not being received effectively

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being positive rather than negative helps make communication more effective - what is wanted not what isn't wanted select the best location - talk somewhere that will encourage open communication not a noisy shop floor or a busy office listening reduces communication check written communication for spelling errors and ensure the sentences are clear, concise and not ambiguous. PERSUASIVE C OMMUNICATION

Effective communication can help an organisation achieve: Satisfied repeat customers; Well-motivated employees; A positive reputation in the wider community; Innovative and creative strategies. (Blundel 2004: 2) Organisational communication is made up of a vast and endless stream of criss-crossing messages. The content of these messages can be broken down into a number of different elements: 1. Raw data: results of scientific measurement 2. Facts: data that are presented as objective information 3. Ideas: a more abstract type of information, presented in the form of concepts, constructs, theories and models, which may have varying degrees of empirical support 4. Opinions: relate to facts or ideas and are distinguished by their subjectivity. 5. Beliefs: a strongly held set of opinions, which is usually linked to an individuals sense of identity and influences daily behaviour. 6. Emotion: emotional energy can be contained in a message, expressing human feelings in conjunction with other elements, such as facts or ideas. (Blundel 2004: 6) Organisations often exchange messages containing a mixture of facts, ideas, opinions and beliefs, coloured by varying degrees of emotion. (Blundel 2004: 7) PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION Starting point: the receiver must have some freedom in responding to persuasive messages, and an underlying ability to choose between alternative courses of action. Persuasion is an interactive process, involving all parties in a negotiation of meanings. Only free men can negotiate. Prisoners cannot enter into contracts (Public statement by Nelson Mandela, Feb. 1985) Ways in which persuasive communication operates in organisations: Advertising Public Relations and lobbying Interviews Business meetings and negotiations Advertising

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Persuasive techniques are used to secure the attention of a target audience and to increase its subsequent recall of the message. Public Relations and lobbying Public relations is mainly concerned with managing the links between an organisation and the people outside, including customers, local communities and journalists. Lobbying means presenting an organisations case to the key decision makers. Interviews Job interviews involve persuasion efforts from both sides. Candidates are seeking to convince the panel that they are the right person for the job, while the organisation is trying to attract the strong candidates to accept job offers. Employers also want unsuccessful candidates to leave with a positive impression of their organisation. Persuasion can also be a factor in other types of interview, e.g. an employee performance appraisal.

Business meetings and negotiations People have to work very hard to persuade others to accept their novel or controversial ideas and proposals. F RAMEWORK FOR

ANALYSING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

Aristotles rhetorical argument Element/Type of argumentation Ethos: credibility of the person organisation presenting the argument Logos: internal presented. logic of the Practical example An organisation with a poor reputation appoints a new senior executive who is well regarded by key stakeholders. A government department issues a detailed research study that makes the case for its policy proposals. A police force asks the parents of a victim of crime to join in a televised public appeal for information.

or

argument

Pathos: appeals to emotion in support of the other elements.

Toulmins (1957) model of argumentation Situation: The research director of an engineering company may be seeking board approval to invest in a research project involving novel technology, which is currently at the development stage. Component Claim Description The assertion that is put forward for acceptance Relevant data forming basis for the argument Rules or principles for linking a claim to its grounds. Evidence supporting the warrant in this particular Example Research manager claims that the new product merits further capital investment. Research report highlights products performance and market potential. What is generally regarded as relevant and strong research evidence. Details of the people who conducted the research,

Grounds

Warrant

Backings

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case. Qualifiers Phrases that place conditions or limits on the strength of the claim.

Rebuttals

Exceptional conditions, beyond the scope of the claim that would otherwise undermine the argument.

experience, methods used, etc. Report states that, Product performance has been rated excellent in all applications tested so far (emphasis added). Project will fail if a rival firm is successful in developing a product based on the next generation technology.

Main issues to be addressed by a message that is intended to be persuasive: 1. The nature of the audience What previous experience do they have, either of you as an individual, or the organisation that you represent? What do they already know, and how do they feel about the subject matter of your message? What do you know about their personality and their current state of mind? Are you trying to persuade one individual or a large number of people? Are they able to act independently, or are they playing the role of representatives or agents of another organisation? What other factors that might be persuading them in the opposite direction?

2. The message Content: Does it comprise facts, ideas, opinions or a mixture of all three? Is it simple or complex? Is it likely to be surprising, or unwelcome or threatening to your audience or to those they represent? + The emotional aspects Objectives: Changing facts and ideas = if senders have access to relevant supporting evidence (i.e. grounds as identified in Toulmins model), which they are capable of presenting in a straightforward manner, receivers will be persuaded to change their minds. Changing beliefs and values = though they contain facts and ideas, a persons beliefs and values are bolstered by other powerful factors, such as self-image, cultural background and pressure exerted by a peer group. Changing actions and behaviour = full-scale persuasion arises when the receiver has an in-built resistance towards the proposed action or change in behaviour (e.g. efforts directed at discouraging people from activities such as smoking or drug abuse). 3. The context Is it happening within an organisation or in the outside world?

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The timescale The activities of other parties

PERSUASIVE PRACTICES Addressing people by name Posing questions Being provocative Using different forms of persuasive communication (music, taste and smell, direct action)

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