Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete Design

-FUnclatnentalsi o1
Reinforced
. ' . . . . .. ,
' .
Concrete
. '
DeSigp.
----zna Edition
DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GR.tESANIA
-_ , Ctvil Engineer .
- ' BSCE, LIT -: Magna Cum Laude
- 5th Place, PICE Stuqents' Quiz, lsl89
-: "' Awardee, Most Outstanding Student,
3rdPlace, CE Board November 1989
- . Review Director & Reviewer jn all Subjects
Gillesimia Engineerfng Review Center _
-- ;Reviewer in Matheiriatics and_ GeneraLEngineering
. __ . MERIT Philippines Manila ,/ .
\' Author of Various Engineeripg Books -
.
'tft
. . - . . \
Fundamentals of
Reinforced Concrete
Design 2nd Edtion
Copyright 2003
byDiego.lnocendo Tapang GiDesania
All rights reserved. No part of this boo/e may be -
reproduced_ stored in a retrieval system, or
transferred_ in any form or by any means,
without t/te prior permission of the author.
ISBN 971-8614-26-5
Printed by:
GPP (iillesania Printirig Press
Ormoc City, Leyte
Philippines
Cover design by the author.

cardinal objective of this book is to provide reference to
Civil Engineers and Civil Engineering students taking-up
Reinforced Concrete Design.. This may also serve as a guide to
civil engineering students who will be taking the
examination given by the PRC.
The book is divided into ll chapters. Each chapter presents
the formulas, principles, and code involved, followed by
illustrative problems and supplementary problems . . Each step in
the solution.is carefully explained to ensure that it will be readily
understood. Some problems are even solved in several methods
. to give thereadera choice on the type. of solution he may adopt.
The boo}{ also includes updates from NSCP .2001 (Cl,Ol-91) .
. To provide the feader easy access to the different Civil
engineering terms, this book includes a glossary. The book also
provides index for ,easy access to topics a reader may want to
fmd.
. .
Most of the materials in this book have been used in my
review classes. The choice of these.materials was guided by their
effectiveness as tested in my Classes.
I vvish to thank all my friends and relatives.who inspired me
in writing my books, especially to my children and beloved
Imelda who is very supportive to me.
I will appreciate any errors. pointed ,out and will welcome
any suggestion for.fu:r;ther improvement.
i
DIEGO INOCENCIO T.
Cebu City, Philippines
'
TiJ.my mother 1/uminada,
my wife Imelda,
. and our Children Kim Deuni.ce,
Ken Dainiel,
and Karla Denise
..
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
;,
.1 - Introduction .. -
Defm1tions ............................................................................... ................................. 1
Modulus of Elasti<:ity ................. : ....................................... : ................ , ..... , ......... .. 3
Water-Cement Ratio ........................................................................... ............. ;, ...... 4
Proportioning py Water-Cement Ratio, ....... , ..... .................................... 4
Spac!!lg limits fOr Reinforcement., ............. ; ..... " .. , .............................. , ........... 8
B"undlei:l Bars .................................. ; ................. ........... ; .. ....................... ... ................. 8
\ Concrete Protection for Reinforcement .................... , .............. , .. , ...... ;, ......... 9
Standard Hooks ............ : ........ .................................... ......................................... 11
'Loads .............. : ....................... : ............. ...................................................... , .... ,., .. : ..... 11
Arrangement ofllve Load .. , .. ; ..................... _ ...... , ........................................
Uniform and concentrated Loads (fable) ......................................... : ... 13
Minimum Roof Uve Load (fable) ...................................... , .................... 14
Special Loads (fable) ........... : ...................... ... ..... , .. : ....................................... 14
Wind.Pressure ....................................... ; .......................................................... 15
Load Faetors ... .................... , ....................... , .............................. ;_, ............................... 21
Required Strength .......... ................................................................... , .................. 21
Strength Reduction Factors ........... ,. .......................... _ .................... ... ....... , .......... 22
Update &:om NSCP2001 (C101-D1):, .................................................. , ....... 23
Chapter 2. - Analysis and Design of Beams . ... .
Notations and Symbols .......... , ........ _.:, ..................... .. ...... , ................. , ... , ........ 25.
Assumption in Design for ........ ... ........... , .......... , .......... 26 ..
Rectant\lclar Reinforced for Tens1on Only .................................... 27
Coe tcient .of Resistance .... .................... , .................... , ............................... 28'.
Balanced .. : ............ : ................... , ............ ;.;: .. ; .............. : ...................... ...... 29 ;
Und,erreinforced Design ......................... ; ............... , ... .................................... 29
. OVerreinforced Design ................................ : .. : .. : ........ .-............... , ........................ 29
Balanced Steel Ratip ............................................................................ , ................ 30
Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratio ....... : ..................... ; ........... ................. 31
Update from NSCP 2001 (ClOl-01) ........... ,! ................. : ............. , ............... 32
Desigrun .. _g Singly orced_ Beam .. :: .. , ....................... : .. ........ ..... 33 ..
. Com{>utmg M for Smgly Retnforced Beam .......... .................. 34
Mmtmum Thtclmess of Flexur.il Members .................... , .......................... 35
Beam Deflection ....... .... ,:.-.............. : ............... :., ............. ,, .: .. ............ : ................... :36 .
NSCP Coefficients for Continuoqs andSlabs, ......... , ................. 39
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS /
Design Problems .. ,; ...... : .. : ......... ........ : .................. , .... : ...................................... 41
Investigation Problems where f._ =.h ............................ : ......................... 51
Investigation Problems where f. t:- ;: ....................................... , ............... 57
Beams ............................ , ..................... : .. ,- .. ,- ............... 60
Beam Deflectton : .............. , ........ ,: ...... ., ......................................... ;., ... ........... .-...... ffi'
One-waySlab; .. , .................................................... -.' ....................................... : ......... 74
i . .
!! ,REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Shrinkage and Temperature Bars .......................... ..... ........... : ................. 74
Steps in Design of One-way Slab ...... ....... .. .. ..... , ...................................... 75
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM on One-way Slab ...... .. ....................... , ....... 76
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS .. .. " .... : .... , .................................... ....... ....... .. .. 85
. .
Chapter 3- Analysis Design.ofT-Beams
and Doubly Reinforced Beams' .
T:-Beams .... .. ... .... .. ...... ...... ..... ..... ... .... .... ....................... .. .. .............. .... ....................... 87
Analysis and Design ofT -Beams .................... .... .............. , ...................... 87
Balanced and Maximum Steel Ratio ...... .. ................ .. .. .......... .. ........... .. . 89
Design ofT-Beams with Negative .Moments .............. .... .. .... .............. 90
Minimum Steel Ratio ................................... : ... : .... : ..................................... :. 90
Steps in Designing T -Beams ........... : ............ ... ........ , ........ .. . .... ...... .. ....... , .. 93
......................... .. ...... : ............. : 95
Design Problems ( a< ........ , ..................... .... ........................ .. : ........... 97
, DesigJ?: Pr?blem. S (a .. >. .t ................ : .......................... .. ................. .... ... .. ... ... :99
Investtgatwn Problems . a< t ) ........... ..... ..... ... ..... .... ....... .. ... ........... 101
Investigatiort Problems a> t) ................................................. : ..... 1 02
Doubly Reinforced Beams ................. , ......................................... .... ............ .. 106
Analysis ofDoubly Reinforced Beams ...................................... ...... ... 106
Steps in Designing Doubly Reinforced ,l3eams ................................ 107
Steps in Investigating Doubly Reinforced .Beiuhs ... : .... ,. ................. 109
Deep Beams .................................... , ........................... ; .................................. -111
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS ,
Design Problems ........ :., .... ..... , ........... _ ........ :: .... _ .. , ..................... : ............. 112
Investigation Problems where.!: =fv ...... : .. , ......................... , .... .. ... 116
Investigation Problems where .f.'* z .. : ............... ..................... .... .. 119
SUPPLEMENJ'ARY PROBLEMS ... _. ...... .. .................................................. 122
Chapter 4 - Shear and Diagonal Tension .
General .. ...................... .. _- .. .................................................................................... 125
'Types of Shear Failu_re ... ......................... : .. , ......... : .. : .......... , ...... : .................... 126
Shear Strength Provtded by Concrete .................. , ........ .. .............. ........... 127 _
Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement..: ........................... 129
Types of Reinforcement ..... :: .. :: ..... ... : ........... ... . : ......... , ... .... ....... , .... . ,. 130
Design Yield Strength of Stirrups ..... .. ................... .... .............. : .................. 130
SpaCing .Limits, of Stirrups ........... ........ , .......................... , ... ... .............. .. ..... : .... 131
Minimum Shear ............... ................................... .. .. : ......... .. 131
Critical Sections for Beam.Shear.. ...... ........ ... , ... ..... , .. ............. .. .... , ... ...... ; .... 132
Steps in Verti'cal Stirrup Design .. , ............................................................... 1.33
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS,.: ............. : ....... : ............................................... ::. 13 5
Bracket and Corbels ............................................ .. ...... .. ......... .................... : ... 148
Update from NSCP 2001 (CfOl-01), Torsion ..... , ............... .... ............. 150 _ .
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS ................................... , ................................ 156
': !
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ill
Chapter 5 - Bond, Developmellt Length, Hooks,
and Splicing of Reinforcement
Bond .......................................................................................................... , ........... 157
Development Length .................................... , .................................................. 157
Development Length of Straight Bars ................................................ 158
Basic Concept of Development Length ............................................. 158
Basic Development Length of Bars in Tension ................................ 159
Modification Factors for Bars in Tension .................................... 160
Basic Development Length of Bars in Compression ..................... 161
Modification Factors for Bars in Compression .......................... 161
Development of Bundled Bars ................................................................. 161
Development of Flexural,Reinforcement.. ............. , .......................... 161
Development of Positive Moment Bars .......... , ....................... : .... 162
Development ofNegative Moment Bars ..................................... 164
Hooks ......... , .................................................................................. ...................... 166
Development of H:ooks ........... : ... , ...................... , ..................................... 167
- Modification .Factors ............................................................................ 167
Splices of Reinforcement ................................... : ........................................... 167
Lap Splice ....................................................................................................... 168
Welqed Splices and Mechanical Connections ................... : ......... , .. 168
Splices in Tension .............................. ......................................................... 168
Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression ................. , ...................... 169
Update from NSCP 2001 (ClOl-01). ....................................... ................ 169
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS., ..................................................... , ................. ,. 17 4
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS .......................... : ............................. : ........... 184
.. .... ............... ; ........... : .......... 185
P-Delta Moment .... : ......... ; ................................ : .................... ............................ 185
Types of Column ...................................................... : ........................................ 186
Axial Load Capacity of Columns ................................................................ 187
Tied Column.: .................................. ; .................................................................. 187
Limits of Reinforcement.. .................................... _, .................................... 188
Sizes and Spacing of Main Bars and Ties ...... .................................. 188
Spiral Column .............................................................. , .. , ................ : ..... ::c ....... ". 189
Limits of Reinforcement ....................................................... , ................... 189
Sizes and Spacing of Spirals ................................................................... , 189
Economical Column Design .............................................. : ........................ : .. : 190
Composite Column .......... , ................. : .......... : ............................ : ................. , ... l91
Structural Steel Encased Concrete Core ............................................ l91
Spiral Reinforcement around Structural Steel Core ................ 192
Tied Reinforcement around Steel Core ....................................... 192
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS ..... : ..................................................................... 194
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS .................................................................... 202
'
!y
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
, .
Chapter 7 - Short Columns Subject to .
Axtell Load and Bending
Axial Load and Bending ............................... , ............................. ..................... 203
Plastic Centroid .......... , ............... : ........... .... .. .. ... ........................ :. ....................... 204
Analysis of Eccentrically Loaded Columll'li ............... ............................. : 205
Balanced Loading Condition ... ....... ... ...... ...... .. ... , ................. : ....... : ........ , .. .... 207
Interaction Diagram ......... ....... : ...................... ... .......... : ..... .. ... ... : ...................... 207
ILLUSTRATIVE -pROBLEMS .
Plastic Centroid : ...... ....... .. ......... :: .... .......... ... ..... ................... : ......... ........... ... 2.09
Balanced Loading ................................... ,, .. .. : ................... , .... ...... .......... , ..... 210
Column, with Large Eccentricity and all Steel Yield. , .... , ..... , ........ 212
Column with Small Eccentricity with Compression
Steel Yield .................................................... ........ ......... .............................. 213
Interaction Diagram .... .... ......................... , ............... -...... ....... ...................... 217
of Columns with Known Dimension ........ ............ , .............. 224
. Design of columns with.tJnknown Dimension .............................. 226 .
Axial Load Plus bending in Both Axes .......................... : ........................... 229
Bresler. Equation ................. ..... ..................................................... ................ . 230
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM .. , ................ :.:, ............ : .......... , ......... ................ 231
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS ............... .. ....................... , ........................... 234
........... .. ..................... ........ .. { ............... 237.
.. .. .
Consideration of Slenderness Effects .... ...... ............ ........................... : ..... 239
Braced and Unbraced Ftame$ .... :. ............................. : ......................... ; ........ 239
Alignment Charts .... : ...... ... ............... , ................... : ....................................... 239
Moment Magnifier Method .. : ......................... ... ....................... : .... : ... , .... , .... ,240
Minimum Eccentricity when Slenderness is Considered ................. 243
Moment Magnifier for Biaxial Bending ................................. , ......... ; ....... 243.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS ....... .... .0 .. ,.: .... : ... . .. ........ ............ ; .. .. : .. ........... , .... 244
SUJ;'PLEMENTARY PRDBtEMS, ...... : ................ .. , ..................... .. ................... 258
Chapter 9 -:Footings . . . . ,
Definitions .. , .... .... ....... ..... : ........... .... , ...................... ................. ... ..... ..... ............. ..... .. 259 .
Types of Footing ............... . : ... .. ....................... .. , ........ : ............... ,: .. ..... , ............. 259
Pennissible So it Pressure ... ... ....... , .. .,.,. ........... , ................................................ 261
Loads and Reaction in Footing ... ........................ ......................... ................ 262 :
Critical Sections in Footings: .. : ..... , ............................ , .. , .... .................... .. ..... 263
Critical Sections for Moment .... L .... : .............. ... , ........... : .......... ......... : ......... 263
Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement .................... ..... ...... : ....... .. : .. : ..... 265
Shear in Footings ................... . : ... , ...... , .............. : ........ .' ...... : .... .................... ; ....... ;. 26'6

TABLE OF CONTENTS .
v.
Load transfer from Columns to Footings .............. ... .. ..... : ...... ........... ..... :268
Dowels ........................ : .......... : ........... ....... .. .......................................................... : 269
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS .
Pesign of Square Footing .......... : ........... : ... ............... : ....... : ............ .... : ..... 270
of Footing ................................. ............................. 274
on Pde Cap ............... , ...................... '., ........... , .................. .... , .......... 278
Footing Subject to Axial Load and Monient ................. : ................... 280
Wall Footing ... : .. ,: ........ .................................................... ; ........ ................. ... 291
Combined Footings ........... , ........................................ , ..................................... 296
Strap orCantilever Footing ................. ... , ... .. .... ... .......... ... .... ................ , ........ : 297
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS .
.. Rectangular Combined footing ............... ..... , .... , ... , ................ ... : ....... .. 299
Trapezoidal Footipg .............. : .. : ...... : ........ ..... : ........ : ... ,: ........ : ..................... 315
Strap Footing ................... ;, ......................... .......... , ... ............. ..... ................... 324
.. SUPrLEMENTARY PROBLEMS ................................... , .. . ,. ............................ 332 ,
Chapter 10 Two-way Slab . ' . . . .
Column and Middle Strips ............... .. ........................................................... 335
Minimum Slab ............................................... ......... .. .............. .... 336
Direct Design Method .............................. ......... , ........ : ............................. :, .... : .. 338 .
Limitations of Direct Design Method : ................................................ 338
... Moments in Slab .......... ,., .... , ....... ................... . , ..... : ............ , ........................... 339
Nt::gative and Positive Factored Momerits ......................... .......... ... ,.339
1. Factored Mom.ent in column Strips ..... ............................. .. ........ ......... 340
Factored Moment in Beams ............. : ....... .. ,., ....... : ............ : .. ... .... ............ 342
Factored Moment in Middle Strips ........................ , ...... , ..... : ........ : ........ 342
. Factored Shear in slab with Beams ..... ..... : ........................... , ............. .. 343
.ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS: ......................................................................... . 344.
chapter 11 - Alternate Design Method
(Working St;rength) NSCP 2001 (C101-01) .
Notations ............ .-........................ : .......... : ... .............. : .......... ... .... ...... ........ .... , ... . : ... 357 .
Permissible Service ,Load Stresses ............... .... ;. , ......................... , ............ .. ... 358
Develqpment and Splices of Reinforcement... .. .. ,._ .. ....... : ...... .. . -........ ... . :. 359
Flt::xure ............ , ........... , ...................................... : .. ....... : ......... , .............. .. ...... ...... ..... 359
CompreSsion Members With or Without Flexure ............. , ................. 360
Shear.and Torsion ......................... ..................... :.: .. .. ...... : ........ : ..... .... ... . : ........ . : .. 360
Stress Carried by Concrete ........ .. ..... ....... .................................... 361
.Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement.. ......................... , ... :.362
Spacing-Limits. of Shear .. Reinforcerrient ...... , .................................... :. 363
Minimum Shear Reinforcement ........................................................... 363
Design of Shear Reinforcement ... ,:: .... ...... : ......................... : ...... ........... 363
Friction ..... ........... ....... : ....... .. .. ..... ..... ........ : .............. ... .. : .. ...... ....... .. ...... .... . 364
Special ProvisiOJ:lS forSlabsand Footings ., ....................... ,, ...... ........ ...... 395 .
Special for Other Members .............. :: ... : ................................ .3.66
vi
REINFORCED CONCRETE l)ESIGN
Composite Concrete Flexural Members .. ............. y ............. . , .. .. . . ... .... .. ... 366
Design of Beams for Flexure .............. .......... : .. ....... : .................. .. .... ... .......... 367
Balanced Design .......... .. ..... ..... ....... ..... ........ ......... .. _ ...... ; .. .. ... ... ....... ... ..... .. : .. . 368
ILLUSTRATIVE.PROBLEMS ............ ......... , ................................. ..... , .......... .... 369 .
... -_...
. -
Answers to Supplementary . : ..... ; ..... ... : ...... : .......... 375
.
Glossary of CiVil Engineering ....... ... : ..... : .................. G -1
. . ' I ... -., .Y'" '
Inpex ... ... _. ... ...... , ... .. ... ...... : ..... ........ .. ... .. .. _. ...... .............. : .. , ... .. : ... ..................... , ... ... . ; I -1
..
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1
Ghapter 1
Introduction
CONCRETE
Concrete i ~ a mixtUre of water, cement, sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other.
aggregates. The aggregates (sand, gravel, crushed rock) are held together in a
rocklike mass with a paste of cement and water.
REINFORCED CONCRETE
As with most rocklike mass . concrete has a very high compressive strength but
have a. very low tensile strength. As a structural member, concrete can lie made
to carry tens:ite stresses (as iri beam in flexure). In this regard, it is necessary to
provide steel bars to provide the tensile s.trength lacking in concrete. The .
composite member is called reinforced concrete.
AGGREGATES
Aggregates used in concrete may b ~ fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse
aggregates {usually gravel or crushed stone). Fine aggregates are those th)lt
passes through a No. 4 sieve (about 6 mm in size). Materials retained are coarse
aggregates.
The nominal maximum sizes of coarse aggregate are speCified in Section 5.3.3 of
NSCP. These are as follows: 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides nf
forms, 1/3 the depth of slabs, or 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between
individual reinforcing bars or wires, .bundles of bars, or prestressing tendons or
ducts. These limitations may not be applied if, in the judgment of the Engineer,
workability and methods 6f consolidation are stich that concrete can be placed
without honeycomb or voids.
WATER
According to Section 5.3.4, water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free
from injurious amounts . of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials, or. other
substances that may be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Mixing water
for prestressed concrete or for concrete that will contain aluminum
embedments, including that portion of mixing water contributed in the fori? of
2
free moisture on aggregates; shall not contain amounts of chloride
ion.: Non-potable (non-drinkable) water shall not be used in concrete unless the
following are satisfied: (a) Selection <;>f concrete proportions shall be based on
concrete mixes using water from the same source and (b) mortar test cubes
made with non-potable mixing water shaH have . 7-day. and 28-day strengths . .
equal to at least 90 percent of strength$ of similar specimens made with potable
water.
,CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
Proportions of materials for concrete shali pe t6 ' provide: (a)
workability and consistency to permit concrete to be worked readily into forms
around reinforcement under of placement to be employed,
without segregation or excessive .bleeding, (b) Resistance to special exposures;
.. apd (c) conformance with strength test requirements. '
Where different materials 'are to be used for different portions of proposed
. work, each, combination .shall be evaluated. Concrete proportions, including
water-cement ratio, shall be established based on field experience arid/ or trial
mixtures with materials to be_ employed.
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Concrete lighter in weight than ordinary concrete used
principally to reduce dead load; or for thermal insulati<;>n, nailability, or filL
Disadvantages of lightWeight squctural concretes include higher cost, need for
more care inplacing, greaterporosity, and mote dtying shrinkage, For a given
. percentage of ce111ent, usually tP,e lighter the c6nl:tete, the lower the
- -
Tabl.e 1.1 Approximate Weights Concrete
Aggregate' C,on<:rete Weight, kN/m3
Cinders:
Without sand
' 13.4
.
With sand
17.3 ,--18.1
Shale or clay
14.lL 17,3 ,
Pull}ice 14.l-15.7
Scoria' 14,1 ..,.17.3
Perlite
7.9 -,12.6
Vermiculite 5.? -11.8
3
HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE
Concrete weighing up tO about '60.5 kNfm3 can be produced by using heavier-
than"ordinary Theoretically, the upper limit can be achieved wfth
steel as fine .aggregate and steel ptinchings as coarse aggregate. The heavy
is used principally in radi'ations shields and counterweights.
Concrete made with. barite develops ai-t optimum ,density of 36.5 and
compressive strength of41.35 MPa; with limonite and magnetite, densities from
33 to 35.2 kN/m
3
and strengths'of 22 MPato39.3 MPa; with steel punchings and
sheared bars as coarseagg'regate and 'steel shot as fine aggregate, densities from
:?9.3 to 45.3 kNjm3 and strengths of about38.6 MPa.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY .
Unlike steel and other materials, concrete has no definite modu,lus of elasticity.
Its value is dependent on the characteristics of cement and aggregates used, age .
of concrete and strengths. . .
According to NSCI' (Section 5.8.5), modulus of elasticity for concrete for
values of w,between 1500 arid 2500 kg/tn
3
may be taken as
Ec = w, Ls 0.043 fE (inMPa) .
Eq. l - 1
where f, is the 28-day compressiv,e strength of concrete in MPa, We is the .unit
on in kg/m
3
. For normal weight concrete, f:c -= 4700 .j'J';.
E, for nonprestressed reinforcement may be taken as
/ 200,000 MPa:............... .

Table 1.2: Values of Modulus of Elasticity
for Normal Weight Concrete ..
f,. (MPa) E,. (MPa)
20.7 21,760
24.1 23,503
... 27.6 25,130
31.0 26,650
345 28,030
4
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Depending on the 'mix (specially the water-cement ratio) and the time and
quality of curing, compressive strengths of concrete .can be obtainedup to 97
MPp or. more. , Commercial production of co'ncrete with ordinary aggregates is
usually in the 21 to 83 MPa range with the most c0mmon ranges for
place buildings from 21 to 41 MPa. On the other hand, precast and prestressed
applications often expect strengths of 27.6 to 55.1 MPa,
The 28-day compressive strength of concrete cim be estimated from the 7-day
strength by a formula proposed :by W.A Sater:
where
. . . . . . \
5
28
"' 28-day compressive strength, MPa
. 57 = 7 -day compressive .strength, MPa
Eq. 1-2
Concrete strength may increase significantly after 28 days, when
cement is mixed with fly ash ..
. -
The stress-strain diagram for concrete of a specified compressive strength is a
curved line as shown in Figure 1.1. Maximum stress ,is reached at astrain of
0.002 mm/ min, after which the curve descends. . .'
WATER-CEMENT RATIO
Concrete strength is influenced chiefly by the water-cement ratio; the higher this
ratio, the lower the strength . . In fact, the .relationship is approximately linear
when expressed in terms of CjW, the ratio of cement to water by weight. For a
workable mix, without the use of water reducing admixtures:
I
. c .
Szs = 18.61- - 5.24
w
' by Water-Cement Ratio,
Eq. 1-3
With the absence of any required data; concrete proportions shall be based on
water-cement ratio, limits in Table 1.3, if approved by the engineer.
CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION
56
42
f
:1!
fli

t;
1<1
- .. aoo1
0.002 0:004
.. .
STRAIN, MM PER MM
. 1&:1: stress-strain curveS for concrete
"' - !"_.
Table 1.3: MaXimlJTI Permissible Water-cement Ratios for concrete
when strength netd experience or trial mixtures are not available
,
Absolute ratio by weight

. COIDP-re551Ye ' Non-air-
Air-entrained

. .
entrained
concrete
,.
concrete .,
17
' '
0.66 0.54
-
..
20
, ,
'
0.(10 0.49
25
..
. 0,50 0.39 ..
30 OAO

5
6
:.
Table 1A: Estimated Compressive Strength of Concrete
fbr Various Water-Cement Ratios
.
Water-
28-day Compressive Strength; MPa
Cernent
'
Non-Air-
Ratio by'
Air-Entrained
Entrained

Concrete
'
Concrete
0.40 29.6 37.2
0.45 26.9 33.8
0.50 . 24.1 29.6
0.55 21.4 26.2
0.60 18.6 23.4
0.65 16.5 20.7
0.70 15.2 18.6
Required Average Stre!'gth
average compressive f cr used as the basis for selection of
concrete proportion' sl:u1.1l be the larger of Eq. 1 - 4or Eq. 1 - 5 using a standard
deviation calculated in accordance with Sec. 5.5.3.1.1 or Sec. 5.5.3.1.2 of the
Code.
or
/cr = /c + 2.33s- 3.5
where s = standc;ud deviation, MPa.
Table 1.5: Required Average Compressive Strength when Data are
Not Available to Establish Staildard Deviation
. Specified compressive
MPa
Required average comlressive
strength, T cr, M a
Less that). 20 MPa /c+ 7.0
20 to35 /c+ 8.5
Over35 f,+ 10.0
METAL"REINFORCEMENT
Eq. 1-4
Eq. 1-5
Metal reinforcement in concrete shall be deformed, except that plain
reinfotce:rrtent be permitted for spirals or tendons; and reinforcement cortsisting
.of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel tubi.rlg. . Reinforcing bars to be welded
7
_shaH be indicated on the drawings and welding procedure to be used shall be
specified. PNS reiriforcing bar specifications shall be supplemented to require a
report of material properties necessary to conform to welding procedures
specified in "Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel" (PNS/A WS D 1.4) of
the AI\terican Welding society and/ or "Welding of Reinforcing Bars (PNS/ AS-
1554)' ofthe Philippines National Standard.
DfFORMED REINFORCEMENT
Deformed, reinforcing bars shall conform to the standards in Section
53.5:3 of N$CP. Deformed reinforcing bars with a specified 'yield strength fy
exceeding 415 MPa shall .be permitted, provided fy shall be the stress
corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent and the bars otherwise conform.t6 one
of the ASTM and PNS specifications listed in Sec. 5.3.5.3.1. -
PLAIN REINFORCEMENT
Plain bars for' spiral reinforcement shall conform to the specification listed in
Section 5.3.5;3.1 of NSCP. For wire with specified yield strengthjy exceeding ,
415 MPa
1
Jy shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent if the
yield strength specified in the design exceeds 415 MPa.'
Tabie 1.6 Weight Area and Perimeter of Individual Bars
I I
Bar Diameter Weight Area .Perimeter
No.
in.'
mm
kg/m .
mm
2
'- mm
. .
3 0.375 9.52 0.560 71
30
I
4 ' 12.70 0.994 1,29
40
5 0.625 -15.88 1.552. 200
:;o
. 6 0.750 19.05 2.235 284
60
7' 0.875
22.22 '
3,042 387
70
8 1.000 25.40
3.973 '
510
80
9 1.128 28.65 5.060 P45
90
I
10 1.270 32.26 6.404 819
101
11 1.410 ' 35.81 7.907 1006,
113
14 .1.693
I,
43.00
'
11.384 1452
1j5
. .
18 2.257
'
57.33 20.238 2581
180
.
8
Table 1 7 Reinforcement Grades and Strength
. '
.
Referenced
-
Min.Yield Ultimate
Size
ASTM Types Grade . Stre9gth Strength
Standard
.
fv(MPa) fu(MPa)
... Restriction
A615-:S5 Billet steel: . Grade40 276
483 . #3 to #6 only
Grade60 414 . .. 620
A616-8s: Rail steel: Grade 50 345 551 #3 to #11 only
Grade60 414 620 #3 to #11 only
A617-85 Axle steel: Grade40 276 483 #3 to #11 only
; .'
'
.
Grade60 414 620 #3 to #11 only
A706-84a Low alloy: Grade60 414 551
A496-85 Def. Wire: Reinf.

517 586
.
'

I
Fabric 483 551
A82-85
Cold-drawn I
Reinf. 483 551
wire:
Fabric 448,386 517,483
SPACING UMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
. ..
According to Section of NSCP, the nurumum clear spacing between
parallel bars in a layer shoul.d be db but not less than 25 mm. Where parallel
reinforcement is placed in two. or more layers, bars in the upper layers should be
placed directly iibove bars in the bottom layer with clear distance between
layers not less than 25 mm. In reinforced or tied reinforced compression
members, clear dis.tance between longitudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5db
nor40mm.
In walls and sl"bs other than concrete joist construction, primary flexural
reinforceme11t shall. be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab
thickhess, nor 450 mm.
I
BUNDLED BARS
Groups of bars buJ:jdled in contact to act as a unit shall be
limited to four in any .one bundle . . Bundled bars shall . be within
stirrups or ties and bars larger than 32 mm shall not be bundled in beams. The
individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexutalmembers
should terminate at different points with at least 40db stagger. Since spacing
limitations and tninirrium concrete cover of most members are based on a single
' .
bar diameter db, bundled bars :;hall be treated .as single bar of a diamete
derived from the equivalent total area.
r'V'"'I.
\..AJ
.
8
1.2 arrangement
Diameter of single bar equivalent to bundled l:>ars according to NSCP to be usee
for spacing limitation and concrete cover.
t (25,)2 X 3.= t D2
D=43.3mm
3-25mm Equivalent
diameter, D
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEM.ENT (SECTION 5.7 .7)
Concrete (nonprestressed). The following minimum concrete
cover shall provided for reinfOrcement:
Minimum
cover, mm
(a) Concrete east against and permanently exposed to earth 75
(b)
Concrete exposed to eartli. or weather:
20 mm through 36 mm bars
1-
50
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire, and smaller
. .. 40
(c) Concrete not exp'osed to weather or in contact wi,th ground:
Slabs, walls, joists :
.,
34 mm bar artd smaller
. 20
Beams, columns
Primary reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals
'
' 40
Shells, folded place members :
, 20 mm bar and larger 20
16 mm bar, W31 or 'o31 wire, and smaller 15
, .
10
Precast conc_rete (Manufactured Under Plant Conditions). The- following
minimum concrete shall be provided for reinforcement:
,.
Minimum cover
\
mm
(a) Concrete exposed to earth or :
-
Wall panels :
32 mm bar and smaller 20
Other members :
20 mm through 32 bars
.
40
16 mm W3l or D31 wire, and smaller 30
(b) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact w I grourid
Slabs, walls, joists :
.
32 bar and smaller .
'15
Beams, columns:
,.
db but not less
Primary reinforcement . '
than 15 & need
riot exceed 40
Ties, stirrups, 10
Shells, folded plate members:
20 mm bar and larger 15
16 mm bar, W31 or :J31 wire, and smaller
.
10
Prestressed Concrete
,The minimum concrete cover shall he provided for prestressed . artd
nonprestressed reinforcement, ducts and end fittings.
Minimum
.
cover,
(a) Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 75
(b) Concrete exposed to ea.rth or weather:
Wall panels, slabs, joists
;
25
Other members

40
'
(c) Concrete. not exposed to weather or in .contact w I ground:
Slabs, walls, jqist 20
;
Beams, columns:
'
Primary reinforcement 40
Ties, stirrups, spirals 25.
'
Shells, folded plate members:
16 mm !7ar, W31 or 031 wire, andsmaller 10
Other Reinforcement
db bufnot less
than 20
..
. CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Bars
For bundled bars, the concrete co:v'er shall be equal to the equivalel
diameter ofthe bundle, buLneed rtotbe greater than 50 mm, except for concre
cast against and permanently exposed to ea,rth, the minimum cover shall be I
nuri.
STANDARD HQOKS
. . ' ._ .
The term standard hook refers to one. of the following:
(a) 180.bend plus 4db extension but not les.s than 65 nuri at free end,
(b) 90 bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar,
(c) For stirrups and tie. hooks:
. . . ' .
(1)16 Il1lll bar and smaller, 90 bend plus 6db extension at freeend of bar, or
(2).20 mm and25 mm 90 bend phis l2db extension at free end of bar, o
bar and'sll1aller, 135 bend plus 6d, extension atfree end of bar.
. '
MINIMUM BENO DIAMETER
The diameter of bend measured .on the inside ofthe bar, other than for stirrup:
and ties in sizeslO mm through 15 mm shall not be less than the following:
(a) 6db for 10 Irilllto 25 mni. bar,
(b) Bdb for 28 mm to 32 nun bar, and
(c) 10db for 36 mm
The inSide d,iameter rif bend of'stittups and ties shall not be less than 4db' for H
mm bar and smaller. For bars larger than 16 mm, the diameter of bend shall be
in accordance with the previous paragraph.
' LOADS
The most importantand most critical taskofan engineer is the determination of
the loads that can be applied to a structure during its life, and the. worst possible
combination of these loads. that might occur simultaneously. Loads ort a
st:ru,cture may be classified as dead loads or-live loads.
DEAD LOAD
Oead loads of constant magnitude that remain in .one position._ This
consists mainly o( the weight of the structur.e and other permanent attachments
, C
12
UVE LOAD
Live loads are loaqs that may change in magnitude and position. Live loads
that move under their own: pqwer are called moving loads. Othedive loads are
those ca:used by wind, rain, earthquakes, soils, and temperature changes. Wind
and earthquake loads are called lateral loads.
ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD
Live loads ma'y be applied only to the floor or roof under consideration, and the
far ends of columns built integrally with the structure may be considered fixed.
It .is permitted by the code to ass.\! me the following arrangement of live loads:
(a) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two
adjacent spans, and . .
(b) Factored dead load on all spanswith full faCtored live loC\d on alternate
spans.
'
13
Table 1.8: Uniform and Concentrated loads (NSCP)
USE Of OCCUPANCY Uniform Concentrated
Category Description
Load; Pa Load, N .
1 Armories
,.
'
7200 ... 0
Assembly areas cmd
Fixed seating areas 0
2 auditorium cmd
Movable seating and other areas 4800 ' 0
balconies therew!th
Stage areas cm4, enclosed
6000 0
platforms '
3
Cornices, marquees &
3000 0
residential balconies
4 Exit facilities 4800- 0
5 . Garq.ges
General storage and/or repair 4800
..
Private pleasure car storage 2400
6 Hospitals Wards cmd rooms 2000' 4500 .. .
7 Libraries
Reading rooms
..
3000
. ' 4500
Stockrooms
6000
6700
8 Mcmufacturing
Light 3600 8900
Heavy , 6000 13400
9 Offices
.
2400 .
.
8900
10 Printing gicmts
Press rooms 7200 11200
and linoty):>e roOins 4800 8900
11 Residential 2000 0
(
Not less than the load forthe
occupancy with which !hey i}re
...
12 Rest rooms
associated but need not exceed
..
.
2400Pa
Reviewing stands,
13 grcmdstands and
-
4800 0
bleachers
14 Roof deck
Same as area served for the type
of occupancy
15 Schools Cla:ssroom5 2000 4500
16
Sidewalks and
Public access 12000
driveways
17 Storage
Light 6000
Heavy _j 12000
18 Stores Retail -. 3600 8900
Wholesale . 4800 13400
19 Low cost housing unit
.
150(} '
0
/
14
REINF.ORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Table 1.9: Minimum Roof Uve Loads (NSCP)
' . .
Slope
Tributary Loaded Area for Structural Member
0 to 20 'm
2
zi to 60m2 Over60 m
2
1. Flat or rise less than 1 vertical to3
horizontal; Arch or dome with. rl.se 1000 Pa 800Pa 600Pa
less 1/8 of span
'
2. Rise 1 vertical per 3 horizontal to le5s
thru11 horizontal; Arch or dome
800Pa 700Pa ' 600 Pa
with rise 1/8 ohpan to less than
3/8 of span
3. R:i.se 1 vertic.al to 1 horizontal; Arch or
dome with rise 3/8 ofspan or 600Pa 600Pa 600Pa
greater
'
,. f " I
/J.. except-doth covered 250Pa 250Pa 250Pa
5. Green Houses, lath houses and
500Pa 500Pa 500Pa
agricultural buildings
'
Table 1.10: Special Loads (NSCP)
.
USE
'
Vertical
Lateral Load
Category Description
Load
Pa
Pa
1
Construction, public access
Walkway, Canopy
.
' :('200
at the site (live load)
.
Grandstands, reviewing
2 stands and bleachers (live. Seats and footboards 1750
load) : '
.
Gridirons arid fly galleries 3600
3 Stage accessor.ies Loft block wells 3650 3650
Head block wells and sheave
3650 3650
beams
4 Ceiling framing
Over stages 1000
All uses except over stages ' 500
5
Partitions and interior
250
walls
6
elevat.ors and dumbwaiters 2
(Dead load and Live load) by Total loads
7
Mechanical and electrical
.Total load
' equipment
.
8
Cranes (Dead and live Totalload including impact 1.25 by Total 0.10-by
loal:is) .increase load Total load
;,
facilities serving an
Balcony railings, 750
9
occupant load greater than 50
'
guardrails and handrails .
Other 300 ;
-
Storage racks Over2.4_m Totalloads
Refer to Chapter2 of NSCP
I
15
WIND PRESSURE
SIERRA MADRE MOUNTAIN RANGE
KPH
.' V= 150 KPH
WIND SPEEDS IN KPH
. Zone I II Ill
Basic 200 175 150
q$, wind stagnation 2000 Pa 1500 Pa' 1000 Pa
16
VALUES OF PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR
VARIOUS PARTS OF BUILDING OR STRUCTURES
Notes:
1. In all figures shown, the wind comes from the left.
2. In the formula for pressure coefficient on the windward slope:
(a) e is the angle of slope with the horizontal in degrees;
(b) The wind force is a pressure ifcoefficient is positive;
(c) The wind force is suction if coefficient is negative.
---..
---..
---..
---..
---..
1.2 ---..
---..
---..
---..
---..
Vertical
Plane
surface
(1)
TYPES OF STRUCTURES IN CLOSED FORMS:
0
"" 0
---.
- - - . ~
--tc:; .
~
-
~ - - - . - - s = - t
' (4)
co
0
---.i"""---"-'"-:-
-
-
~
o--t "
---..
(3)
(5)
-"f"
-
0
-
-
-,,-=.,....--::__
-
-
~
ci-
-
-
(6)
0
0!!
0
(7) (8)
0.7 0.5
(l()
ci
{10)
-
- ~
. -ci
-
-
-
~
- ~
:=o
- ~ .
17
18
0.8
In case of wind in direction of side wall girders:
~ r - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~
--'+
~ ~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . _ r ;
~ . ~
. ~
0 ~
---.
-
~
(12)
.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES IN OPEN FORMS:
'
Z'
w: -
o..,
o:
. ,
..
'
.,
(13)
., .
(14)
..
Self-supporting sheds;
' :
-
(15)
y>
'
'
z:
UJ '

'
'
(18)

: . ... 1
'
z:
UJ '
0.
o:
(16)

0.7 . : 0.7
('17)
.For other slopes, interpolate
method.'
. I
20
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN .
CHtMNEYS, TANKS, ETC. OCTAGONAL, HEXAGONAl., AND
SQUARE)
(19)
(21)
(20)
-------..
-
-
- s-
....4--t
-
-
-
. .
_.._ ____ __.
(22)
CHAPTER 1 ..,. INTRODUCTION
21
LOAD FACTORS
Deiid Load,. DL .... ; .......... .. : .... .. ... ......... ............................................. 1.4
Live Load,' LL ....... .. ........ .. ........................... .. .......... .. ......... .......... . , .. 1.7'
Wind Load, W .. ....................... ......... . ., .... .. .................. ........ ... ..... ... : .. 1.7
Eartl!quake, ' ...... , .. .......................................... ................... ............. 1.87
Earth Water pressure, H ... .. ............ ................... ......................... 1.7.
REQUIRED STRENGTH (FACTORED .. OAD), U
Structure and structural members sh<;>uld be designed to have design strengths
, at all sections at least equal to required strengths calculated for the factored
loads and forces in any combination of loads.
the required strength U to resist dead load DL and live load LL is
. . I ,
U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL Eq.t..:6
' : . : . . . : .- . . .
If resistance to structural effects of a specified wind load induded in
design where load combinations includes both full value and zero value of
LL to determinate the more severe condition, .
U = +l.7LL + 1.7W)
and
U = 0.9DL +1.3W
but not be less than 1.4DL,+ 1.7LL
Eq.l7
Eq. 1-8
If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces E are included in design
and .
U = 0.75(1.4DL + l.7LL + 1.87E)
U = 0.9DL + 1.43E
but not be less than 1.4DL +
If resistance to pressure His included in design
U = 1.4 DL + 1.7LL + ..
where bL or LL reduce the effect ofH
U=0.90 DL
but not be less than 1.4DL + 1.7LL
Eq.l- 9
Eq. 1 10
Eq. 1-11
Eq.1 12
22 ' REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
. . .
If resistance to loadings due to weight and pressure of fluids with Wt;!ll-
defined densities and controllable heights F is included in
design, such loading shall have a load factor. of 1.4 and be added to all
loading combinations that include live load: '
If resistance to impact effects is taken into account in design, such effects
shall be included with live load LL.
+ Where structural effects T of differential settlement, . creep, shrinkage, or.
temperature change are significant in design .
U = 0.75 (1.4DL+ 1.4T + 1.7LL) . Eq. 1 -13
but required strength U shall not be less than U = 1.4 (DL +1)
' .
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS, + (PHI)
The design strength provided by a concrete member, its connections to other
members, and its cross sections, in term of flexure, aXial load, shear, and torsion.
shall be taken as the nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction
9 having the following values:
(a) Flexure ':Vithout axial load .. : .............. .......... : ..... , ..................... 0.90
(b) Axial tension, and axial tension with flexure ......... . ............ 0.90
(c) Axial compression, and axial compression with flexure:
(1) Spiral reinforcement ........... : ............................................... 0.75
(2) Tie reinforcement & other reinforced members .............. 0.70
(d)'Shear and torsion ............... .. ................ .. .......... :: ......................... 0.85
(e) Bearing on concrete ....................................... : ..... ...................... 0.70
(j) PoSt-tensioned anchorage' zones ............ ...... ..................... ....... 0.85
23
UPDATE FROM NSCP C101-01
REQUIRED STRENGTH
409.3.1 Required strength U to .resist dead load DL and live. load DL shall be at
least equalto:
U = 1.4DL + 1.7LL . Eq, 1 -14
409.3.2 Ifresistanc.e to structural effects of a spectfied wind load Ware included
in design, the following combination of DL, LL, arid W shall be investigated to
determine the greatest required strength U:
. U = 0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W) Eq. 1-15
where load combinations shall indude both full and zero value of LCto
determine the more .severe condition, and
>;f:
U = + 1.3W
. Eq.l-16 . ,
but for any combination of DL, LL, and W, required strength U shall not be less
than Eq. 1 14:
409.3.3 If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces
1
E are included in
design, the following combinations of DL, ELand E shall be investigated to
determine the greatest required strength U:
U = 1.1DL + 1.3LL + 1.1E Eq. l-17
where load combinations shall include both fullvalue and zero value of LL to
determine the more severe condition, and
U.= 0.9DE + 1.1E
Eq. 1 -18 .
but for any combinationof DL, .LL and E, required strength Ushall not be less
than Eq. 1 -14.
409.3.4 If resistance to earth pressureH is included in design, required strength
Ushallbe at least equal to:
. U = l.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7H
Eq.l-19 I
24
- .
except where DL or LL reduces the effect of H, 0.9DL shall be s.ubstituted for
1.4DL and zero value of L shall be used to determine the greatest required
strength U. f01: anycombinationof DL, LL and H, required strength Ushallnot
be less than Eq: 1 -14. '
409;3.5 If resistance to due to weight an<:f pressure of flu.ids with well
defined densities and controllable maximum heights F is included in design;
such loading shall have a factor of 1.4 and to be added to all loading
combinations that include live load.
' .
409.3.6 If resistance to impact effects is taken into account ih. design, such effects
shall be included with live load LL
.i09.3.7 Where structural.effects T of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage,
expansion of shrinkage-compensating concrete or temperature change may be
significant in desigl1, required strength U shall be at least equal to .
but required strength U shall n6'tbe less than
U = 1.4(DL + 7) Eq.l-21
estimations of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of shrinkage-
compensating concrete or temperature change shall be based on a realistic
assessment of such effects occurring in service.
409.3.8 Load Factors. For post-tensioned anchorage zone design, a load factor of
1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jacking force.
409.5 Design Strength for Reinforcement. Pesigns shall not be based on a
yield strength of reinfo'rcement fy in excess of 550 MPa, except for prestressing
tendons.
CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
Ghapter2
Analysis and Design of Beams
(Ultimate Strength Design, USD)
NQTA"((ONS AND SYMBOLS USED
a = depth of equivalent stress block, mm
A. = area of tension
Ask = area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, mm
2
I m
.b = width of compression face of mm .
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, mm
25
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcemef\t, mm .
d' = distance from ex,treme compression fiber to ce'ntroid of compression
, reinforcement, mm
de = thiclaless of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to
center of bar or wire, nun
Ec =modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
Es . =:= modulus of elasticity of steel = 200,000 MPa
/c. = specified compressive stress of concrete,MPa
Is .. = calculated in reinforcement at service loads, MPa
fy = specified yield strength of steel, MPa
h = overall thickness of member, mm
I
1
= moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis,
reinforcement
i.t = moment of of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member
cross-section
Mn , =.nomir\al m.oment, N-mm
= factored moment at section, N-mm
=factor defined in Section 5.10.2 in Page 26
= strairl in concrete (maximum = 0.003)
= strain in steel below yield point =Is/ Es
= strain in steel at yield point = Jy/ Es
p = ratio of tensipn reinforcement= A./ bd
Pb = balance steel ratio (See Section 5.10.3.2) .
" J =strength reduction factor (See Sec. 5.9.3)

26
ASSUMPTIONS IN STRENGTH DESIGN IN FLEXURE
(CODE SECTION 5.10.2)
1, Strain in reinforcement anq concrete shall be assumed directly
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. Except for deep
flexural members with overall depth to .clear span nitio, hj L > 2/5 for
continuous sparis and h/L > 4/5 for simple ,spans, a nonlinear
distribution of strain shall be (See Sec: 5.10.7).
2. Maximum usable str.ainat extreme concrete compression fiber, E.r shall be
assumed equal to 0.003
3. For /s below fy, /s shall be taken as E, x E,. ForE, > Ey, /s =A .
4. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in axial and flexural
calculations.
5. Relationship between compressive stress distribution and connete strain
may be assumed rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other forrri.
that results inprediction of strength in substantial agreement with results
. of comprehensiw tests:
6. For rectangular distribution of stress:
(a) Concretes tress of 0.85f, shall be assumed uniformly distributed over
an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross-
. section and a straight line located parallel tCJ the neutral axis at a
dist.ance of a =
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.

I . '
(b) Distance c from fiber of maximum' strain to the neutral axis shall be
measured in the direction perpendicular to N.A.
Factor [3
1
shall be taken as 0.'85 for f r 5o 30 MI'a and [3, shall be.
continuously at a .rate of 0.008 for each 1 MPa of strength in .
excess of 30 MPa, but [3
1
shall not be taken less than 0.65. i.e.
(i) For f, 5o 30 MPa, p, = 0.85
(ii) Forf,>30MPa,
[3
1
= 0.85 -.0.008(f , - 30) but shall notbe less than 0.65
I
CHAPTER 2.- ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
RECTANGULAR BEAM REINFORCED FOR TENSION ONLY
(SINGLY REINFORCED)
fv!E.
Stress Diagram _ Strain Diagram
Figure 2.1: Stress and strain diagram for singiy reinforced rectangular beam
2
Eq. 2
For)'c :s; 30MPa, = 0.85
. For f c > 30 MPa, = 0.85 - 0.008{f,- 30) butshall not be less than 0.65
[LFH=O] C=T
0.85 f , a b = A.fy
. .. As /y

. 0;85 f'c b
Eq. 2-2
Multiplying Eq: 2 - 2 J>y d/ d:
As /y d
a= x -
0.85 f'r b d
_ As /y d
'fl -- . bd f'c
The term As . is the ratio steel refuforcement and is denoted as p
. . .
As .
p=-
bd .
Eq. 2-3
28
and
.I . . I
______________
'pf
Let (I)"' ,..,.....L.
f'c
N6mlnal Moment capacity:
rod
a=-
0.85
From the stress diagram in Figure 2):
Mn =Cx (d.,. a/2)
Mn = 0.85/c ab (d -; V2 a)
Mn = 0.85 {c rod b (a- ]:_ rod ).
' . 0.85 ' 2 0.85
Mn = f cro b d2 (1 ""0.59ro)
Ultimate Moment capacity:
' .
M,. "",P Mn (w-here'+=' 0.90 for. flexure)
Mu = ,P { c (I) b cP (l- 0.59co)
. Coefficient of Resistance
I
Ru = /c (I) (1- 0.59(1))
Eq. 2-5
Eq. 6 I
Eq. 2-71
Eq. 2'81
Eq 2-9
CHAPTER 2- ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
.29
P/y . . .
Solving for co: in Eq. 2 - 8 and replacing it with !'c yields the following
formula for the steel ratio p:
' 0.85f',

/y
BALANCED DESIGN
1- .. 2Ru ]
, 0.85/'c .
Balanced design refers to a design so proportioned thatthe maximum stresses in
concrete (With strain of 0.003) and steel (with stram ofJYiEs) 'reached
simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached, causing them to fail

I
I
DESlGN
Underreinforced design is a design in whichthe steel reinforcement is lesser
than what . is requited for balanced , conditioxl. , If' the ultimate load is
approached; . the steel wili. begin to yield although the compression concrete . is
still understressed. If the load .is further increased; the stE:el will continue to
elongate, resulting in appreciable deflections and large visible cracks in the
tertsile concrete. Failure under this condition is ductile and will give warning' to
the user of the structu,re.to decrease the load.
OVERREINFORCED DESIGN
Overreirtforced design is a design in which the steel reinforcement is more than
what is required for balanced condition. If the beam is overrei.omid, the steel
will not yield before fai}ure. As the load , is increased, deflections are not
noticeable although the compression concrete is highly stressed, and failure
occurs suddenly without warning to the user of the structure.
Overreinforced as well as balanced, design should be avoided in concrete
because of its brittle property, that is why the Code limits the tensile steel
percentage (P ... ax = 0.75pb) . to ensure underreinforced. beam with ductile t}rpe of
failure to give occupants warning before failure occurs. .
30
BALANCED STEEL RATIO Pb:
In balanced. condition, the concrete and steel yield simultaneously. In this
condition, the strain in concrete reached its maximum usable value ot 0:003 and
the strain in steel is fy/ Es, where Es = 200,000 MPa.
b
0.003
Figure 2.2
- - NA -
Strain Diagram
By ratio and proportion iri the triangle shown in Figure 2.2:
c 0.003
d
0.003+ /y/ E
5
Note: Es = 200,000
0.003
c=
/y
0.003+
200;000
600
c=
600-I-Jy
But a= l31c;
a
c= --
131
Pfyd
---
(J.85f' c
c= - - - = - - ~
13t
d
Pfyd
c = - ~ ~ -
0.85 J ' ~ 13t
d

[ c = c]
P/yd
0.85f'c ~ 1
600 d
600+ /y
. . o.ss !',Pi 600
Pb = -"- ~ ' - ' - - " - - -
. /y(600+ /y)
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM STEEL RATIO
31
Eq. 2-11 1
Section 5.10.3.3: For flexural members the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed
0.75 of the ratio PI> that would produce balanced strain conditions.
Pmax = 0.75pb Eq.2-12 I
This limitation is to ensure that the steel reinforcement will yield first to ensure
ductile failure. '
Section 5.10.5.1: At any sedlon of a flexural member where positive reinforcement is
required by analysis, the ratio p provided shall not be less' than that given by 1.4/fv
1.4
Pmin=-
/y
Eq,2-B l
. . - . . .. - . ,-_ -
The provision for minimum amount of reinforcement applies to beams, which
for architeCtural .arid other reasons are much larger in cross-section than
required. by strength consideration. With a very small amount of tensile
reinforcement, the computed moment strength as a reinforced concrete section
becomes less than hat of the corresponding plain concrete section computed
from its modulus of rapture. Failure in such a case can be quite sudden.
32
REINFORCED CONCRETE OESii3N
\'
UPDATE FROM' NSCP 2001 (C101-01)
FACTOR tit
410.j.7.3 Factor lh shall be taken as for concrete strengths fc up to and
including 30 MPa. For strengths above 30 MPa, lh be reduced
continuously at a rate of0.05 for each 7 MPaofstrength in ex;cess of 30 MPa, but
P1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
For f, 30 MPa, P1 = 0.85
For f, > 30 MPa, P1 = 0.85-

if,"" 30) 0.65
''
MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Eq. 2-14
Eq. 2-,15
410.6.1 At every .section of a flexural member where teJlSile reinforcement is
.required by analysis, the area As provided shaU not beless than that given by: .
ff:
-:--bwd
4/y
Eq. -16
1.4b d
and not less than fyw
Eq. 17
410.6.2 For statically determinate T-section with flange the area A . min
, shall be equal to ?r greater than.the smaller value given either by:
A
. -IE .. d .
min - - --:- UW
. ' . .. . 2/y .
Eq. 2' 181
or Eq. 2 - 16 with bw setequru:to the width of the flange .
. 410.6.3 The requirements ofSedions'410.6.1 and .410.6.2 need not be applied if
at every section the area of the tensile is at least one-thlld greater
than that requued br analysis,
410.6.4 For structural slabs and footings of 'uniform thickness, the minim1un
area of tensile reinforcement in the dil'eetion of span shall be the satne a5 that .
requil'ed by Section 407.13 (Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement) . . Maximum
spacing of this reiriforcement shall not exceed three times the thickness. and ,450
mm ..
. CHAPTER, 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
33
STEPS IN DESIGNING A SINGLY REINFORCE!?
RECTANGULAR BEAM FOR . : .
Note: The assumptions made in steps II, V, and VIII are the author's recommendation based
on his experience.
1. Identify the values of the dead load and live load to be carried by the
beam. (DL & LL) , '
II. Approximate the weight bf beam (DL) betWeen 20% to 2.5% of (DL +
LL). This weight is added to the dead load.
III. Compute the factored load and factored moment:
Ex: Factored Load ""1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
. IV. Compute the factored moment to be resisted by the beam, Mu
V. Try a value of steel ratio p 0.5pb to 0.6pb, but must not be less than
Pmn This value of p will provide enough allowance in the actual value
of p due to rounding-off of the number of bars to be used, for it not to
exceed themaximum.p
.. _ 0.85 f'c 131 600
Pb- '/y(600+ /y)
13t = 0.85 forf, 30MPa
13t = 0.85- 0.008(f, - ,30)for f, > 30 MPa
1.4
Pmin=- \ .
/y
. P/y
VI. Compute the value of ro, ro = -
, . ; . . !'t
VII. fot bd2:
Mu = rob if2 (1- 0.59 ro)
bd2 ---.,.---
VIIl 'l:ry a ratio d/b (front d = 1.5b to d = 2b), al)a solve for d. (round-off this
to reasonable dimension)
Check also the thickness of beatn by the Code as
given in Table2.Hnpage 36. .
After solving for d, substitute its value to Step VII, 'an.d solve b.
Compute the weight of the beam and compa:re it to the assumption
made in Step II.
IX. Solve for the required steel and number of bars.
As= pbd
. Number. of bars (diametex: =D) .
f D2 x number ofbars =As
34
REINFORCED CONCRETE OE.SIGN
STEPS IN COMf.tUTING THE REQUIRE() TENSION STEEL AREA As OF A .
BEAM WITH KNOWN MOMENT Mu ANI) OTHER. BEAM PROPERTIES:
I. Solve for Pmax and Mu .max
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
- 0.85/'c ~ 1 {600)
P ~ a x = 0,75 fy(
6
00+ /y) ;= p
(J) = pfy/ f, = - -
Mumax = U,fc (J) b tF (l- O.q9ro)
If Mu S Mu ~ design as Singly Reinforced (Step II)
If Mu > Mu max design as Doubly Reinforced (Step III)
II. Solve for p:
M;.;, U,Ru btF
Ru= __
_ 0.85/ .. 'c (
1
p- . . -
. /y . .
1 2Ru ) -
0.85/'c
As = pbd = ---'----
.
III. Compression reinforcement is necessary. (See Chapter 3)
STEPS IN COMPUTING Mu OF A BEAM WITH KNOWN TENSION STEEL
AREA As ANI) OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES:
I. Solve for p:
A
p= -
bd
II. Check if steel yields by computing Pb
0.85/'(: ~ 1 (600)
Pb = fy-(600 + fy)
If p s pb, steel yields, proceed to step III
If p > Pb' steel does nofyield, proceed to step IV.
Note: If p ~ Pmt
111
the Siven A. is not adequate for the beam dimension . .
III. p S Pb
(J) = pfyjf,
', I
M,. = + f, robtP (1 - 0.59 m)

b
0.85 f',
0.003
c = 0.85 f'c ab-
T
T =:A,f,
E.= fJEs
Es =200000
Solve for /s from tl)e strain diagram: (Note: E, = 200,000 MPa)
J; / Es 0,003 ; /s =

d - c
d-e c . c
[LFH=O) T= C
A,fs = 0.85 /cab but a,;, c
. d-e
As 600 - = 0.85 c) b
. . c .
600 As (d- c) =, 0.85. bc
2
Solve c by quadratic formula and solve a:
or
a:. c' ."
.fs = 600-. -; a = c
c
Mu= a/2) =- As/s (d- a/2)
M, = C(d,.. a/2) = 0.85 fc ab (d- a/2)
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS
35
f\ccording to Section 5.9.5 of NSCP, minimum thickness stipulated in Table2.1 .
shall apply for one-way construction not supporting O( attached to partitions or
other . construction .. likely . . to be damageci by large deflections, unless
. computation of deflection indiCates a lesser thickness- can be used without
: adverse effectS;
}6
Table 2.1 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF NOI'HRESTRESSED BEAMS OR
. ONE-WAY SLABS UNLESS DEFLECTIONS ARE COMPUTED*
Minimum thickness, h
Simply One end Both ends
Cantilever
supp'orted continuous continuous
Members not supporting or attached to partitions
Member or other construction likely to be damaged by
large deflections
Solid slabs L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
Beams or ribbed
L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
one-way slabs
Span le11gth L is in millimeters .
'
Values given shall be used directly for members with normal density concrete (w, ':"
2300 kg/ ml) ai1d gralte 415 reinforcement. For other conditions, the values shall be
modified as follows:
(a) For structural lightweight concrete hi:wil.1g unit weights in the range 1500-2000. kg/m',
the values shall be multiplied by (1.65-0.0005 w,) but not less than 1.09, where w,is the
unit mass in kg/ mJ .
(b) For fv other thai1 415 MPa, tlw values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + fi,/700) . ..
DEFLECTION (SECTION
Sect. 5.9.5.2.2 Where deflectioDs are to be computed, deflections that occur
immediately on application of load shall be computed by usual methods or
formulas for elastic deflections, considering effects of cracking, .. and
reinforcement on member stiffness.
Sect. 5.9.5.2.3 Uniess stiffness values are obtained by a more comprehensive
analysis, immediate deflection shall be computed with modulus of el11sticity
Ec for concrete and with the moment of inertia as follows, but not
greater than I g.
where
frlg
Ma-=--
Yt
Ie =
(
Mcr)
3
I +.

M g .. M cr
. a _ a '
. . . .
fr = modulus ofrapture of concrete, MPa, for normal weight
corlcrete, fr = 0.7 ..[1':
Eq.2-19
CHAPTER 2,.. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
. .
M, = moment in member at st"ge is computed.
lg = momentofinertia of gross concrete section about
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement.
Ia = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete
y, distanc.e from centrqidill a)dsofgross seetion, neglecting
: reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension,
37
When lightweight -aggregate is used, one of the following modifications shall
apply: . . .
(a) When /ct is specified and concrete is proportioned m accordance with
Sec. 5.5.2, f, shall ,be modifiedby s,ubstltuting. 1.8./ct for ..[!'; tJUt the
value of 1.8 .fc, shall not exceed .[1';.. ,
(b) When /ct is not specified, f, shall be multiplied by 0.75 for "all
ligl)tweight" concrete, and 0.85 for
interpolation is permitted if partial sand replacement is used.
Sect. 5.9.5.2.4: For continuous members, effective moment of inertia may be
taken as the average of values obtained from M-' 2 - W for the criti,cal positive
and negative moment sections. For prismatic .members, effective moment .of
inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Eq. 2 at midspan for simple
continuous spans, and at the support for cantilevers.
Sect. 5.9;5.2.5: Qruess values are obtained by a more comptehensive analysis,
additionai long-:term deflection. resulting from creep and shrinkage of flexural
members (normal weight or lightweight conerete) shall be determined, by
multiplying the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load considered,
by the factor
A. = -
1+50p'
where p' shall be the value of reinforcement ratio for. non-prestressed
compression reirlforcem(mt at midspan for simple and continuous spans, and at
support for cantilevers. It is permitted to assume the ti.Jne-dependentJactor for
sustained loads to be equal to:,
5 years or more ..... ............ , ..... 2.0
12 months ................ ;,; .............. 1.4
6 months .................. ... , ............. 1.2
3 months ........ .......................... 1.0
38
5.9.5.2.6 Deflection computed in accordance with Sec. 5.9.5.2.2 through Sec:
5.9.5.2.5 shall not exceed limits stipulated in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Maximum Permissible Computed Deflections
. . . \
Type of member
Deflection to he Defl_ection
. considered limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached
Immediate defleetion dtie
to nonstructural elements likely to be
to live load LL
L/180 *
damage by large deflections -
Floors not supporting or attached to
Immediate deflection due
nonstructural elements likely to be
to live load LL
L/360.
dainage by large deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting That part of the total
or attached to nonstructural elements deflection occurring after
L/480**
not likely to be damage by large attachment of non
deflections structural elements (sum
Roof or floor construction supporting
of the longtime deflection
due to all sustained loads
()r attached to nonstructural elements
and the immediate
L/240 ****
not likely to be damage by large
deflection due to any
deflections
additional live load)***
Limit not intended/to safeguard against ponding. Ponding _ should be checked by
suitable calculations of deflections, including added deflections due to ponded water
and longterm effects . of all sustained loads, camber, construction
tolerances, and reliability of provisions for drainage.
Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported
**
***
****
or attached"elell\ents. . .
Longtime deflection shall be determined in accordance with Sec. 5.9.5.2.5 or Sec.
5.9.5.4.2 bu,t may be reduced by amount of deflection calculated to occur before
attachment of nonstructural elements. This amount shall be determined on basis of
accepted engineering data relating to timedeflection characteristics of members sinillar
to those being considered. .
But not greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements; Limit may be
exceeded if camber is provided so that total deflection minus camber does not exceed
limit. . .
39
.NSCP COEFFICENTS FOR CONTINUOUS BEAMS AND SLABS
Section 5.8.3.3 of NSCP states that in lieu of frame analysis, the following
approximate moment and shears are perptitted for design of continuous beams
and one-way slabs (slabs reinforced to resist flexural stresses in only one
directiE>n), provided:
(a) There are two or more spans,
(b) Spans are approximately equal, with the larger of two adjacent spans
not greater.than the shorter by more than 20 percent,
(c) Loads are uniformly distributed,
(d) Unit live does not exceed three times unit dead load, and
(e) Members are prismatic.
Positive moment
End spans
Discontinuous end unrestrained .. .... ............ .... .......... w, Ll I 11
Discontinuous end integral with support ........ .......... w, L,2 I 14
Interior spans ...................................................... .................. w, L,
2
I 16
Negative moment at exterior face of first interior support
Two spans ........................................................ " ..................... w, L,2 I 9
More than two spans ...................... .......... .... ........ ............. .. .. w, L,
2
I 10
Negative moment at other faces of interior supports .. ........... w, L,
2
/ 11
Negative moment at face of all supports for:
Slabs with spans not exceeding 3 m; and beams
where ratio of sum of column stiffness to beam
stiffness exceeds eight at each end of the span ................ w, Li I 12 "
Negative moment at interior face of exterior
support for mt;!mbers built integrally with supports
Where support is a spandrel beam .................................... . w, L,
2
I 24
When support is a column .................. .. .............................. w, L,2 I 16
Shear in end members at face of
first interior support. .............. .. ........ .......................... .. ....... , .... 1.15 w, Ln I 2
Shear at face of all other supports .................................................. w, Ln I 2
Where L, = clear span for positive moment or shear and average of adjacent
clear spans for negative moment.
40
Column Column
L, Column L,
<!.
w L
1
2
/14 w L//16

-w Lt'/ 9 -w Ln'/10 -w L//9
L, = (L
1
+ L,)/2
Figure 2. 3: Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab with
spans and discontinuous end integral with support
Column L, Column L, Column l
3

. ii1: .. .. c<<<<<!1;\}j _:_..:: .. _. ::::.-_-:: _!
:-: '= .. . : ... << I .,.,
1.1Sw Ln/2 Shear
l.lSw L;J2
w L//14 w Ll /16 w L//14

-w l1
2
/16 -w L,
2
/10 -w L,
2
/10 -w Ll/
24
1.;
1
= {l1 + L,)/2 !.;, = (L, + LJ)/ 2
Figure 2.4: Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab with more
than two spans and discontinuous end integral with support
Moment
-w Ln
2
/10 -w Ln
2
/10
ln = (L1 + L,)/2 Ln = (L, + LJ)/2
Figure 2.5 Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab with more
than two spans and discontinuous end unrestrained
41
ILLUSTRAnYE PROBLEMS
. Problem 2.1
A reinforced concrete rectangular beam 300 nun wide has an effective depth
of 460 nun and is reinforced for tension only. Assuming [c = 21 MPa and Jy =
300 MPa, determine the balance steel area in sq. nun.
Solution
[
_ 0.85 f'c 131 (600)]

!y (600+ /y)
l31 = 0.85 since f, < 30 MPa
- 0.85(21)(0.85)(600)
Pb- 300(600 + 300)
Pb = 0.03372
[Asb = p,bd ]
Asb = 0.03372(300)(460)
' Asb = 4,653 mm
2
.
Problem 2.2
A rectangular beam has b = 300 nun and d = 480 nun. . The beam is used to
carry a factored moment of 18 kN-m. Assume f, = 27.6 MPa and h = 276
MPa. Calculate the required steel area.
Solution
Assuming singly reinforced beam:
[Mu = tP Ru b d2 ]
' . 18'x-1()6 = 0.90 Ru (300)(480)2
0.289
[p
= 0.85f'c (
1
-
1
2Ru ) ]
/y 0.85f'c
= 0.85(27.6) (1- 1 2(0.289) )
p 276 0.85(27.6)
p = 0.00105
42
[PmdX = 0.75 PI] .
0.85 f' c (600)
P

max . . fy (600 + fy)
= 0 75 0.85(27.6)(0.85)(600)
Pmax . 276(600 + 276)
Pmax = 0.0371 < 0.00105 (OK)
[Pnoin =
Pmin = 1.4/276
Pmin = 0.00507 > 0.00105
Since p < Pm;n, use p = Pmin = 0.00507
[A,= pbd]
A,= 0.00507(300)(480)
As = 730 mm
2
Problem 2.3 (CE Board May 1993)
A reinforced concrete beam has a width of 300 mm and an effective depth to
tension bars of 600 mm. Compression reinforcement if needed will be placed
at a depth of 60 mm below the top. Iff, = 30 MPa and fy = 414 MPa,
determine the tension steel area if the beam is to resist an ultimate moment
of650 kN-m.
Solution
Solve for Pmax and M, max:
[
_ 0.85 f'c 600 )
Ph- _ _::..._..::....:_:....__
/y(600+ /y)
= 0.85 since f , < 30 MPa
0.85(30)(0.85)(600)
Ph= 414(600 + 414)
ph= 0.031
(Pmx = 0.75ph)
Pmax = 0.75(0.031) = 0.02325
[w= Pfif]
f' c
0.02325( 414)
w=----'-
30
w = 0.32085
. [M., m a x = ~ f , W b tf2 (1- 0.59w)]
M., lll dX = 0.90(30)(0.3205)(300)(600)
2
(1 - 0.59(0.3205)]
M., m.x = 757,853,973.09 N-mm
M., mx = 757.85 kN-m > M.,
Since M, < M, mw.the beam may be designed as singly reinforced.
[M, = 0 R, bd2]
650 X 10
6
= 0.90 R/1 (300)(600)2
R, = 6.6872 MPa
Solve for p:
p = 0.85 J'c (
1
-
1
_ 2 R
11
J
f
11
0.85 f'c
~ 0.85(30) [1- 1- 2(6.6872) l = 0.019
p 414 0.85(30)
Check for minimum p:
Pmin = 1.4/ fy
Pmin = 1.4/414
Pmin = 0.00338 < 0.019 (OK)
[As= pbd]
As = 0.019(300)(600)
As = 3,420 mm
2
Problem 2.4 (CE Board November 2000)
A rectangular concrete beam has a width of 300 mm and an effective depth
of 550 mm. The beam is simply supported over a span of 6 m and is used to
carry a uniform dead load of 25 kN/m and a uniform live load of 40 kNjm.
Assume [ c = 21 MPa and fy = 312 MPa. Compression reinforcement if
necessary shall be placed at a depth 80 mm from the outermost compression
concrete.
(a) Determine the maximum tension steel area for singly reinforced
condition.
(b) Determine the required tension steel area in square millimeter.
(c) Determine the required number of 25-mm tension bars.
Solution
ta) Maximum steel area:
[
_ 0.85 f' c 600 J
Pb - --=--=--=--
/y(600+ /y)
= 0.85 [ cis less than 30 MPa
- 0.85(21)(0.85)(600)
Pb - 312(312 + 600)
Pb = 0.03199
[Pmax = 0.75 Pb]
Pmax = 0.75(0.03199)
Pmax = 0.02399
[As max = Pmaxbd]
As max = 0.02399(300)(550)
As max = 3,959 mm
2
(b) Required tension steel area:
Assuming singly reinforced beam:
W
11
= 1.4(25) + 1.7(40)
w, = 103 kN/m
[Mu =
M = 103(6)
2
II 8
Mu = 463.5 kN-m
[Mu = $ Rubd
2
]
Mu = 0.9 Ru(300)(550)2
463.5 X 10
6
= 0.9 Ru(300)(550)2
Ru =5.67MPa
[p = 0.85 J' c (
1
_
1
_ 2R11 ) ]
/y 0.85 J'c
= 0.85(21) [1- 1- 2(5.67) l
p 312 0.85(21)
p = 0.0227 < Pmax (singly reinforced only)
[As= pbd]
As = 0.0227(300)(550)
As= 3746mm
2
(c) Number of 25 mrn bars:
A
Number of 25-mrn bars = -
5
-
As25
3,746
Number of 25-mrn bars = --
2
= 7.63 say 8
i-(25)
Problem 2.5
15
Design a rectangular beam reinforced for tension only to carry a dead load
moment of 56 kN-m (including its own weight) and a live load moment of 47
kN-m. Use f, = 20.7 MPa and fy = 276 MPa ..
Solution
Mu = 1.4 MoL+ 1.7 MLL
= 1.4(56) + 1.7(47)
M, = 158.3 kN-m
(Note: this already includes the weight of beam)
[
0.85 J'c P1 600]
Pb =
/y(600+ /y)
Pt = 0.85 since fc < 30 MPa
- 0.85(20.7)(0.85)(600)
Pb- 276(600+276)
Pb = 0.0371
46
[
1.4 ]
Pmin = y;
1.4
Pmin =
276
Pmin = 0.00507
Try p = 0.6 Pb Note: this is an author's assumption
p = 0.6(0.0371)
p = 0.02226
[co= 1: ]
co =
20.7
co= 0.2968
[R,. = [c co (1- 0.59 co)]
R, = 20.7(0.2968) [1 - 0.59(0.2968)]
R, = 5.068
[M, = $ R,bd2]
158.3 X 106 = 0.90(5.068)bd2
bd2 = 34,705,779
Try d = 1.75 b
b(1.75b)2 = 34,705,779
b = 225 mm say 230 mm
230 d2 = 34,705,779
d = 388.4 say 390 mm
Note: we can not check for the minimum beam thickness since there is no given beam
length and type of support.
As = pbd = 0.02226(230)(390)
As = 1,997 mm
2
.
Summary: b = 230 mm
d=390mm
As = 1,997 mm
2
47
Problem 2.6
Design a rectangular beam for a 6-m simple span to support a dead load of
29 kN/m (including its estimated beam weight) and a live load of 44 kNjm.
Use Pmax, [ c = 27.6 MPa, and Jy = 276 MPa .
.
Solution
Uniform factored load, Wu = 1.4 WoL + 1.7 WLL
w, = 1.4(29) + 1.7(44)
Wu = 115.4 kN/m
Maximum factored moment (at midspan)
[M., = Wu L2 ]
. 8
M = (115.4)(6)
2
" 8
Mu = 519.3 kN-m
[Pmax = 0.75pb]
_ O
75
0.85 f'c ~ 1 600
Pmax-
/y(600+ /y)
~ ~ = 0.85 since [c < 30 MPa
m = 0.
75
0.85(27.6)(0.85)600
p ax 276(600+ 276)
Pmax = 0.0371
[
1.4]
Pmin = y;
1.4
Pmin =
276
Pmin = 0.0051
[ro = 1:]
0.0371 (276)
<0 = ---'------'-
27.6
<0 = 0.371
[R, = [ c<O (1- 0.59 ro)]
R, = 27.6(0.371)[1 - 0.59(0.371)]
R, = 7.998 MPa
48
[M, =- <!> R, bd2]
519.3 X 10
6
= 0. 90(7. 998)bd2
bd2 = 72,143,036
Try d = 1.5b
b(1.5b)2 = 72,143,036
b = 318 mm, say 300 mm
300 d2 =
d=490mm
Minimum beam thickness from Table 2.1:
h = !::.... ( 0.4 + /y J (for Jy other than 415 MPa)
16 l 700
h = 6ooo (o.4 + 276)
16 700
h = 298mmOK
Steel area, A., = pbd
Steel area, As= 0.0371(300)(490) = 5,454 mm
2
Using #11 bars (35 mm) bars:
f (35)2 N = 5454
N = 5.7 say 6 bars
300 mm
:=f?smm
SOmm
---r
Actual d = 455 + 75/2
Actual d = 492.5 (OK)
Note: Spacing between parallel
bars in a row must not be less
than the bar diameter db (i.e. 35
mm) nor 25 mm. Spacing
between parallel bars in a layer
must not be less than 25 mm.
(See Section 5.7.6 of NSCP)
See Section 5.7.7 for the
required concrete covering.
CHAPT-ER 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
49
Problem 2.7
Design a rectangular beam for a 10-m simple span to support a dead load of
18 kN/m (not including its own weight) and a -live ioad of 24 kN/m. Use f ,
= 21 MPa, andfy = 276 MPa. Assume weight of concrete is 23.5 kN/m
3
.
.
Solution
Assume weight of beam to be 21% of (DL + LL)
Assumed weight of beam= 0.21(18 + 24) = 8.82 kN/m
WOL = 18 + 8.82
WoL = 26.82 kN/m
[Wu = 1.4 WoL + 1.7 WLL)
W
11
= 1.4(26.82) + 1.7(24)
W
11
= 78.348 kN/m
w L
2
Maximum moment: M., = -
11
-
8
M = 78.348(10)
2
" 8
M., = 979.35 kN-m
Try p = 0.5 Pb
5
0.85f'c P1 600
p= 0.
fy(600+ fy)
= 0.5 0.85(21)(0.85)600
p 276(600 + 276)
p = 0.0188
Pmin = 1.4/fy
Pmin = 1.4/276
Pmin = 0.0051
[oo = 1:]
0.0188(276)
oo=- -----
21
(J) = 0.247
[Ru = [c 00 (1- 0.59oo)]
Ru = (21)(0.247)[1 - 0.59(0.247)]
Ru = 4.431 MPa
so
[M, = q, R, b d2)
979.35 X 106 = 0.90(4.431) b d
2
bd2 = 245,580,381
Try d = 1.75 b
b(1.75b)2 = 245,580,381
b = 431 mm say 430 mm
430d
2
= 245,580,381
d = 755 say 760 mm
Approximate depth of beam, h = 760 + 100 = 860 mm
Note: The value 100 is the distance (estimated) from the e.g. of the bars to extreme
concrete fiber.
Beam weight = Yconc bh = 23.5(0.43)(0.86)
Beam weight= 8.69 kN/m < 8.82 kN/m (OK)
Minimum beam thickness from Table 2.1:
L ( f )
h = - 0.4 + ___L_
16 700
(for Jy other than 415 MPa)
h =
10
'
000
(o.4 +
276
) = 496 mm OK
16 700
Tension steel area:
As= pbd
As = 0.0188(430)(760)
A;= 6144mm
2
Using# 11 bars (35 mm)
f (35)2 N = 6144
N = 6.4 say 7
Actual As = 6,735
Locating the centroid of the bars:
Taking the area of the bar as A:
(7 A) y = 5A(O) + 2A(60)
y =17mm
T
::5
r-.
Ill
"0
440mm
T
720
X
~ ~
0
1 r b 1----'f- 60
IT ..... o o o o 1---'1-
70
1--''-
_,sli+-( - 3 - 4 0 ~ ) ~ J ~
Check for actual d:
d = 720 + 60- 17
d = 763 > 760 (OK)
Checking the spacing x:
340- 35(5)
X = -----'---'-
4
x = 41.25 > 35 mm (OK)
51
If we check the capacity of this beam with b = 440, d = 763, and As = 6734 mm
2
(for 7 #11
bars), the moment capacity is 1,078 kN-m, with p = 0.02 (Pmax = 0.028).
PROBLEM 2.8 (CE BOARD MAY 1999)
A reinforced concrete rectangular beam with b = 400 nun and d = 720 nun is
reinforced for tension only with 6-25 nun diameter bars. If fc = 21 MPa and
fy = 400 MPa, determine the coefficient of resistance R, of the beam.
SOLUTION
[R, = fc w (1- 0.59w)]
[w = 1:]
A
[p = _s]
bd
6x 11.(25)
2
p = 4 0 ~ ( 7 2 0 )
p = 0.01023
0.01023( 400)
(1) = --,----'--'-
21
(1) = 0.1948
. Ru = 21{0.1948)(1 - 0.59x0.1948)
R,=3.62MPa
52
PROBLEM 2.9
A rectangular beam reinforced for tension only has b = 300 mm, d = 490 mm.
The tension steel area provided is 4,500 sq. mm. Determine the ultimate
moment capacity of the beam in kN-m. Assume [ c = 27 MPa, fy = 275 MPa.
SOLUTION
A,
p= -
bd
4,500
300(490)
p = 0.03061
0.85(27) (0.85) ( 600)
Pb = 275(600 + 275)
Pb = 0.04864 > 0.0306
Since p < pb, tension steel yields
[ro = p /y ]
f' c
0.03061(275)
ro= - - - - - ' - ~
27
(t) = 0.3118
[R
11
=ro f,- (1- 0.59ro)]
R
11
= 0.3118(27)[1 - 0.59(0.3118)]
R11 = 6.8?MPa
[M11 = ~ R11 btf2]
M11 = 0.90(6.87)(300)(490)2
= 445,361,490 N-mm
M11 = 445.4 kN-m
53
PROBLEM 2.10
A rectangular beam has b = 300 mm, d = 500 mm, As = 3 - 25 mm, [ c = 34.2
MPa, gr<!de 60 reinforcement (fy = 414 MPa). Calculate the design moment
M".
SOLUTION
A, = t (25)2 X 3
As = 1473 mm
2
[
A,]
p= -
bd
1473
p = 300(500)
p = 0.00982
1.4
Pmin = -
1 y
Pmin = 0.0034
Check if steel yields:
[
_ 0.85 f'c ~ 1 600]
Pb-
!y(600+ !y)
131 = 0.85 - 0.008(34.2 - 30)
131 = 0.8164
- 0.85(34.2)(0.8164)(600)
Pb- 414(600 + 414)
Ph= 0.0339
Since p < pb, the tension steel provided will yield
[m = 1:]
0.00982(414)
0) = ----'----'-
34.2
o) = 0.1189
[M
11
= cp [rill b d
2
(1- 0.59 m)]
M, = 0.90(34.2) (0.1189) (300)(500)
2
[1- 0.59(0.1189)]
= 255,225,558 N-mm
M, = 255.2 kN-m
54
A rectangular beam with b = 250 mm and d = 460 mm is reinforced for tension
only with 3-25 mm bars. The bea:Ql is simply supported over a span of 6 m and
carries a uniform dead load of 680 Njm including its own weight. Calculate the
uniform live load that the beam can carry. Assume f.v = 276.5 MPa and /r == 20.7
MPa.
SOLUTION
b=250mm
d=460mm
As = f (25)
2
X 3
As= 1473mm
2
A
[p = _s]
bd
=
1473
= 0.0128
p 250(460)
[
_ 0.85 f'c P1 600
1
Pb - _ _::_.::.....;_;:..__
/y(600+ /y)
p, = 0.85 since f, < 30 MPa
0.85(20.7)(0.85)(600)
Pb = 276.5(600 + 276.5)
Pb = 0.037 > p (tension steel yields)
[
Q) = p /y 1
f'c
Q) = 0.0128(276.5) = 0.171
20.7
[R" = /c ro (1- 0.59ro)]
Ru = 20.7(0.171)[1- 0.59(0.171)1
Ru = 3.1826 MPa
[Mu = $ R!, bd
2
1
M.t = 0.90(3.1826)(250)(460)2
= 151,523,586 N-mm
Mu = 151.52 kN-m
CHAPTER 2 :""ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
- WuL2 . .
[Mr,max- -
8
-. -]
151.52; Wu (
6
)
2
8
Wu = 33.671 kN/ni
. [w, = 1.4 WDL + 1.7 WLL]
33.671 = 1.4(0.68) + L7 WLL
WLL = 19.25 kN-m
PROBLEM 2.12 (C BOARD MAY 1985)
55
A 350mm x 500 mm rectangular beam is reinforced for tension only with 5-
28 mm bars. The beam has an effective depth of 446 mm. The beam carries a
uniform dead load of 4.5 kN/in (including its own weight), a unifonn live
load ofikNjtn; and concentrated dead load of P and 2P as shown in Figure
2.6. Assume fy = 414 MPa,fc =34.5 MPa. Calculate the fqllowing:
a) the ultimate mome1lt ca:pacity of the. section in kN-m, and
b) the' maximum value of Pin kN. .
SOLUTION .
b=350mm
d=446mm
As = t (28)
2
X 5 .
As=3079mm
2
A
.[p = ._1..]
c bd
.. ~ 0 7 9
p= -'----
350(446)
p = 0.0197
2m
l2P. '
i 2ri"l
Figure 2.6
2m
56
..
[Pb = 0,85/' c p1600]
. /y(600+fy)
Pt = 0.85 - 0.008(34.5 ..,. 30)
Pt = .0.814
- 0.85(34.5)(0.814)(600)
Pb- 41-;1:(600 + 414)
Pb = 0.0341 > p (therefore tension steel yields)
[
.. - P/y .]
ro- --
!'c
0.0197(414)
ro = '-----'---..:..
34.5
ro = 0.2364
[R" = fc ro (1 - 0.59ro )]
R" = 34.5(0.2364)[1 - 0.59(0.2364)]
R" ~ 7.018MPa ,
[M" = ~ R" bd2]
M., = 0.90(7.018)(350)(446)2
= 439,754,028
M, = 439.75 kN-m
1.4(2P) = 2.8' P
Figure: Beam with factored loads
'
L4 P
For the given loads, themaxinlummoment can.occur at B or C:
AtpointC:
Mu c = 1.4P(2) + 11.4(2)(1)
439.75 = 1.4P(2) + 11.4(2)(1)
P = 148.9kN
CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS.
At point B: . (First solve for RA)
(LMc= 0] '
4 RA + l.4P(2) = 2.8P(2)+ 11.4(6)(1)
RA = 17.1 + 0.7P
(Mus= MsLert]
Mus'= (17.1 + 0.7P)(2)- 11:4(2)(1)
439.75= (17.1 + 0.7P)(2) ... 11'.4(2)(1)
P = 305.,96 kN .
Thus, the maximum vaiue of P such that Mu will not exceed
439.75 is 148.9 kN '
PROBLEM2.13
57
A rectangUlar beam has b = 300 mrn, d :!:: 500 mm, As = 6 - 32 mm, fc = ?7.6
MPa, gra<;ie 60J"einforcementify= 414 MPa). Calculate the ultimate moment
capacity of the beam.
SOLunON
As = . f (32)2 x 6

.. A
[p= _s J
bd
. 4825
p = 300. (50'0)
. . ' .
p = 0.0322
1.4
Pmin= - -
/y
1.4
=-
414
Pmin= 0.0034
58
[Pb = 0.85 f'c Pt 600 ]
. /y(600+ /y)
P1 = 0.85 since f, < 30 MPa
- 0.85(27.6)(0.85)(600)
. pb- . 414(600 + 414)
Pb = 0.0285 pb, the tension. steel does not yielc;l, and thus the steel stress /s is
lower than fy and it has to be computed.
b = 300
0.85 f'c
0.003
------
c = 0.85 r, a b
T
500 - a/2 - - - -
1
& = fs!Es
E
5
== 200000
Solve for /s from the strain diagram
fs /200000 0.003
.:....:....:.---=--
500-c c
Is = 600 500- c
c
[ll'H= 0] T= c
As/s = 0.85 f, a b
a= P1 c
a= 0.85 c
;
(4825} 600
500
-c = 0.85(27.6)(0.85 c)(300)
c
c2 + 484c - 241,964 = 0
,------"'"-----
< c =

-4(1)(-241,964)
. 2(1)
c=306mm
I =
600
500 - 306
,. 306
/s = 380 MPa <fy
a = Pt c =
a=260mm
M,; = - a/2)
= (d- a/2)
= 0.90(4825)(380)(500- 260/2)
= 610,555,500 N-rnm.
M, = 610.56 kN-m
PROBLEM 2.14
sg
A rectangular beam reinforced for tension only has b = 300 rnm, d = 490 rnm.
The tension steel area provided is 7-25 rnm diameter bars withfy 415 MPa.
fc = 21 MPa. Use NSCP Specifications. Calculate the ultimate moment
capacity of the beam.
SOLUTION
.A. = {-(25)2 X 7
A. = 3436 mm
2
A
[p = .___!_]
bd
=
3
,4
36
= 0.02337
.P 300( 490) '
- 0.85(21)(0.85)(600)
Ph- 415(600+415) .
Pb = 0.02161 < 0.02337
..
(Pmin = 0.0034)
Since p > pb, tension steel does not
[C= T]
0.85fca b =Asf,
0.85{41) (0.85 c) (300) = 3436 f,;
f, = l.325c
From the strain diagram shown:
0.003 _ 0.003 + fs / Es
-c-- d
0.003 = 0.003 + 1.325c /200000
.c 490
: ,
fJE.
60
0.003 600+ 1.325c
__
c 98000000
1.325 c2 + 60() c:... 294,000 = 0
c = 296.2m.m
[a .""
a = 0.85 (296.2)
.. 251.77 m.m
Is .. 1.325(296.2)
Is = 392.465 < fy
.M" (d- a/2)
= As/s (d.- a/2)
= 0.9Q(3426)(392.465)(490- 251.77/2)
= 440,625,240N-min
M,. = 440.6 kN-m
PROBLEM' 2.15 .
Compute the ultimate moment of the beam shown in FiguJ;e 2.7.
Assume fy = MPa and f, = 21 MPa.
125 125 125
Flgure2.7
375mm
E
e
8
"
CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESiGN OF BEAMS
61
SOLunON
Note: This is not a rectangular beam. The formulas discussed cannot be applied. The moment
can be computed using the assumptions in,the Code and the conditions of equilibrium.
A s ~ f (32)
2
X 4
As=3217mm2
Assuming steel yields:
Tension, T = Asfy
T= 32J7(345)
T = 1,109,865 N
Compression, C = 0.85 fc Ac
C = 0.85(21)Ac = 17.85 A,
[T=q .
1,109,865 = 17.85 Ac
Ac = 62,177 mtn
2
Ac = 375 a -125(125) = 62,177
a'=208mm
Check if steel yields:
a=fhc
c = a / ~ t
= 208/0.85
c=245mm
fs /200,000 = 0.003
380 . 245 .
Is = 931 MPa >Jy (steel yields, OK)
mm.
4-32 mm
0 0 0 0
37Smm
0.003.
fJ200,000
.E
E
L/')
N
\0
' \
... .
' .
62
{C1 = O.sS /c Acl]
c1 = o.85(21)(375 x 83)
C1= 555,581 N
[C2 = 0.85 /c Ac2]
c2 = o.85(21)(125 x 125)
c2 = 278,906 N
M, = c1 C1 (458.5) + 1P (2 C2)(S62.S)
. = 0.90(555,581)(458.5) + 0.90(2 X 278,906)(562.5)
= 511,652,824.65 N-mm
M, =.511.65 kN-m
PROBLEM 2.16
Compute the ultimate moment capacity of the beam shownin Figure 2.8.
Assumefy = 345 MPa andfc =21 MPa.
Figure 2.8
SOLUTION
A.= t '(22)
2
X 3
A.,; 1,140 mm
2
375 mm
Assuming tension steel yields:
Tension, T = A. Jy
T = 1,140(345)
T = 393,300 N
Compression, C = 0.85 fc A
C =0.85(21) Ac = 17.85 A.-
375mm
L/')
" .
E
M
E
II
"C
0
L/')
.....
75
' CHAPTER 2- ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
[T=q
393,300 = 17.85 A<
A, = 22,034 nun
2
' X 375
---
a 450
x = 0:833a
Ac = lf2(x)(a)
22,034 =
1
/2(0.833a)(a)
a= 230nun
c = ajj31 = 230/0.85
c=271 nun
. Check if steel yields:
Is I = o.oo3
104 271
f.= 230 MPa <jy
Thus, steel does not yield.
0.003
fs/200,000
Solve for c:
Compression in concrete, C = 0.85 f, A,
. Tensi<min steel, T= As/s
[C=T]
0:85f,A, = As/s
A, = 1/2 (x)(a)
= 1/2(0.833a)(a)
Ac = 0.4165a
2
a= f31 c
a= 0.85c
Ac = 0.4165(0.85 c)2
A,= 0.301 c2
/
5
/200,000 = 0.003
375-c c
/s = 600(375-,.c)
' c
=1140.
600
(
37
S-t;)
c
63
0.003
. fs/200,000
c;3 = 47740026 -127307 c
c;3 +-127307 c - 47740026 = 0
Solve c by trial and error:
c = 251 nun
/s = 600(375- 251) =
296
_
4
MPa '
' ' 251
a= 0.85(251) = 213 nun
T= A.j.
T = 1140(296.4)
T:;:337,896 N
y = 375- t (213) -
y=233mm

M,.= 0.90(337,896)(233)
= 70,856,79:1. N-mm
M,. = 70.857 kN-m
PROBLEM 2.17
- -
REINFORCED CONCRETE ,DESIGN
Lt'l

II
T
The hallow beam shown in Figure 2.9 is to carry a factored moment of 800
kN-m. Calculate the required tension steel area. Calculate also the
maximum steel area and the balanced moment capacity of the . section for
singly n!inforced condition in accor,dance to NSCP. Assume[, '= 2& MPa and
_ fy=345MPa.
Figure2.9
mm
CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS ANO DESIGN OF BEAMS
65
SOLOnON
Our first task in this problem is the value of "il''. If its value is less than 150 mm then it
can be analyzed simply as rectangular beam (since. the 'tension concrete is totally ignored). If
its value exceeds 150 mm, then it has to be analyzed as a non-rectangular section.
us compute the moment capacity of the beam if a = 150mm.
I
Compression on concrete, C = 0.85 /cAc
c = 0.85(28)(500 >< 150) '
C = 1,785,000 N
. [M,. = C (d- 15012)[
d=800-:75=725mm
M,.;, 0.90(1785000)(725 -15012)
'= 1,044,225,000 N-mm
M;, = 1,044 kN-m
Since the required M,, is only 800 kN-m, therefore a must be less than
150 nun , The it can be analyzed 'iiS beam.
Assuming tension yiE!!lds:
. [M,. = C (d-: al2)]' .
M;, = 0.85f,a b(d -al2)
8QO X 1()6 = 0.9<>[0.85(28) a (500)](725 '- 05a)
0.5 a2 - 725 a + 74697 .;; 0
a= 725)(-725)
2
-4(0.5)(74697)
2(05) .
a =112 mm < 150 mm
. Check if steel yields:
c = a/!31
. = 112 I
c= 132mm
From the strain diagram
Is I 2oo,ooo = o.oo3
593 ' 132
/s = 2695 MPa > fY (steel yields)
\ : '
Tension in steel= compression in concrete
Ash= 0.85f,a b .
As (345) = 0 ,85(28)(112)(500)
As = 3,863 mm
2
.
0.003
fJ200,000
66
Balanced, area:
500mm
....

u
ftl
Figure ,2.10
c 725
--=---
0.003 0.004725
c = 460inm
a=
= 0.85(460)
a=391mm
Froi:n Figure;2.10:
Area of compression concrete,
A,= 391(@0)- 250(241)
A, = 135,250 mm2
T
Tension in steel ""CompresSion jn concrete
A.Jy = 0.85f, A,
A. (345) = 0.85(28)(135250)
A. = 9,330 mm2 balanced steel area
Maximum teel area, As max= 0.75 Asb
= 0.75(9330)
Maximum steel area, A. max = 6,998 nun
2

o.oo3 .. I
r
---..
' :
'
c '
'
In
'
N
r...
1
fy/200,000
=.0.001725
.CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS
Balanced moment capacity:
From Figure 2.10:
M,.b = C1 (650) + 2C2 (454.5)
':' 0.85 f, A,, (6SO) + 2 0.85 f , Aa (454.5)
"' 0,90(0;85)(28)(500 X 150)(650)
+ l5 241)(454.5)
= 1607,319,958 N-mm
Mub .= 1,607.3 kN-m
PROBLEM 2. 18'
61
A concrete . beam 8 m long is 350 mm wide arid 600 mm deep. and carries a
dead load of 11 kN/m including its own weight and a live load of 15 kN/m.
The beam is, reinforced for tension only with four 25-mm diameter bars with
an: effective depth to tension bars-of 530 mm. [c = 20.7MPa, fy = 344.8 MPa,f,
. = 2;832 MPa, n :=: 9. Use E, = 21;650 MPa and Es = 200 GPa.
(a) Calculate the maximum instantaneous deflection for DL + LL.
(b) CalCulate the deflection for the same loads after five years assuming that
30% .of the live load is sustained.
SOLlfnON
3SOmm
N.A.
bh
3
[Ig = --]
. 12 . .
lg = 350(600)3 /12
Ig =6300 x 106 mm4
'
'
350mm
'
'

c = 186 mm
-.. --r
: y = 530 - c = 344

68
[Mer = fr.I g ]
Yt
M = 2.832(6300x 10
6
)
cr ' , 600/2 .
""' 59.472 x 1()6 N-m
M er = 59.472
nAs ;.. 9 x 4 x t (25)2 = 17,71 mm2
Solve for c qy moment of area about the N.A.:
Moment of area above N.A. =Moment of area below N.A.
50(c)(c/2) = 17,671(530- c)
175 c
2
= 9365630- 17671c
175c2 + 17671c- 9365630 = o
c=186mm
[Icr = L (Ig + Ad2)]
lq = 350{186)3/12+ (350)(186)(186/2)
2
+ 17671(344)2
fer = .2842 X 10
6
mm
4
. ,
wL
2
Mn=- .-
8
= (11 + 15)(8)
2
8
M,;=208kN-m
I, o [ )' + [ 1-(

)'}2842,
Ie =2922.83 ':< 1()6 mm4
(a) Instantaneous .
. 5wL
4
'
o=
. 384Ele
5(11 + 15)(8)
4
(1000)
4
3S4(21,650)(2;922.83 X 10
6
)
o =21.9mm
(b) Long-term Deflection
Since only 30% of the live load was sustained:
w := 11 + 0.3(15) = 15.5 kN/m
. .. . 5wL
4
deflection, 6; = --=--

5(15.5)(8)
4
(1000)
4
384(21,650)(2,922.83 X 10
6
)
Instantaneous deflection, o; = 13.06 mm
69
The instantaneous deflection may also be computed by proportion
using the result of question a.

21.9 11 + 15
8;= 13.06mm
Long-term deflection = 8 + M;
A=
1+50p'
= 2 (for5 years ormore)
p' = 0 since there is i-to compression reiflforcerrient
2 .
A= =2
1 +'50(0)
Long-term deflection= 21.9 + 2(13.06)
Long-term deflection = 48.02 mm
PROBLEM 2. 19 (CE BOARD NOVEMBE,R 2002)
The continuous. reinforced concrete beam shown in Figure 05. is subjected to
a uniform service dead load of 16 kN/m and a service. live load of 32 kNjm,
resulting in the bending moment diagram shown. Twenty .percent of the live
load will be sustained in natUre, while 80% will be applied only
intermittently. . The concrete strength f c = 17.2 MPa. The modulus of
elasticity of' concrete is given by 'the Ec =. 4700 Sqtt(f,) and the
modulus of rapture is given by the expression f,. "' 0.7 Sqrt(f,), The relevant
provisions of the 1992 National Structural Code of the are:,
.. . Unless stiffness are. obtained by a more comprehensive
an(ilysis, immediate deflection shall be computed .the effective modulus
of inertia as follows, but not greater than I g.
70
REINFORGED CONCRETE DESIGN
Eq. 9-7
where: . .
' .. fl
Mer = cracking moment= ...!.._.!..
Yt
Ma = maximlim momentatstage deflection is computed
Ig = p:tbment of inertia of gross concrete secqon about centroidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement .
Icr = moment ofinertia of cracked section transformed to concrete
y
1
= distance ftom centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement,
to extreme fiber in tension
5.9.5.2.7 For continuous members, effective moment of inertia may be taken
as the average of the values obtained from Eq. 9-7 for the critical positi:-re and
negative moment sections,
5.9.5.2.8 Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis,
additional . long term deflection resulting from creep and shrinkage of
flexural members shall be determined by multiplying the immediate
deflection caused by the sustained load considered, b:v the factor
where:
A. =
l +SOp'
Eq. (9-10)
p'r = reiriforc;ement ratio for non-prestressed. compression reinforcement at
midspap for simpie and continuous spans, and at support for
cantilevers '
= time-dependent.factor for loads to be equal to
5 years or more .. : ........... , .. 2.0
12 months ......................... 1.4
6 months ..... ... : .................. 1.2
3months .. ... ......... .... ......... 1.0
Determine the following:
.a) The effective moment of ine:rtia at the supports (maximum negative
. moment).
1
.
b) The effective moment of inertia for the continuous member.
c) The additional deflection (in addition to the initial deflection) after 5
years, under the sustained loading if the instantaneous deflection due
to the combined service dead and live load is 5 mm.
\ .
r
E_L - - -
E
0
N
ID
1
Gross Section
I = 0.00715 m
4
y = 310 mm
360mm
Gross Section
I= 0.0138 m
4
y = 194mm
r
:.::.t+':.t.l!.i''n,ea .. ,.,,::.:''''''''
--r-- -
560mm
LL
AT SUPPORTS
L
AT MIDSPAN
Figure 2.11
Cracked Section
I = 0.00573 m
4
y = 159mm
nAs
F.l.!:!.l
1
.!1iill.i.t.
1
1
!.!.
1
iii
1
!.!. !1
1
Cracked Section
I = 0.00573 m
4
y = 107 mm
71
72
a) Effective moment of inertia at the supports
1,= l}
M,. = 202 kN-m
fr I g
Mer= --
Yt
f, = 0.7 [!';
= 0.7 .)17.2
f, :, 2. 903 MPa
Ig = 0.00715 m4 (as given)
y,=310mm
M = 2.903(0.00715 X 1000
4
)
cr 310
= 66,956,290 N-mm
Mer= 66.956 kN-m
I,T = 0.00573 m
4
I = (
66
956
)
3
(0.00715) + [1-(
66
956
)
3
] . (0.005;3)
e 202 202
I, = 0.00578 m4
b) Effective moment of inertia for the continuous member
I
= (I e hnax pos moment + (I e ) max neg moment
e
2
(Sec. 5.9.5.2.7 )
At maximum negative moment (at support)
I, = 0.00578 m4
Solving for Ie at maximum positive moment (at midspan)
M = 2.903(0.0138 X 1000
4
)
cr 620-194
= 94,040,845 N-rnm
M; = 94.04 kN-m
Ma= kN-m
I = (
94
04
)
3
(Cl'.0138) + [1-(
94
04
)
3
] (0.00573)
e ' 145 145
= 0.00793
l
CHAPTER 2 -ANALYSIS AND. DESIGN OF BEAMS
I, = 0.00578 + 0.00793 = 0.006S
6
m
4
2
Additional long term deflection = long term deflection x A.
~ A . = - ~ -
1+50p'
p' = 0 (since there is no compression reinforcement at midspan)
I;= 2 (after 5 years)
A.= _2_ =2
1+0
Solving for the instantatneous deflection under sustained loading:
Instantaneous deflection = 5 mm (given)
Instantaneous loading= 16 kN/m + 32 kNjm
Instantaneous loading= 48 kNjm
Sustained loading= 16 + 20%(32)
Sustained loading= 22.4 kN/m
Since deflection is directly proportional to the load:
0 5
--=-
22.4 48
o;=2.333mm
Additional long term deflection = 2.333 x A.
= 2.333 X 2
Additional long term deflection = 4.67 mm
73
74
ONE-WAY SLAB
Reinforced concrete slabs are large flat plates that are supported at its sides by
reinforced concrete beams, walls, columns, steel beams, or by the ground. if a
slab is supported on two opposite sides only, they are referred to a one-way slabs
since the bending occurs in one direction only. If the slab is supported on all
four it is called two-way slab since the bending occurs in both direction.
If a rectangular slab is supported in all four sides but the long side is two or
more times the short side, the slab will, for all practical purposes, act as a one
way slab, with bending occurring in the short direction.
Figure 2.12: One-way slab on simple support
A one-way slab is considered as a wide, shallow, rectangular beam. The
reinforcing steel is usually spaced uniformly over its width. One-way slabs are
analyzed by considering a one-meter strip, which is assumed independent of
the adjacent strips. This method of analysis is somewhat conservative because
we neglected the la.teral restraint provided by the adjacent strips.
MAXIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT
According to Section 5.7.6.5, the flexural reinforcement shall not be spaced
farther apart than 3 times the slab thickness, nor 450 mm.
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT, Pr
Concrete shrinks as it hardens. In addition, temperature changes occur that causes
expansion and contraction of concrete. In this effect, the code (5.7.12) requires that
one-way slabs, where flexural reinforcement extends in one direction only, should
be reinforced for shrinkage and temperature stresses perpendicular to flexural
reinforcement. According to Section 5.7.12.2.1, the area of shrinkage reinforcement
shall at leaSt the following ratios of gross concrete area bh, (where h is the
slab thickness) but not less than 0.0014.
75
(a) Where Grade 275 deformed bars are used ... .. ......... ........ ... .... ..... 0.0020
(b) Where Grade 415 deformed bars or welded wire
fabric (plain or deformed) are used .. .... ...... .... ... , .................... .. ... 0.0018
(c) Where reinforcement withfy > 415 MPa measured at
yield strain of 0.35% are used ...... .... ... : ........ .. .. .. ..................
0
0018
x
4
00
fy
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement may not be spaced not farther apart
than 5 times the slab thickness, nor 450 mm (Section 5.7.12.2.2).
STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF ONE-WAY SLABS
I. Identify the uniform floor pressure (Pa) to be carried by the slab. This
load may consist of:
1) Live load pressure, LL (Pa)
2) Dead load pressure, DL (Pa)
3) Ceiling load and other attachments (below the slab), DL (Pa)
II. Determine the minimum slab thickness Jz from Table 2.1. If necessary
adjust this value depending on your judgment.
III. Compute the weight of slab.
Weight= Y c o ~ c x h, DL (Pa)
IV. Calculate the factored moment (M,) to be carried by the slab.
Factored floor pressure= 1.4DL + 1.7 LL
Uniform load, Wu = Factored pressure x 1 m
V. Compute the effective depth, d:
d = Jz- covering (usually 20 mm) - 1f2 (main bar diameter)
VI. Compute the required p:
Solve for R
11
from M
11
= $ R
11
b d
2
where b = 1000 mm
p = 0.85 f'c [
1
-
1
__ 2_. R....::.u_]
fy 0.85 f' c
Solve for Pmax and Pmin
If p is less than Pmax and greater than Pmin, use p
If p is greater than Pmax, increase the depth of slab to
ensure ductile failure
If p is less than Pmin, use p = Pmin
VII. Compute the required main bar spacing:
As = p b d = p(1000)d
51 = Abar X 1000
As
76
Use the smallest of the following for the main bar spacing:
a) 51
b) 3x h
c) 450mm
VIII. Temperature bars: See Page 74 for the required steel ratio, p,
A.,=p
1
bh
52= Abar X 1000
As
Use the smallest of the following for temperature bar spacing:
a) 52
b) 5 X h
c) 450mm
. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 2.20
Design a one-way slab having a simple span of 3 m. The slab is to carry a
uniform live load of 7,150 Pa. Assume f c = 27.6 MPA and fy = 276 MPa for
main and temperature bars ..
SOLUTION
Minimum slab thickness from Table 2.1:
L ( /y)
hmin =
20
0.4 +
700
= 3000 (o.4 + 276)
20 700
hmin = 119 mm (u,se 120 mm)
Effective depth:
b = 1000 mm
d = 120 ;;.' 20 min (covering) - 1f2 bar diameter (12 mm)
d=94mm
-
Weight of slab= Yconc X h = 23.5(0.12)
= 2:82kPa
Weight of slab= 2,820 Pa
F,!ictored floor pressure= 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL
. = 1.4(2,820) + 1.7(7,150)
Factored floor pressure= 16,103 Pa
Analyzing 1 m (b = 1000 rom) width of slab:
w" = 16,103 x 1
Wu = 16,103 Njm
w L
2
Maximum factored moment, M" = -"-
8
= 16,103(3)
2
8
Maximum factored moment, M" = 18,115.875 N ~ m
[M" = ~ R" b d
2
)
18,115.875 X 103 = 0.90 R/1 (1000)(94)
2
R" = 2.278 MPa,.---
p = 0.85. f'c [l- r-
1
-_--..,.2-=R-u .-].
/y 0.85 !',
= 0.85(27.6) [1- 1- 2(2.278) l
276 0.85(27.6)
p = 0.0087
(
1.4 ]
Pmin = /y
1.4
Pmin =
276
Pmin = 0.0051 < 0.0087 (OK)
[
= O
75
0.85f'c P1600]
Pmax . J (600 J )
y + y
= 0 75 0.85(27.6)(0.85)600
Pmax . . 276(600 + 276)
Pinax = 0.037 > 0.0087 (OK)
77
78
-...
As= pbd .
= 0.00870000)(94)
As= 817.8 nun
2
per meter
Using 12-nun main bars:
A .
Spacing = ~ x 1000
As
1!. (12)
2
.
=
4
X 1000
817.8
Spacing = 138 nun say 135 mm
Maximum spacing required by the Code:
a) 3(h) = 3(120) = 360 mm
b) 450nun
Thus, use 12 mm main bars at 135 mm o.c.
Temperature bars: (Grade 275)
As= 0.002bh
A = 0.002(1000)(120) = 240 mm2
Spacing = Abar x 1000
As
"(10)
2
= L__ X 1000
240
. Spacing = 327 nun say 325 mm
a) 5 h = 5(120) = 600 nun
b) 450nun
Thus, uselO mm temperature bars at 325 mm o.c.
10 mm temperature bars
@ 325 mm o.c.
L =3m
79
PROBLEM 2.21
Design a one-way slab to carry a service live load of 4000 Pa. The slab has a
length of 4 m with both ends continuous. Assume f c = 21 MPa and Jy = 415
MPa for main bars and fy = 276 MPa for temperature bars .
.
SOLUTION
Live Load = 4000 Pa
Dead Load (Weight of slab)
Minimum thickness of slab:
L
h=-
28
4000
28
h = 143 mm (Use 150 mm)
Weight of beam, DL = Yconc X h
DL = 23.5(0.15)
= 3.525 kPa
DL = 3525 Pa (LL < 3DL, OK)
Factored floor pressure= 1.4{3525) + 1.7(4000)
Factored floor pressure = 11,735 Pa
Factored uniformly distributed load:
W
11
= 11,735(1)
= 11,735 Njm
w
1
, = 11.735 kNjm

From Section 5.8.3.3 of N:SCP (See Page 39)
- '
Wu 1//16
Effective depth, d = 150- 20- 1/2 (12)
Effective depth, d = 124 mm
80
At midspan:
[
M = w" Ln 2]
II 16
M ~ 11.735(4)
2
II 16
Mu = 11.735 kN-m
[M
11
= <!> R
11
bd2]
11.735 X 106 = 0.90 Rll(1000)(124)2 .
R" = 0.848 MPa
_ 0.85 f'c [
p- 1-
/y
1- 2Ru l
0.85 f'c
= 0.85(21) [1-
415
1 - 2(0.848) l
0.85(21)
p = 0.0021
I
Pmin = 1.4/415
Pmin = 0.00337 > 0.0021
Use p = Pmin = 0.00337
As = pbd = 0.00337(1000}(124}
A.=418mm2
Spacing, S = Asb x 1000
As
2!. (12)
2
Spacing, S =
4
x 1000
418
S = 271 say, 270 mm

a) 3 h = 3(150) = 450 mm
b) 450mm
Thus, use 12 mfu bottom bars at 270 mm o.c. at midspan
At support:
[
M = Wu Ln 2 J
II 10
M = 11.735(4)
2
II 10
M11 = 18.776 kN-m
[M,. = q, R .. bd2]
18.776 X 10
6
= 0.90 Rll (1000)(124)
2
R11 = 1.357 MPa
_ 0.85 f'c [
1
p- . -
!y
= 0.85(21) [1-
415
p = 0.0034 > Pmin
1- 2Ru l
0.85 f'c
1- 2(1.357) l
0.85(21)
=
0 75
o.85f', P
1
600
Pmax /y(
6
00+ /y)
= 0.75 0.85(21)(0.85)600
415(600 + 415)
Pmax = 0.0162 > 0.0034
Use p = 0.0034
A.= pbd = 0.0034(1000)(124)
As =422mm
2
Spacing = Asb x 1000
As
7t (12)
2
= .I.__ X 1000
422
Spacing = 268 say 265 mm
Thus, use 12 mm top bars @ 265 mm o.c. at support
81
82
Temperature bars (10 mm): (Pt = 0.002)
Ast = 0.'002bh
= 0.002(1000)(150)
Ast =300mm
2
Spacing= A,b x 1000
. A,
lt (10)2
=
4
x lOOO
300
Spacing= 261 say 260 nun
a) 5h = 5(150) = 750 mm
b) 450mm
Thus, use 10 mm temperature bars @ 260 mm o.c.
10 mm temperature bars
@ 260 mm o.c.
1m
12 mm main bars
@ 265 mm o.c.
2m 1m
83
PROBLEM 2.22
A one-way slab having a simple span of 3m is 160 mm thick. The slab is
reinforced with 12 mm tension bars (1!
1
= 275 MPa) spaced at 140 mm o.c.
Steel covering is 20 mm. Calculate the uniform live load pressure that the
slab ~ a n carry. Use [ c = 20.7 MPa.
SOLUTION
b = 10G0mm
d = 160 - 20 -
1
/2(12)
d= 134mm
Spacing of main bars = A bar x 1000
As
1[ (12)
2
140 =
4
X 1000
A s
A, = 807.8 mm
2
A
[p = _s)
bd
807.8
p = 1000(134)
p = 0.006028
[
- 0.85 J' , ~ 1 600]
Pb - _ _::_..::...:_.o___
/y(600+ /y)
- 0.85(20.7)(0.85)(600)
Pb- 275(600 + 275)
Pb = 0.037 > p (steel yields)
[
co= p /y ]
J'c
0.006028(275)
co = ---'---'-
20.7
co= 0.0801
[R,. = [c co (1- 0.59co)]
R,. = 20.7(0.0801)[1- 0.59(0.0801)]
R,. = 1.58 MPa
84
[Mu = ~ R u b d2]
M. = 0.90(1.58)(1000)(134)2
= 25,533,432 N-mm
Mu = 25.5334 kN-m
[
M = wu L2]
" 8
25.5334 = Wu (3)2
8
Wu = 22.696 kN/m
(Wu = 1.4 WDL + 1.7 WLL)
WDL = Yconc b h
= 23.5(1)(0.16)
WDL = 3.76 kN/m
22.696 = 1.4(3.76) + 1.7 WLL
WLL = 10.25 kN/m
WLL = Uniform pressure x b
10.25 = Uniform pressure x 1
Uniform.. live load pressure = 10.25 kPa
85
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 2.23
Deterllline the required tension steel area for a rectangular beam with b = 250
mm, d = 330 mm, fy = 413.7 MPa, f c = 20.7 MPa. The beam is required to carry a
factored moment of 110 kN-m.
PROBLEM 2.,24
Design a rectangular beam reinforced for tension only to carry dead load
moment of 85 kN-m (including its estimated weight) and a live load of 102 k N ~
m. Use p = 0.6 Ph and used = 1.75b. Assume fy = 276 MPa and f , = 28 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.25
A reinforced concrete beam has the following properties:
beam with, b = 320 mm
effective depth, d = 640 mm
concrete strength, f c = 25 MPa
reinforcing steel, fy = 400 MPa
reinforcing steel modulus, Es = 200,000 MPa
If the beam is to be designed for a balanced condition, find the required area of
steel reinforcement in mm2.
PROBLEM 2.26
Calculate the ultimate moment capacity of a rectangular beam with b = 350 mm,
d = 540 mm, As = 5-25 mm. Assume f c = 24 MPa, fy = 340 MPa.
PROBLEM 2.27
Calculate the ultimate moment capacity of a rectangular beam with b = 300 mm,
d = 500 mm, As= 5400 mm
2
Assume fc = 34 MPa, fy = 414 MPa.
86
PROBLEM 2.28
Determine the permissible flexural capacity of the beam shown iffy= 414 MPa
andfc = 20.7 MPa.
350 mm
CHAPTER 3- T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
Chapter3
Analysis and Design ofT-Beams and
Doubly Reinforced Beams
T-BEAMS
87
Reinforced concrete floors usually consist of slabs and beams, which are placed
or poured monolithically. In this effect, the beam will have an extra width at the
top- (which is usually under compression) called flanges, and the resulting
section is called a T -beam. The beam may also be L-shaped if it is located at the
end of a slab.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OFT -BEAMS
The an1:1lysis of T-beams is similar to rectangular beams, but in unlike
rectangular beams wherein we always check for maximum steel ratio (Pmax), this
limiting ratio is very seldom reached in T -beams because the compression side
of the beam is so large which makes the neutral axis so far away from As, and
hence one would almost never use an amount of steel greater than Pmax Thus in
T -beams where the flange in compression, it very often that the steel will yield.
The compression block of a T -beam can fall either within the flange only or
partly in the web. If it falls within the flange as shown in Figure 3.1 (a), the
rectangular beam formulas (in Chapter 2) apply since the concrete below neutral
axis is assumed to be cracked and its shape has no effect on the flexure
calculations (other than weight). If however it covers the web as shown in
Figure 3,1 (b), the compression concrete no longer consist of a single rectangle
and thus the rectangular beam formulas do not apply.
bw
(a)
Figure 3.1: Location of neutral axis
bw
(b)
88
TENSION STEEL STRESS
In analysis of beams (whatever shape it is), once the
value of c is known, the actual stress in tension steelcan
be computed using Eq. 3-1.
fs / Es = 0.003
d-e c
Es = 200,000
f s 0.003(d- c)
200,000 c
THE c/d RATIO
/s = 600 d -c
c
0.003
Eq. 3-1
One can actually detect (without further computation) when steel will yield
once the value of cis known. Note that the strain in concrete is taken as 0.003
and the strain in steel is /s/ E
5
For Jy = 415 MPa, the maximum strain Es =
415/200,000 = 0.0021, and forjy = 276 MPa, Es = 0.0014.
0.003 0.003 0.003
(a) cj d = 0.59 (b) cjd = 0.7 (c)
Figure 3.2: Location of neutral axis
As shown in Figure 3.2 (a), the grade 415 steel will not yield if cj d is greater than
0.59 and will yield if cj d is less than 0.59. The grade 276 steel as shown in
Figure 3.2 (b) wiU yield if cj dis less than 0.7. Since the maximum steel strength
usually used in construction is the grade 415 (fy = 415 MPa), we can therefore
conclude that if cj dis less than 0.59, the tension steel will yield.
89
In T-beams where the flange is in compression, the cj d ratio is usually that
shown in Figure 3.2 (c), which easily lead us to a conclusion that the steel yields.
BALANCED AND MAXIMUM STEEL AREA
If a is less than the slab thickness I, the balanced steel ratio is computed using
the Eg. 2 - 11 in Page 31 . However, if a is greater than t, the following-formula
will be used.
N.A.
As
0
U}'. d
br
Ey = fv/Es
Strain diagram In balanced condition

0.003 fy / Es
Note Es = 200000 MPa
600d
c=
600+ !y
a= 13t c
600d
a-r.t __ _
- 1-'l 600+/y
[T = q Asbfy = 0.85 fc[btt + bwz]
0.85/'c [bit+ (a- t)bw]
Asb = --=--...!-----
/y
As max= 0.75 Asb
These equations apply only if a > t.
Eq. 3-2
90
DESIGN OFT-BEAMS WITH NEGATIVE MOMENTS
When T ~ b e a m s are resisting negative moments so that their flanges are in
tension and the bottom of their stems are in compression, the formulas for
rettangular beams will be applied. The following code requirements shall be
applied for this case:
5.10.6.6: Where flanges ofT -beam construction are in tension, part of the flexural
tension reinforcement sh(lll be distributed over an effective flange width as
defined in Sec. 5.8.10, or a width equal to 1/10 the span, whichever is smaller. If
the effective flange width exceeds 1/10 the span, some longitudinal
reinforcement shall be provided in the outer portions of the flange.
The intention of this section is to minimize the possibilities of flexural cracks
that will occur at the top face of the flange due to negative moments.
MINIMUM STEEL RATIO
Section 5.10.5.1 of NSCP provides that the minimum steel ratio be 1.4/fy. It also
states that in T-beams where the web is in tension, the ratiop shall be computed
for this purpose using width of web.
In checking for maximum p (Pmax), use p = As (only if a< t)
. bfd
In checking for minimum p (Pmin), use p = ~
, bwd
CODE REQUIREMENTS FORT-BEAMS (SECTION 5.8.10)
1. In T-beam construction, the flange and web shall be built integrally or
otherwise effectively bonded together.
91
2. The width of slab effective as a T -beam shall not exceed
1
/4 of the. span of
the beam, and the effective overhanging flange on each side of the web
shall not exceed:
(a) 8 times the slab thickness, and
(h) 1/2 the clear distance to the next web.
3. For beams with slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange
shall not exceed:
(a) 1/12 the span length of the beam,
(b) 6 times the slab thickness, and
(c) 1/2 the clear distance to the next web.
Interior Beam
Figure 3.3: Effective flange width
For Interior Beam
bt is the smallest of:
1. L/4
2. 16t + bw
3. 51/2 + 52/2 + bw
For End Beam
b't is the smallest of:
1. L/12 + b'w
2. 6t + b'w
.3. 53/2 + b'w
For symmetrical interior beam (St = S2 = S)
bt is the smallest of:
1. L/4
2. 16t + bw
3. center-to-center spacing of beams
53
End Beam
92 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
4. Isolated beams in which T-shape are used to provide a flange for
additional compression area shall have a flange thickness not less than Vz
the width of the web and an effective flange width not more than four
times the width of the web.
b
~ Where primary flexural reinforcement in a slab that is considered as a T-
beam flange is parallel to the beam, reinforcement perpendicular to the
beam shall be provided in the top of the slab in accordance with the
following:
(a) Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to carry the factored load
on the overhanging slab width assumed to act as a cantilever. For
isolated beam, the full width of the overhanging flange shall be
considered. For other T-beams, only the effective overhanging slab
needs to be considered.
(b) Transverse reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than five
times the slab thickness, nor 450 mm.
' '
I," ,."'"
.. : ___ --r
'
, , , Primary slab reinforcement
' ,'
','
..... ..'
I , .. "'"'! ,"''
:.::.'. __ - .!,."' '
STEPS IN DETERMINING THE TENSION STEEL AREA As OFT BEAMS
WITH GIVEN Mu AND OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES:
I. Assume that the entire flange is in compression and solve for Mu1:
Compressive force in concrete, C = 0.85 fc bt t
Mul = ~ C (d- f/2}
Mul = ~ 0.85 /c btf (d- f/2} = - - ~
If Mu1 > Mu, then a < t, proceed to Step II
If M,1 < M,, then a > t, proceed to Step III
II. a< t
As
0--t----'....._- - - ~ ~ ~
Solve for a:
[Mu = ~ C (d- a/2)]
Mu = ~ 0.85 f c ab (d- a/2)
a=
[T= C]
Asfy = 0.85 fc ab
A.= __
Solve for Pmax and compare with ~
bf d
If ~ < Pmax, design is OK
bfd
T=Asfv
A .
If -
5
- > Pmax, the beam needs compression steel
b d .
f
(this seldom hap:pen)
. Solve for Pmin = 1.4 / fy and compare with ~
bwd
If ~ > Pmin, design is OK
bwd
93
94
If ~ < Pmin, use p = Pmin
bwd
(this seldom happen)
As= Pmin bw d
III. a> t
b
0.85 f',
T
0
o.85 f', c
2
a
L7,
t/2
T1 =: As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
Mul
Mu2
M, =M,t +Mu2
Mut = the same value in Step I
Mu2 = M,- Mut = __ _
[Mu2 = <jl C2 (d- z/2)]
M,2 = <j1 0.85 f c bw z (d'- z/2)
z=
[T= q
Ash= c1 + c2 .
Asfy = 0.85 {c b f + 0.85 { c bw Z
A,= _ __.:._
Solve for Pmin = 1.4/ fy and compare w i t h ~
. . ~ d
If ~ > Pmin, design is OK
bwd.
I
As -
f -- < Pmin, use p - Pmin
bw d
As= Pmin bw d
Solve for A, max:
'a= p
1
600d
. /y + 600
.As max.= 0.75 Asb
(this seldom happen)
0.85 f' c[b f t + (a- t)bw]
As max= 0.75 ----'-----
/y
If As <As max, value is OK
If As> As max, the beam needs compression' steel
(this seldom happen toT-beams)
STEPS IN DETERMINING Mu OFT-BEAMS WITH GIVEN A
5
AND
OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES:
95
I. Assume steel yields if, = fy) and compute the area of compression
concrete, Ac
[C= 1]
0.85 [c Ac = Asfy
Ac= ,
Area of compression flange, At= bt t
If Ac < At, a < t, proceed to Step II
If Ac > A
1
, a > t, proceed to Step III
II. a< t
Solve for a:
Ac = btx a
a=
br
A;
c = 0.85 f'c a b
M, = ~ T (d- a/2)
Mu = + As/y (d- a/2)
0-1------'"--- .... _ ....... _
Verify if steel yields (this may not be necessary anymore)
c=a/lh=_
fs= 600(d-c) = __
c
If /s > fy, steel yields (assumption is correct)
T =A; fv
If{. <fy, steel does not yield (this seldom happen toT-beams)
96
III. a> t:
Solve for z:
A,=At+ bwz
z=
(See Step I for the values of A, and At)
Verify if steel yields:
a=t+z=
c = a / ~ t = _
fs= 600(d-c) = __
C,
If /s > fy, steel yields (assumption is correct)
If Is < fy, steel does not yield
(this seldom happen toT-beams).
M,t = ell Ct (d- t/2)
Mut =ell 0.85f,At(d- t/2)
Mu2 = ell C2 (d'- z/2)
Mu2 =ell 0.85 bw z (d'- z/2)
M, = M.:X + M,2 = __
97
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 3.1
Determine the effective flange with for a symmetrical T-beam with a span of
6 m. ~ T h e width of web is 250 mm, the slab thickness is 120 mm, and the clear
distance to adjacent beams is 3m.
SOLUTION
For a symmetrical T-beam, the effective flange width is the smallest of:
1. %of span= 6000/4 = 1500 mm
2. 16t + bw = 16(120} + 250 = 2170 mm
3. clear spacing of beams + bw = 3000 + 250 = 3250 mm
Therefore bt = 1500 mm
PROBLEM 3.2
A reinforced concrete T -beam with bt = 813 mm, d = 300 mm, bw = 200 mm, t
= 102 mm, fc = 20.7 MPa, and fy = 414 MPa is to be designed to carry an
factored moment of 221 kN-m. Determine the required steel area A .
SOLUTION
If the entire flange is in compression:
Ct = 0.85 fc At
= 0.85(20.7)(813)(102)
Ct = 1,459,082.97 N
M,.t = cp Ct (d- t/2)
= 0.90(1,459,082.97)(300.- 102/2)
= 326,980,494 N-mm
Mut = 326.98 kN-m > 221 kN-m
Therefore, a falls within the flange.
b = 813 mm
0.85fc
1 ~ r = :rerSf,ab
. d=300 ~ T W >
t = 102
As
0
bw = 200
_____ l __ __._l_
T =As fv
98
M, = 0 C (300- a/2)
M, = 0 0.85 f ca b (300- a/2)
221 x 10
6
= 0.90(0.85)(20.7) a (813)(300- O.Sa)
0 = 0.5a2- 300a+ 17166
a = 64 mm < 102 mm (OK)
[C= T]
0.85 [ cab= Asfy
0.85(20.7)(64}(813} = As(414}
As= 2211 mm
2
Check for maximum and minimum requirements:
[Pmox = 0.75pb]
= O
75
0.85 f'c ~ 1 (600)
Pmax . Jy(600+ Jy)
P1 = 0.85 since f" < 30 MPa
= 0 7 0.85(20.7)(0.85)(600)
Pmax .
5
4J4(600 + 414}
Pmax = 0.016
Compare with p = As/bd
p = 2211/ (813 X 300)
p = 0.00907
P < Pmax (OK}
Pmin = 1.4/ Jy
Pmin ~ 1.4/414
Pmin = 0.0034
Compare with p = As/ bwd
p = 2211/ (200 X 300)
p = 0,.037
p > Pmin (OK)
Therefore; As = 2211 mm2
PROBLEM 3.3
Desizn aT-beam for a floor system for which bw = 300 mm and d = 550 mm.
The beams are 4.8 m long and spaced at 3 m o.c. The slab thickness is 100
mm. Mv = 400 kN-m (including its own weight), ML = SOO kN-m. fc = 28
MPa,fy = 414 MPa.
SOLUTION
Span length of beam, L = 4.8 m
Slab thickness, t = 100 mm
Center-to-center spacing, Soc = 3 m
Beam width, bw = 300 mm
The effective flange width is the smallest of the following:
(a) L/4 = 4.8/4 = 1.2 m
(b) 16t + bw = 16(100) + 300 = 1900 mm
(c) Soc= 3m
Use bt= 1.2 m = 1200 mm
[M, = 1.4 Mv + 1.7 ML]
M, = 1.4(400) + 1.7(500)
M, = 1410 kN-m
Assuming that the entire flange is in compression:
[C1 = 0.85 /cAt]
c1 = o.85(28)(1200 x 1oo)
c1 = 2,856,ooo N
[M,1 = q, c1 (d- t/2)]
M,1 = 0.90(2,856,000)(550 -100/2)
= 1,285,200,000 N-mm
M,1 = 1,285 kN-m < M, (therefore; a > f)
1200
0.85 f'c
T[j
-+---a- L_o r ~ c, !45H2
-L--.I.---tAs 0 '
300
100
[M, = Mut + Mu2]
Mu2=Mu-Mut
= 1410-1285
M,2 = 125 kN-m
[M,2 = c1> C2 (450 - zl2)]
M.a = cj> 0.85 /c bw Z (450- zl2)
125 x 106 = 0.90(0.85)(28)(300)(z)(450- O.Sz)
0.5z2- 450z + 19,452 = 0
450 ~ r - ( --45-0......,)
2
:---4-(o_.s_)(-19-4-52-)
z = - - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~ - - ~
2(0.5)
z=45.5mm
a= 100 + z = 145.5
c = al13t = 145.510.85
c=171mm
c2 = 0.85 fcbw z
= 0.85(28)(300)(45.5)
c2 = 324,870 N
c = c1 + c2 = 2,856,ooo + 324,870
C = 3,180,870 N
Assuming steel yields (f. = fy)
[T=q Asjy=C
As (414) = 3,180.870
As = 7,683 mm
2
Check for maximum and minimum requirements:
Pmin= 1.41/y
= 1.41414
Pmin = 0.0034
Compare with p =As I bwd
p = 7683 I (300 X 550)
p = 0.0466 > Pmin (OK)
As max = 0.75 Asb
. _ 0.85/', [bf t+(a-t)bwl
As mox- 0.75 - - - - - - ' ' - - - - ~ -
' 600d
a-A-----
- 1-'l /y +600
/y .
CHAPTER 3- T-BEAMS AND OOUBL Y REINFORCED BEAMS
a =
0
_
85
600(550)
414+ 600
a= 277 > t
1\. = 0 75 0.85 (28) [1200 (100) + (277 -100)(300)]
smax ,
400
As max = 7,724 > 7,683 (OK}
Therefore; use A
5
= 7,683 mm
2
PROBLEM 3.4
101
Determine the ultimate moment capacity of a reinforced concrete: T-beam
with the following properties: Flange width b = 1500 mm, web width bw =
250 mm, effective depth d = 600 mm, steel area As = 3750 mm2, slab thickness
t = 100 mm. Assume [c = 20.7 MPa and fy = 345 MPa.
SOLUTION
Solve for the area of concrete under
compression, Ac:
[C= 7]
0.85 {c Ac = Asfy
0.85(20.7} Ac = 3750(345}
Ac = 73,529 mm
2
Flange area, At= 1500(100) = 150,000 mm
2
Thus, a< t
Ac = 1500 a = 73,529
a=49mm
M11 = 121 T (d- a/2}
= 121 Asfy (d- a/2)
= 0.90(3750)(345)(600- 49/2)
= 670.1 x 106 N-mm
M11 = 670.1 kN-m
b = 1500 mm
t = 100 mm
0 0 0
0 0 0 A,; = 3750
bw = 250 mm
PROBLEM 3.5
Determine the permissible moment capacity of the T -beam shown in Figure 3.4.
Assume fc = 20.7 MPa and fy = 345 MPa.
102 mm
Figure 3.4
SOLUTION
As = f (28)2 X 6
As=3695mm2
6-28 mm
Assume steel yields:
1520 mm
255 mm
[C = 1] 0.85 f', Ac =Ash
0.85(20.7) Ac = 3695(345)
Ac = 72,451 mm
2
Flange area, At= 1520(102)
Flange area, At= 155,040 mm
2
>A,
Thus, a falls within the flange (a < t)
A, = 1520 x a = 72,451
a=47.7mm
c = a/13t
c=56mm
d-e
Steel stress, f. = 600 --
c
( = 600 610-56
)S 56
f. = 5936 MPa > fy (Steel yields)
M, = cp C (d- a/2)
= cp 0.85 f',A, (d- a/2)
= 0.90(0.85}(20.7)(72,451)(610- 47.7 /2)
M, = 672,488,612 N-mm = 672.49 kN-m
610 mm
l
3- T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
J03
PROBLEM3.6
A reinforced concrete has an effective flange width of 750 mm with a
slab thickness of 100 nun. The effective depth _is 750 nun and the width of
web is 350 mm. The be<!Jll is reiriforced with 6325 mm
2
ofsteel-with fy =: 345
MPa: Assumi.pgfc = 20.7 calcUlate the ultimate moment capacity.
SOLUTION
Solve for the area of concrete under compression:
Assume yields:
[C= t) .
0.85 / c'Ac = A.jy
0.85(20.7) Ac = 6,325(345)
Ac = 124,020 mm2
Flange area, A1 = 750(100)
A1 = 75,00Q mm
2
< Ac
Thus part of a lies on the web
[Ac =At+ A:Z]
. 124,020 = 75,000 + 350 z
z=140mm
a= 100 + z
a =.240 mm
c =a
= 240/0.85
. c=282mm
d-e
Steel stress, f.=
c
= 600 750- 282
282 '
' '
Steel Is = 996 MPa > 345 MPa (steel yields)
104
M,1 = ~ c1 (700)
= 0.9d(0.85)(20.7)(75000)(700)
= 831,363,750 N-mm
M,1 = 831.36 kN-m.
M,2 = ~ C2 (650- z/2)
. REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
. = 0.90(0.85)(20.7)(350 X 140)(650- 140/2)
=450,044,910.N-mm
M,a = 450.04 kN-m
M,=M,I +Mu2 .
M, = 1,281.4 kN-m
PROBLEM 3.7
Comp..:te the permissible ultimate moment capacity for the T-beam shown
in Figure3.5.Assumefy = 345 MPa andfc =20.7 MPa.
SSOmm
llOmm
. Figure3.s
6-32 mm
300 mrn
SOLUTION
A, = t (32)2 X 6
A, = 4,825 mm
2
Solving for the area of concrete under compression:
Assume steel yields;
. [C = 71 . .
0.85 /c Ac ""A,fy
0.85(20.7)Ac = 4825(345)
i\c = 9 4 , ~ 6 0 8 mm
2
'
Flangearea, At= 550(110) .
Flange area, At= 60,500 mm
2
< Ac
1
thus a > t
A1 =At= 60,50Q
94,608 = 60(500 + 300 z
. z=114mm
a= 110 + z
a=224mm
, c =
c=224/0.85
c=264mm
Is= 600 d-e
' c
= 600 600- 264
264
. /s = 764 MPa > fy (OK)
M,1 = c1 (545) ,
'= 0.85 /c A1 (545)
= 0.90(0.85)(i0.7)(60500)(545)
= 522,136,024 N-mm
Mu1 = 522,14 kN-m
Mu2 = C2 (490- z/2)
= 0.85 /c bw z (490- zo/2)
Mul
= 0.90(0.85)(20.7)(300)(114}(490 -114/2)
c= 234,501,585 N-mm
M,2 = 234.5 kN-m
M,=M,l
= 522.14 +234.5
M, ,;. 756:64 kN-m
105
Mu2
10 . ',
REINFORCED CONCRETE DE$1GN
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM
Occasionally, beams ,are restricted in small sizes by space or aesthetic
requirements t<? such extent that the compressipn concreteshould be reinforced'
with :;teel .to carry compression. C::ompression reinforcement is needed to
increase the moment capacity of a beam beyond that of a tensilely reinforced
beam with a maximumsteel percentage of 0.75pb. Aside from these reasons,
compression reinforcement ,makes .beams tough and ductile and.reduces long-
time deflection of beams.
Compression steel also helps the be.am withstand stress reversals that might
occur during earthquakes. Continuous compression bars are also helpful for
positioning stirrups and keeping them in place during concrete placement and
vibration. Various tests show that compression reinforcement also prevents the .
beam to even if the compression concrete crushes especially if it js
enclosed by stirrups:
According to Sectibn 5:7.10 of NSCP, compression steel in beams must be
enclosed by lateral ties, at least 10 :mm in size for longitudinal bars 32 mm or
smaller, and at least 12 m:m in size for 36 mmand bundled bars. Deformed wire
ot welded wire fabric ofequivalent area is allowed. The spacing of these ties
shall not exceed 16Iongittidinal bar di11-meters, 48 tie bar or wire diameters, or
, least of the compression meinber.
ANALYSIS OF DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM
Doubly reinforced beam is analyzed by- dividing the beam into two couples M,,
and M,2asshown in Figure 3.6. M"1 is the couple due to compression concrete
and the part of the tension steel As1, M,2 is the couple due to the compression
steel A's and the otherpartof the tension steel area As2
1!!111 =
Mu
figure 3.6
.CtlAPTER 3- TBEAMS DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
107 .:
Compression reinforcement is pro':1ded to ensure ductiie failure (i.e. tension
steel must yield). For this reason, therefore, the stress in tension steel (As) is
always equal to jy. On the other. hand, the stress of compression steel (A's ) may
either be fy or below fy. This stress must always be checked.
If the compression steeL yields, then A's = A.z, otherwise A's = t\sz hi f ., wherefs
' is the stress of compression steel and is given by the following equation.
(see in page 108)
/s 600 C - d' ..
. c .
Eq. 3 4 . I
According to Section 5.10.3.3 . of NSCP, for members . with compression
reinforcement, the portion of Ph equalized by compression reinforcement need .
not be by the 0.75 factor. Thus, the maximumpermissibleAs is:
._ .. _- . . f 's
As max- 0.75 Pbbd +A . - --
. ... .'. . /y .
The expression 0.75. =As1 and A's = As2
' . ' . . /y
STEPS TO COMPUTE As ANDA'
5
OF A DOUB,LY
BEAM, GIVEN Mu AND OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES
I. Solve for Pmax and M,i.max
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
P
.;,
075
o.85f'cP
1
(600) =p
max . . . , /y (600+/y)
rp=pfyjf, = __
M, ma'x"" /c (I) b (12 (1- 0:59ro)
If M, .s; M, max design <;iS Singly Reinforced
'(See Page 34)
Eq. 3-5
I
If M,; > M,. design as Doubly Reinforced (proceed .to step II)
II. M;, > M, max
= Mul
Figure 3.7
Solve for As1
Ast = Pmax b d
Solve for M,1, M,2 and As2
M,t =M,max
M,;2 = M, - M,t
= <P T2 (d- If') .
I
M,2 = cjl As2fy (d- de)
As2=--
III. Solve for .the stress of compression steel
Solve for a and c: .
[Ct="Tt] 0.85fcab=A,,fy
a=
a= ~ 1 c
c=
!
' /E . 0.003
1
s . s ---
c-d' c
[s =.600 C ~ d ' ,
If /s?. fy proceed to step IV
If /s < fy, proceed to step V
' ' . '
d-d'
Tz = A.z fy
. + Mu2
e's = f Jf.;
CHAPTER 3 - T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
IV. fs ~ Jy then use [s = Jy (compressibn steel yields)
A's =As2
V. [s < Jy, then use [s (compression .steel will not yield) .
. A' =A /y
.s s2 J's
, . I .
j 5fEP5 IN <:OMPUJING Mu OF A ,DOI)BLY REINFORCED BEAM
' WITH GIVEN As, A's, AND OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES
d- a/2
1
Mu
=
Mul +
I. Assume compression steel yields if's = fy)
Asz=A's=_._
Asl =As- As2 = __ .
II. Solve fQr a and c:
[C1 = T1] 0.85 [ cab= AsJjy
a=
a.= P1 c
c=
III. Solve for the stres!> in compression steel
r. = 6oo c -a ..
c
If fs ~ Jy, proceed to step IV
Iff s < jy, proceed to s t ~ p V
Cz =A's f's
d -d'
____L.
109
110
IV, Since /s ~ fy, tompressidn _steel yields
M,=M,l +M,z _
= $ T1 (d- a/2) + $ h(d- d') .
M, = + Ast/r,(d- a/2) + + A,2jy(d- d').
V. If fs < fy, assumption is wrong, compression steel does ll;Ot yield .
. c-a
fs=900-.-
- ' c
From the stress diagram: ~ -
[Cl + c2 = T]
0.85 /r ab +A',fs = Adv
- . , ' c-d' ..
0 ~ 8 5 /c Jl1 C b +As 600-- = Asfv
c .
Solvefor cby quadraticformula.
. c-d'
Solve for f" fs == 600-- = -- - . __
. c . .
Solve for a, a = P1 c = - . _.
Solve for M,:
M,=M,n+M,.z
= $ C1 (d- at2.) + $ C2(d - ,d')
M, = + 0.85 f, ab (d - -il/2) + + A',fs (d- d')
CHAPTER 3- T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BI;AMS
111
DEEP BEAMS
According to section 5.10.7.1 of the Code, beams with overall depth to clear
span ratios greater than2/5 for continuous spans, or 4/5 for simple spans, shall
be. designed as deep flexural taking into account nonlinear
distribution of strain and lateral buckling.
Beams with web depth that exceed 900 :rruh have a tendency to develop
excessive wide cracks in the upper parts of their tension zones: According to
Section of NCSP, if the depth of a web exceeds 900 mm,longitudinal
skin reinforcement shall be . uniformly distributed along both side faces of the
member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area
of skin reinforcement Ask per meter of height on each side face shall be
1.016 (d- 750) Eq. 3-6
The maximum spacing of the skin reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser of
d/ b and 300 mm. . Such reinforcement may be in strength
computations if a strain cpmpatibility analysis is made determine stresses in
the individual bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in
both faces need not exceed one-half of the required flexural tensile
reinforcement.
112
Problem 3.8
Design a rectangular beam to carry a factored moment of 272 kN-m. The
beam width is b = 250 mm and its .effective depth is d = 400 mm. Usefy =
344.7 MPa andfc = 20.7 MPa. Used'= 60 mm.
'
Solution
Solve for Prnax and M, max
[Pmax = 0.75 Pb]
= 0 75
Pmax . . /y (
6
00 + /y)
. = 0.75 0.85(20.7)(0.85)(600)
344.7(600 +
Pmax = 0.0207 ,; p
[ro = p /y]
J'c
0.0207(344.7)
0) = __
20.7
0) = 0.3447
[M, max ,; 41 /'c robd2 (1 - 0.59ro )]
M, m:x = 0.90(20.7)(0.3447)(250.){400)2[1 - 0.59{0.3447)]
= 204,629,928 N-mm
M, max =' 204.63 kN-m < M,
Since M, > M, maXI compression reinforcement is necessary
T1 = As1 fv
=
Mul +
Solve for As1:
Asr= Pmax bd
= 0.0207(250)(400) .
Asr = 2070 mm
2
Solve for Mut and M,z:
Mul =Mumax
M,r = 204.63 kN-m
M,z=M,.-M,r
== 272-204.63
M,.2 = 67.37 kN-m
Check if compression steel yields:
Solve for a and c:
[Cr = Tr]
0.85lca b = Asr/Y
1

0.85(20.7)a(250) = 2070(344.7)
a= 162.21 mm
[a= ~ t c]
162.21 = 0.85c
c=191mm
c-d'
Is= 600-- See :Eq. 3-4
c
=600 191-60
191
Is= 412 MPa >fy
Therefore compression steel yields. and use A ' = As2
Mu2 = 0 Tz (d - d')
M,z = "As2fy (d- d')
67.37 x 106 = 0.90 Asz (344.7)(340)
Asz= 639mm
2
Compression steel area, A's = As2 == 639mm
2
Tension steel area, As = Ast + A
5
2 = 2,070 + 639
Tension steel area, As= 2,709 mm
2
113
114
. . . .
REINFORCEO CONCRETE OEIGN
Problem 3. 9
l)esign a rectangular beam to resist a dead . load of 200 kN-m
(including its own weight) and a live load. moment of 300 kN-m. The size of
the beam is limited to 375 x 600 riun. Steelccrirering (from bar centroid to
outermost fiber) is 100 mm for both tension and compression bars. Use f c =
27.5 MPa arid grade 60 steel with fy = 414 MPa.
Solution
[Mu=1.4MoL +1.7MLL]
' M
11
1.4(200) + 1.7(300)
M"=790kN-m
Solve for M,; max:
[Pmax = 0.7;;pb]
0.75 0.85 J'c pl (600)
/y(600+ !y)
= 0.75 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600)
. . 414(600+ 414)
Pm;x= O.Q21
[ro = p /y ]
. f'c
0.021(414)
(l) = ,.....----''--..:..
27.5
(l) = 0.316
[Ru =fc ro (1- 0.59ro)J
R11 = 27.5(0.316)[1 - 0.59(0.316)]
R,, = 7.07 MPa
. b=375mm
d = 600 .;..100
d;= 500 rruil ' .
Mu ni.x = 0.90(7.07){375)(500)2
= N-mm
Mil max =.596.53. kN-ri\ < M11
Since Mu > [v1,. max, compression reinforcement is necessary . ..
CHAPTER 3- T-BEAIII!S AND DOUBLY REINFORC!=D BEAMS .
A.= Ast +As2
A ~ 1 = P m a ~ bd
,;, 0.021(375)(500)
A,, = 3,938 mm2
Solving fot A,2:.
[M,,l = M, max]
M,1 = 596.53 kN-m
[M,2 = M,- M,t]
M,.2 = 790 - 596.53
,Ma = 193.47 kN-m
[M,2 = 0 ;T2 (d - d')] . .
Mu2 = 0 As2fy (d- d')
Mul
193.47 x 106 = 0.90 As2 {414}(500 -100}
Asl = 1,298 mm
2

Tension steel area, A, = As1 + As2
A, = 3,938 + 1,298
As = 5,236 mm
2
Compression steel:
Solving for a and c:
[C1 = T1]
0.85 fc a b = Astfy
. 0.85(27.5)(a)(375,) =3}J38(414)
a=186mm
[a= P1 c]
186.= 0.85c
c= 219mm
+
us
Tz = .A.z fy
116
Solve for [s:
c-d'
[.=600--
c
f
= 600 219-100
s 219
[s = 326 MPa < .fy
, Therefore, compression will not yield.
[C2 = T2]
1
A 'sf s = As2.fy
A 's (326} = 1298 (414);
Compression steel area, A\ = 1,648 mm2
Problem 3.10
Deterntine the permissible moment capacitY of the shown in
Figure 3.8, where[ c = 20.7 MPa and .fy = 345 MPa.
Figure 3.8
Solution
' A. = t (36)2 X 4,
As = 4,072 mm2
A'. =. t (28)2 X 2
A',= 1,232 mm
2

I;,
'
. CHAPTER 3- T-BEAMS AND DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAMS
Assume compression steel yields (f, =fy)
As2 = A', = 1,232 mm
2
' Ast = As - Asz
= 4,072 - 1,232
= 2,840
(Ct = Tt]
0.85f. ab = Asth
0.85(20.7) a (350) = 2840(345)
a= 159mm
[a= Pt cf
159 = 0.85c
c= 187mm
Verify if assumption is co,rrect using Eq. 3 "4:
[s = 600
c
=600 187-60
187
117
. f;= 107 MPa > fy (Compression yields. Assumption correct)
IT
a
0
L
L
Mu =.Mut + fyf112
=
= $ Tt (d- a/2) + $ T2 (d- d')
= $A
8
fy (d- aj2) + $Aszfy (d d')
d-d'
+ Mu2
= 0.90(2,840)(345)(600 -159/2) + 0.90(1,232)(345)(600-: 60)
= 665,556,750
M,. = 665.56 kN-m
118
REINFORCED DESIGN
Problem 3.11
Determine the permissible flexural capacity of the T-beam shown in Figure.
3.9 whose fli;lnge is in tension. Use fy.: 345 MPa andfc ;_ 20.7 MPa.
5-32 nim
Figure 3.9
Solution
As = { (32)2 X 5
. As = 4,021 mm
2
A's = f (28)2 x'2
A's = mm
2
SOO'mm
Assume compression steel yields, ifs = fy)
As2 = A's. = 1,232 mm2
A =Asl + As2
= 4,021 - 1,232
As1 = 2,789 mm
2
. '
[C1 = T1]'
0.85 f, ab = As1jy
0.85(20.7) a (200).= 2,789(345)
a= 273 mri1
c =
. . . c = 273/0.85 ..
c= 321 mm
, ..
Solve'for the stress of ccm1pression steel, Is:
Is = 600 C- d' . .
c
=.600 321-70
321
600 mm
Is = 469 MPa > f (yielq,assumption correct)
Mu=M .. t +M .. 2
= cP Tt (d- a/2) + cP T2 (d- d')
= cP Astfy (d- a/2) + cP As2fy (d- d')
= 0.90(2,789)(345)(500- 273/2) + 0.90(1,232)(345)(430)
.= 479,275,846 N-m
M .. = 479.28 kN-m
Problem 3. 12
119
Determine the permissible ultimate moment capacity of the beam shown in
3.10. Use fy = 345 MPa and f, = 27.5 MPa.
A's = 775 mm
2
Figure 3.10
As= 3625 mm
2
Solution
Assume compression steel yields: (j' s = fy and As2 =A's)
As2=A's = 775 mm
2
Ast =As- As2
Ast = 3265 - 775
Ast = 2,490 Inm
2
[Ct = Tt]
0.85 [cab= Astfy
0.85(27.5)a(350) = 2490(345)
a=105mm
c =
c = 105/0.85
c= 123.5mm
120
Check if compression steel yields:
f, = 600 c -d'
c
f = 600 123.5- 63
123.5
f, = 294 MPa <Jy
Therefore, compression steel does not yield.
o.s5 r,
63
lc2 =A', f, ----.,--
C, = o.asr, ab j
g
1.0
600- a/2
0 --- -- +-_,_.._.1
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
f, = 600 c-d'
' c
[s =: 600 C - 63
c
From the stress diagram:
[T = C, + C2]
A,fy,= 0.85fca b + A',f,
a == ~ , c
a= 0.85c
3265(345) = 0.85(27.5)(0.85c)(350) + 775 x 600 c-
63
c
162c = c
2
+ 66.87c- 4213
c2- 95.13c- 4213 = 0
95.13 ~ , . . . - ( --9-5.1_3_)
2
---4-(1-)(--4-2-13-)
c = __ ___.!....:.._ _ __;_ _ __;___;_ _ _;__
c == 128 mm
a = 0.85(128)
a= 108.8 mrn
2(1)
537
j
. 128-63
Stress of compressiOn steel, f 5 = 600 ---
128
f5 = 304.7 MPa < 345 MPa (does not yield)
d-e
Stress of tension steel, fs = 600--
c
( = 600 600-128
)
5
128
fs = 2,213 MPa > fy (yield)
M,. = 0 C1 (d- a/2) + 0 C2 (d- d')
M,= 0 0.85fcab (d- a/2) + 0A'5f5 (d- d')
M,. = 0.90(0.85)(27.5)(108.8)(350)(600 -108.8/2)
+ 0.90(775)(304.7)(600- 63)
= 551.2 x 1()6 N-mm
M,. = 551.2 kN-m
Let's try to solve for As max:
As max= 0.75 Pb bd + A's(/'5/.fy)
A = 0.75 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600) (350){600) + 775{304.7/345)
5
max 345{ 600 + 345)
As max= 6443.5 > 3265 {OK)
121
122
Problem 3.13
The T-beam shown is to resist a factored moment of 805 kN-m. Design the
tension steel requirements assumingfy = 344.8 MPa and f c = 20.7 MPa.
1100 mm
lOOmm
T
700 mm
Figure 3.11
_j_
Problem 3.14
In Problem 3.13, design the beam with M" = 1500 kN-m.
Problem 3.15
Determine the permissible ultimate moment of the T-beam shown. Use fy = 276
MPa and f c = 28 ~ P a .
900 mm
100 mm
450 mm
~ = 3985 mm
2
1
300 mm
123
Problem 3.16
In Problem 3.15, calculate the permissible ultimate moment with A,= 9400 mm2.
Problem 3.17
Design a 300 mm x 500 mm rectangular beam to carry a dead load moment of 80
kN-m (including its own weight) and a live load moment of 90 kN-m. Assume
concrete over (measured from bar centroid) to be 70 mm in compression and 80
mm in tension. Use fy = 345 MPa and [ c = 27.6 MPa.
Problem 3.18
Design a 350 mm x 500 mm rectangular beam to resist a factored moment of 630
kN-m. Assume concrete(pver (measured from bar centroid) to be 70 mm in
compression and 80 fi11 in tension. Use jy = 345 MPa and [ c = 27.6 MPa.
Problem 3.19 (CE Board November 2001)
A reinforced concrete rectangular beam has a width of 300 mm and an effective
depth to bottom bars of 450 mm. The beam is reinforced with six 32-mm bottom
bars and two 28-mm top bars located 65 mm from the top of the beam. Concrete
strength fr = 34.5 MPa and steel strength Jy = 345 MPa. Calculate the ultimate
moment capacity of the beam.
Problem 3.20
Calculate the permissible ultimate moment capacity of the beam shown in the
figure. Use jy = 415 MPa and [c = 34.5 MPa.
A's = 1850 mm
2
As= 4820 mm
2
80 r'nm
E
E E
E o
0
,.._
124
REINFORCED CONCRETE DES191'i
CHAPTER 4- SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION
125
Chapter 4
S h e ~ a r and Diagonal Tension
GENERAL
Another type of beam failure other than bending is shear failure. Shear failures
are very dangerous especially if it happens before flexure failure because they
can occur without warning. To avoid shear failure, the Code provides
permissible shear values that have larger safety factors compared to bending
failure, thus ensuring ductile type of failure.
(a) Shear failure of beam without stirrup or shear
reinforcement
(b) Shear failure of beam stirrup or shear reinforcement
Figure 4.1: Shear failure in beams
Without stirrup, there is nothing to stop the concrete from splitting due to
diagonal tension as in Figure 4.1 (a). Stirrups prevent this occurrence especially
if they are closely spaced as in Figure 4.1 (b).
126
T Y P ~ S OF SHEAR FAILURE
Sheat failures on location of the load applied relative to the nearest reaction,
known as the shear span. Shear failure may be (a) diagonal tension failure, (b)
shear-compression failure, and (c) splitting or true shear failure.
Diagonal Tension Failure
Diagonal tension failure usually occur when the shear span is greater than
3d or 4d.
Shear span > 2d
p
Shear-Compression Failure
Shear-compression failure occurs when the shear span is from d to 2.5d.
Shear span
p
Splitting or True Shear Failure
Splitting failure occurs when the shear span is less than the effective depth
d.
Shear
span
p
CHAPTER 4- SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION
127
BASIC CODE REQUIREMENTS
The basic Code requirement (Sec. 5.11.1) on shear strength is that the factored
shear force V" shall be equal or less than the design shear 0V,, or
._L ___ ~ _________ v" ~ 121V11 Eq. 4-1
where 121 = 0.85 and
VII= Vc + Vs Eq. 4-2
For a beam with no web reinforcement, the shearing force that causes the first
diagonal cracking can be taken as the shear capacity of the beam. For a beam
that does contain web reinforcement, the concrete is assumed to carry a constant
amount of shear force Vc, and the web reinforcement need only be designed for
the shear force V
5
in excess of that carried by the concrete, or
Vs =VII- Vc Eq. 4-3
The amount of shear Vc that can be carried by concrete at ultimate is at least
equal to the amount of shear that would cause diagonal cracking. The amount
of shear provided by the reinforcement Vs is calculated using the truss analogy
with a 45 inclination of the diagonal members.
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE, Vc
FOR NONPRESTRESSING MEMBERS
5.11.3.1 Shear strength V, shall be computed by provisions of Sec. 5.11.3.1.1
through 5.11.3.1.4, unless a more detailed calculation is made in accordance
with Sec. 5.11.3.2.
5.l1.3.1.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only,
Eq. 4-4
5.11.3.1.2 For members subject to axial compression.
Vc= [ 1 + ~ ] [fj';]b,.,d
14Ag 6
Eq. 4-5
Quantity N" I A
8
shall be expressed in MPa.
128
5.11.3.1.3 For members subject to significant axial tension, shear
reinforcement shall be designed to carry total shear.
5.11.3.1.4 At sections where factored torsional moment T
11
exceeds

_v_ J_ '' Exz y
20 '
Eq. 4-6
Shear strength V, may be computed by the more detailed calculation of
Sec. 5.11.3.2.1 through 5.11.32.3.
5.11.3.2.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only,
Eq. 4-7
but not greater than 0.3 [f; b ... d. Quantity V11 dj M11 shall not be taken greater
than 1.0 in computing V, by Eq. 4 - 7, where M,. is factored moment occurring
simultaneously with V,. at section considered.
5.11.3.2.2 For members subject to axial compression, Eq. 4 - 7 may be used to
compute Vc with M
111
substituted for M11 and V11 dj M11 not then limited to 1.0,
where
4h-d
Mm=M
11
-N
11
--
8
However, Vc shall not be taken greater than
Vc - 0.3 V j c "' 1 + --
- lf' b
. Ag
Eq. 4-8
Eq. 4-9
Quantity N, / A
8
shall .be expressed in MPa. When Mm as computed by Eq. 4 - 8
is negative, Vc, shall be computed by Eq. 4- 9.
CHAPTER 4 -SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION
129
5.11.3.2.3 For members subject to significant axial tension,
Eq. 4 - 10
where N, is negative for tension. Quantity N,j A
8
shall be expressed in MPa.
In the foregoing, J7': is in MPa and shall not exceed 0.7 MPa except as
provided by Section 5.11.1.2.1, bw is the width of web in mm, d is the effective
depth in nun, and Pw ~ As/ bwd.
SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY REINFORCEMENT
When factored shear force V, exceeds strength q, Vc, shear reinforcement shall be
provided to satisfy Eq. 4 - 1 and Eq. 4 - 2. The shear strength provided by the
stirrups is given by the following but shall not be taken greater than i J7': b"'
d.
(a) When shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis of member is used,
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within a distance s.
Av = 2 Ab for a U stirrup (see Figure 4.2)
(b) When inclined stirrups are used as shear reinforcement,
Avf y (sin a+ cos a)d
Vs = _ ___::. _____ _
s
Eq. 4-11
Eq. 4-12
where a is the angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal axis of member.
(c) When shear reinforcement consist of a single bar or a single group of
parallel bars, all bent up at the same distance from the support,
Eq. 4-13
130
Derivation of Eq. 4 -11:
The shear force to be carried by reinforcement, V, is equal to the total shear
resistance of the bars within a distance d.
Vs = (Avfy) X n
Av = cross section area each stirrup has crossing the crack
n = number of stirrups within a distanced, = !!:._
. s
d Av /y d
Vs = Avfy -,,then Vs = -----''----
5 s
TYPES OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
According to Section 5.11.5.1 of the Code, shear reinforcement may consist of:
a) stirrups perpendicular to axis of member, and
b) welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to axis of member.
For nonprestressed members, shear reinforcement may also consist of:
a) stirrups inaking an angle of 45 or more with longitudinal tension
reinforcement,
b) longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion making an angle of 30 or
more with the longitudinal tension reinforcement,
c) combinations of stirrups and bentlongitudinal reinforcement, and
d) spirals.
DESIGN YIELD STRENGTH OF STIRRUPS
According the Section 5.11.5.2. the design yield strength of shear reinforcement
shall n0t'exceed 415 MPa. Stirrups and other bars or wires used as shear
reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from extreme compression fiber and
shall be anchored at both ends to develop the design yield strength of
reinforcement.
CHAPTER 4 - SHEAR AND DIAGONAL TENSION
131
(a) A.= 2Ab (b) A, = 2Ab (c) Av = 4Ab
(d) A.= 2Ab
Figure 4.2: Types of stirrups
SPACING UMITS OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT, s
According to Section 5.11.5.4 of the Code, the spacings of shear reinforcement
placed perpendicular to axis of members shall not exceed d/2 in nonprestressed
members and (3/4)h in prestressed members, nor 600 mm. Inclined stirrups and
bent longitudinal reinforcement shall be so spaced that every 45 line, extending
toward the reaction from middepth of member d/2 to longitudinal tension
reinforcement, shall be crossed by at least one line of shear reinforcement
When V, exceed t .[1'; bw d maximum spacing given by the above limits shall
be reduced by one-half.
MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
According to Section 5.11.5.5 of the Code, a mmnnum area of shear
reinforcement shall be provided in all reinforced concrete flexural members
(prestressed and nonprestressed) where factored shear force V;, exceeds one-half
the shear strength provided by concrete cp V., , except:
(a) Slabs and footings
(b) Concrete joist construction defined by Sec. 5.8.11
(c) Beams with total depth not greater than 250 mm, 2-% times thickness of
flange, or V2 the width of web, whichever is greatest.
132
This minimum shear reinforcement requirement may not be required if shown
by test that required nominal flexural and shear strengths can be developed
when shear reinforcement is omitted. Such tests shall simulate effects of
different settlement, creep, shrinkage, and temperature change, based on a
realistic assessment of such effects occurring in serv1ce.
Where shear reinforcement is required, the minimum area of shear
reinforcement shall be computed by .
Eq. 4-14
where bw and s are in millimeters.
cRITICAL SECTION FOR _BEAM SHEAR
According to section 5.11.1.3 of NSCP, the maximum factored shear force V,. at
supports may be computed in accordance with the following conditions
provided that:
.
(a) the support reaction, in direction of the applied shear, introduces
compression into the end regions of member, and
(b) no concentrated load occurs between the face of the support and the
location of the critical section.
1. For m;m-presp-essed members, sections located less then a distanced from .
face of support may be designed for the same shear . v, as that computed at
a distance d.
133
2. For prestressed member, sections located less than a distance h/2 from face
of support may be designed for the same shear V, as that computed at a
distance h/2.
STEPS IN VERTICAL STIRRUP DESIGN
I. Calculate the factored shear force V, at critical sections defined in Page
132, or at any section you want the spacing to be determined.
II. Calculate the shear strength provided by concrete, Vc.
Vc = t ..[1': bw d (or using Eq. 4 -7)
If Vu > + Vc, stirrups are necessary, proceed to Set IV ..
If V, < + Vc but V, > 1f2 + Vc, proceed to step VI (Sec. 5.11.5.5.1)
If V, < 1f2 + Vc, stirrups are not needed
~ I f f Calculate the shear strength v. to be provided by the stirrup.
1. Vn=Vu/tP r
2. V. = V.- Vc = V,J+- Vc
If v. ~ f .Jf; bwd, proceed to Step V (Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
If v. > f .Jf; bwd, adjust the size of the beam (Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
. - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - ~ - .. ;.. " ' .. - - ~ ' .'
( /;I , I (\ ' /11 I
V. Spacing of stirrups:
Spacing, s = Av /y d; See Figure 4,2 in Page131 for the value of Av.
vs
If s < 25 mm, increase the value of Av by either using a
bigger bar size or adding more shear area.
134
Maximum spacing, s:
(a) When Vs ~ t fj'; bw d, Smax = d/2 or 600 mm
(b) When V. > t fj'; bw d, Smax = dj 4 or 300 mm
VI. If Vu < $ Vc but Vu > V2 $ Vc:
M
. . f . A bws
1mmum area o stirrup, v = --
3/y
(Sect. 5.11.5.5.3)
where s = d/2 or 600 mm (whichever is smaller)
131
PROBLEM4.1
Determine the minimum cross section required for a rectangular beam from
a she&r standpoint so that no web reinforcement is required by the Code if
V, = 168 kN and f c = 27.6 MPa. Use Vc = t fj'; bd. Assumed= 1.75b.
SOLUTION
V,= 168kN
Vc = t .J27.6 bw d
Vc = 0.8756 bd (N)
q, Vc = 0.85(0.8756 bd)
q, Vc = 0.74426 bd
According to Section 5.11.5.5, shear reinforcement is necessary
only if V,f cjl >
1
12 Vo then
V, = lf2 <PVc
168,000 = 1/2(0.74426 bd)
bd = 451455 mm2
b(1.75b) = 451,455 mm2
b = 508 mm say 510 mm
d = 889 mm say 890 mm
PROBLEM 4.2 (CE BOARD)
;,. (
.
A reinforced concrete beam pas the following properties:
Beam width, b = 320 mm -
Effective depth, d = 640 mm .
Concrete strength,fc= 25 MPa ; '

If the lacrored shear IcifcEi"' at tne crTffcaTsec;tion is 200,000 N, compute the
nominal shear carried by the shear reinforcement according to the ACI
Specifications: Hint: Vc = 1/6 times the square root off c times b times d. Use
q, = 0.85
SOLUTION
\
l .
c
,.
(r . l -; (
The nominal shear capacity of the section is given by:
V, = Vc+ Vs
Vc = l fj'; bu, d
136
v, = t .fi5 (320)(640)
V, = 170,667 N
- vu
v,.- -.-.
$
v = 200,000
11
0.85
VII= 235,294 N
then, 235,294 = 170,667 + Vs
Vs = 64,627N
V. = 64.627 kN
PROBLEM 4.3 (CE BOARD)
vr1 (tl c{
\! C . { t h C ,L (_t.
l. _:- \ c + t 1'
\ / i J
; (' . i ' t \ j'
. -- . c
The required stirrup spacing for a 10 mm diametr ties in a reinforced
concrete beam with effective beam depth of 800 mm to carry the net shear of
83.8 kN, if Jy = 200 MPa, is nearest to:
SOLUTION
The required stirrup spacing is given by the formula;s = Avfyd
vs
Av = 2 X t (10)2
Av = 157.1 mm
2
V. = 83.8 kN
V. = x 10
3
f\!(net shear)
.s =
83.8x 10
3
s=300mm
\ '
/ r :

I
};
I
d : I
I . . { (I ,,
t
Note: We cannot check for maximum spacing because bw is not given.
137
PROBLEM4.4
A simply supported reinforced concrete beam with a width b of 230 mm
and an effective depth d of 500 mm has a span of 6 m. The beam carries a
live load of 18 kN/m and a dead load of 9 kNjm including its own weight.
10-mm diameter stirrups, determine the required spacing near the
support. Assumefy = 345 MPa andfc = 28 MPa.
SOLUTION
According to section 5.11.1.3.1 of
NSCP, sections located less than a
distance d from the face of support
may be designed for the same shear
V, as that computed at a distance d.
[w .. = 1.4DL + 1.7LL]
w, = 1.4(9) + 1.7(18)
w, = 43.20 kN/m
Reaction:
R =w,L/2
R = 43.2(6)/2
R= 129.6kN
V, = 129.6- w .. d
v, = 129.6- 43.2(0.50)
V, = 108kN
[Vr = t .{1'; bw d ]
Vc = t J28 (230)(500)
Vc = 101,420 N
Vc =101.42 kN
cjl Vc = 0.85(101.42)
cjl Vc = 86.207 kN
d
R ...----- L = 6m R
..

( f / . ... , . ; 11 /

1
. ( i . Cr I
!
: : ((""''I C l
Since V, > cjl Vc, web reinforcement is necessary.
V,.= Vc+ Vs
V,.= V .. jcjl
v, = 127.06
v. = 127.0Q- 101.42
Vs = 25.64 kN
qe
Check if the beam size is adequate for the required shear:
i J7': bwd = i .JiB (230)(500)
t J7': bw d = 405680 N
f J7': b,.,d = 405.68 kN > V, (OK)
Using vertical U stirrup:
Avfyd
s=--
Vs
Av = 2 X T (10)2
Av = 157.1
s = _15_7._;1('---34---'5)'-'-(5_00....:...)
25640
s= 1,056mm
Maximum stirrup spacing (Code requirement 5.11.5.4)
t ffc b,. d ~ t .fiB (230)(500)
t J7': b,., d = 202.84 kN
Since V, < t J7': bw d,
Smax = d/2 = 500/2 = 250 mm or
Smax= 600mm
Therefore; use s = 250 mm
PROBLEM 4.5
A rectangular beam with b = 350 mm and d = 600 mm is provided with 10-
mm vertical U stirrups withfy = 414 MPa. Assume /c = 20.7 MPa
a) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 62 kN.
b) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 380 kN.
c) Determine the requiTed stirrup spacing for V, = 710 kN.
SOLUTION
[Vc= t .[f; b,..dJ
Vc = t J20.7 (350)(600)
V,= 159240N
Vc = 159.24 kN
t 0 Vc = 1/2(0.85)(159.24)
t "Vc = 67.677 kN
t JTc b.,d = 2 .J20.7 (350)(600)
f JTc bwd = 636,961 N
f JTc b.,d = 636.961 kN
For V,=62kN
Since V,. < !0Vc, Stirrups are not needed
For V, = 380 kN
Since V, > t 0V
0
stirrups are needed
Design of stirrups:
[V,.= Vu]
$
v = 380
11
0.85
V, =447kN
[Vs= V,- Vc]
v. = 447 - 159.24
Vs = 287.76 KN
Vs = 287,760 N
Avfyd
[s= --]
vs
Av = 2 X f (10)2
Av = 157.1
157.1( 414)(600)
s = _ _ _ _ : . _ . . ; . . . . : _ ~
287,760
s= 135.6mm
Maximum spacing provided by the code:
t JTc bw d = t .J20.7 (350)(600)
t JTc bw d = 318,481 N
t JTc bu, d = 318.481 kN
139
140
since Vs < t ..{f;bw d, maximums= d/2 = 600/2 = 300 mm
Therefore; use 10-mm (#3) stirrup at 135 mm o.c.
For V, = 710 kN
Vs= V,- Vc
= Vu - Vc
cjl
=
710
- 159.24
0.85
Vs = 676.05 kN
Since Vs > ! .[!'; bw d, the beam size is not adequate
to carry the shear (Code Section 5.11.5.6.8)
PROBLEM4.6
Design the spacing of a 1 0 ~ m m U stirrups for the beam shown in Figure 4.3,
for which DL = 60 kN/m and LL = 87 kN/m. Usefc = 27.6 MPa andfy = 414
MPa.
f11111111 I I I I Ill II Ill! I I Ill! I I lUI I I !Ill I II Ill I I 1111 ~
L = 4.4 m
375mm
Figure4.3
T
E
.E
R
t.n
j_
SOLUtiON
w,. = 1.4(60) + 1.7(87)
w,. = 231.9 kN/m
R= WuL
~ 2
R = 231.9(4.4)
2
R=510.18kN
V, = t .[l';bwd
v, = t ' ./27.6 (375)(570)
V, = 187,158 N
Vc = 187.16 kN
cjl Vc = 159.086 kN
Factored shear near the support:
V, = R- w,.d
v,. = 510,18- 231.9(0.57)
V,. = 378 kN > cjl Vc
V,.jcp = 378/0.85
V,.j cjl = 444.7 kN
V. = V,jcp- V,
v. = 444.7- 187.16
Vs = 257.54 kN
Verify if the section is Cilfequate to carry the shear:
t .[l'; bw d = t ./27,6 (375)(570)
t jJ'; bw d = 748,634 N > Vs
Thus, the section is adequate to carry the shear.
Avfyd
[s = ]
v.
Av = f (10)
2
X 2
Av= 157inm
2
157(414)(570)
s = --'----'-'---'-
257,540
s = 144 mm
141
R
Maximum spafing:
t .Jl': bw d = 374,317 N
Since Vs < t .Jl': bw d
Smax = d/2 = 570/2
Smax = 285 nun or 600 nun
Use s = 144 nun o.c. near the supports
510.18 kN
'Xt
510.18-159.1 510.18
Xt = 1.51 m
x
2
2.2
__ !:,.___ =--
510.18 -79.5 510.18
x2 = 1.86m
@ 0. 9 m from
v .. = 510.18- 231.9(0.9)
V,. = 301.47 kN > V,
v.= v .. N- v,
v. = 301.47/0.85 -187.16
v. = 167.5kN
s!:: 157(414)(570)
167,500
s=221nun
Vu Diagram
Is not
needed w/ln
this range
@ 1.2 m from support:
v, = 510.18- 231.9(1.2)
V, = 231.9 kN > $Vc
v. = 231.9/0.85-187.16
V. = 85.66 kN
157( 414)(570)
s = - - - ' - ~ ' - - - - - ' -
85,660
S = 433 mm > Smax (use Smax = 285 mm)
Summary of spacing (symmetrical with the centerline)
Total
Spacing Length distance
from support
1 @70mm 70mm 70mm
7@140.mm 980mm 1050mm
1@220mm 220mm 1270mm
The rest @ 285 mm
1@ 70 7@ 140 1@ 220 @ 285
143
144
PROBLEM 4.7
Design the spacing of 10-mm U stirrups for the beam shown in Figure 4.4, if
fc = 20.7 MPa and fy = 275.8 MPa. The dead load shown includes beam
weight. Do not consider movement of load.
SOLUTION
R = 1/2[126(6) + 340]
R=548kN
Vc= t .[l';bwd
Vc = t . .J20.7 (350)(635}
Vc = i68,529 N
Vc = 168.53 kN
41 Vc = 0.85(168.53)
41 Vc = ~ 4 3 . 2 5 kN
Near the support:
Vu = 548 .:..126(0.635)
Vu = 468 kN > 41Vc
LL = 200 kN
350mm
Flgure4.4
Pu = 1.7(200) = 340 kN
Wu = 1.4(90) = 126 kN/m
R R
Vs"' V,J<jl- Vc
v. "'468/0.85- 168.53
Vs "' 382.06 kN
Verify if the section is adequate to carry the shear:
t .Jf: bw d"' t J20.7 (350)(635)
t .Jf: bw d"' 674,118 N > Vs (OK)
Avfy d
[s = ]
vs
Av = f {10)
2
X 2
Av"' 157mm
2
157(275.8)(635)
s = ---'----'-'-----'-
382,060 .
s"'72mm
Maximum spacing:
t .Jf: bw d = 337,059 N
Since Vs > t .[!'; bw d
Smax = d/4"' 635/4
Smax = 158.75 mm or 300 mm
Use s = 72 mm o.c.
. v, = 548 -126(0.90)
V, = 434;6 kN > <PVr
v. = 434.6/0.85- 168.53
Vs = 342.76 kN > t .[!'; bw d {Smax"' 158.75)
Avfyd
s = --"--
v.
s = _15_7(_,_27_5_.8)'-'-(6_35....:...)
342,760
s=80mm
v, = 548 - 126(1.2)
V, "' 3%.8 kN > <jl V,
145
Vs = 396.8/0.85- 168.53
Vs = 298.3 kN < t .[1': bw d (Smax = 317.5)
Av /y d
s = ---:.-"--
vs
s = _15_7_,_(2_7_5.-'-8)_,_(6_35-'--)
298,300
s = 92mm
Vu = 548 -126(1.8)
VII= 321.2 kN > +Vc
v. = 321.2/0.85- 168.53
V, = 209.35 kN < t .[1': bw d (Smax = 317.5)
Avfyd
s = ---=--
vs
157(275.8)(635)
s = - - ' - ' - - - ~ - ' - ' - - - - ' - -
209,350
s =131 mm
v, = 548 - 126(2.4)
Vu = 245.6 kN > +Vc
Vs = 245.6/0.85- 168.53
Vs = 120,41 kN < t .[1': bw d (Smax = 317.5)
Avfyd
s= --=-
Vs
157(275.8)(635)
s= .
120,410
s=228mm
@ 3 m from support:
v, = 548 - 126(3)
VII = 170 kN > + Vc
Vs = 170/0.85- 168.53
V
5
= 31.47 kN < t .[1': bw d . (Smax = 317.5)
Av /y d
s = _ ___.::__
vs
s = _15_7_,_(2_7_5.8....:;)_,_(6_35....:..)
31,470
s=873mm
Uses =317mm
Summary of spacing (symmetrical with the centerline)
Spacing
Length
Total distance
from support
1@35mm
35mm 100mm
13@70mm 910mm 945mm
4@80mm 320mm 1265mm
6@90mm 540mm 1805mm
5@130mm 650mm 2455mm
The rest at 225 mm
147
BRACKETS AND CORBELS (SECTION 5.11.9)
Brackets and corbels are members having a ratio of shear span to depth aj d of 1
or less. The shear span a is the distance from the point of load to the face of
support.
The depth of a bracket or corbel at its outer edge shall not be less than one-half
of the required depth d at the support. Reinforcement shall consist of main
tension bars with area As and shear reinforcement of area A
11
The shear
reinforcement shall consist of closed ties parallel to the tension reinforcement.
The area of the shear bars shall not be less than 0.5As or more than 1.0As, and
shall be uniformly distributed within 2/3 of the depth of the bracket adjacent to
the main tension bars. The ratio p =As/ bd shall not be less than 0.04 fcl fi,.
At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement A. shall be
anchored by one "of the follow,ing:
(a) by a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be
designed to develop specified yield strength Jy of As bars;
(b) by bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontai loop, or
(c) by some other means of positive anchorage.
SHEAR FRICTION DESIGN METHOD (SECTION 5.11.7.4)
When the ratio of aj.d is 0.5 or less, the bracket design may comply with Section
5.11.7.4 of NSCP. With this method, a , failure crack location is assumed.
Reinforcementis then provided to the crack to prevent failure.
Due to the rough surface at a crack, friction develops under the tension in the
reinforcement anp together the two sections on opposite sides of the
14f9
crack. An equal compression load develops in the concrete at the confined
crack.
According to Section 5.11.7.5, the shear force at the crack, at the face of the
colulll11. or bracket, shall not exceed 0.2 fc Ac nor 5.5 ACJ in Newtons, where Ac is
area of concrete section resisting shear transfer.
The area of, shear-friction reinforcement Aut required in addition to
reinforcement provided is:
Eq. 4-15
where V, is the design shear in Newton, at the section; h is the reinforcement
yield strength, but not more than 415 MPa; and J.l, the coefficient of friction
given as follows:
Concrete placed monolithically ..... .................. ........... .. ............ ... 1.4A.
Concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Sec. 5.11.7.9 ......... 1.0/...
Concrete placed against hardened concrete not
intentionally roughened ......................................................... 0.6A.
Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed
studs or by reinforcing bars (see Sec. 5.11.7.10) .................. 0.7A.
where A.= 1.0 for normal weight concrete, 0.85 for "sand-lightweight" concrete
and 0.75 for "all light-weight'' concrete. Linear interpolation is permitted when
partial sand replacement is used.
The tension reinforcement As should be adequate at the face of the support to
resist the moments due to the vertical load and any horizontal forces. The
reinforcement rriust be properly developed to prevent pull-out, or proper
anchorage within the support and by a crossbar welded to the bars at the end of
the bracket.
150
DESIGN FOR TORSION {NSCP ClOl-01)
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross-section, mm
2
A, = total area of longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion. mm
2
Ao = gross area enclosed by shear flow, mm
2
A
0
,, = area enclosed by centerline of the outermost dosed transverse torsional
reinforcement, mm2
A
1
= area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion within a distance s,
mm2
fPc= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at
centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads or at junction
of web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, MPa
Jy
1
= yield strength of longitudinal torsional reinforcement, MPa
fyv = yield strength of closed transverse torsional reinforcement, MPa
h = overall thickness of member, mm
pep = outside perimeter of the concrete cross-section, mm
pt
1
= perimeter of centerline of outermost closed transverse torsional
reinforcementmm
s = spacing of shear or torsion reinforcement in direction parallel to
longitudinal reinforcement, mm
e = angle of compression diagonals in truss analogy for torsion
411.7.1 It shall be permitted to neglect torsion effects when the factored torsional .
moment T, is less than.
1. For non-prestressed members:
~ f f [Aep2)
12 Pep
2. For prestressed members:
~ f j ; [Aep2]
12 Pep
3fpc
1+--
ff
Eq.4-16.
Eq. 4-17
For members cast monolithically with a slab, the overhanging flange wiath used
in computing Acp and pep shall conform to Section 413.3.4.
151
Calculation of F'actored Torsional Moment T u
411.7.2.1 If the factored torsional moment T, in a member is required to
maintain equilibrium and exceeds the minimum value given in Section
411.7.1, the member shall be designed to carry that torsional moment in
accoq;l.ance with Sections 411.7.3 through 411.7.6.
411.7.2.2 In a statically indeterminate structure where reduction of the
torsional moment in a member can occur due to redistribution of internal
forces upon cracking, the maximum factored torsional moment T, shall be
permitted to be reduced to
1. For non-prestressed members, at the sections described in Section
411.7. 2.4:
$..{1'; [Aep 2]
3 Pep
Eq. 4-18
2. For prestressed members, at the sections described in Section 411.7.2.5:
$..{1'; [Aep2]
. 3 Pep
3fpc
1+--
..{1';
Eq. 4-19
In such a case, the correspondingly redistributed bending moments and
shears in the adjoining members shall be used in the design of those members.
411.7.23 Unless determined by a more exact analysis, it shall be to
take the torsional loading from a slab as unifor:ffily distributed along the
member.
411.7.2.4 In non-prestressed members, sections located less than a distance d
from the face of a support shall be designed for not less than the torsion T,
computed at a distance d. If a concentrated torque occurs within this distance,
the critical section for design shall be at the face of the support.
411.7.2.5 In prestressed members, sections located less than a distance h/2
from the face of a support shall be designed for not less than the torsion T u
computed at a distance h/2. .If a concentrated torque occurs within this
distance, the critical section for design shall be at the face of the support.
I
],52 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Torsional Moment Strength
411.7.3.1 The cross-sectional dimensions shall be such that:
1. For solid sections:
Eq. 4-20
2. For hallow sections:
Eq. 4-21
411.7.3.2 If the wall thickness varies around the perimeter of a hollow section,
Eq. 4 - 21 shall be evaluated at the location where the left-hand side of Eq. 4 -
21 is a maximum.
411.7.3.3 If the wall thickness is less than the second term in Eq. 4- 21
shall be taken as:
Eq. 4-22
where tis the thickness of the wall of the hollow section at the location where

the stresses are being checked.
411.7.3.4 Design yield strength of non-prestressed torsion reinforcement shall
not exceed 415 MPa.
411.7.3.5 The reinforcement required for torsion shall be determined from:
Eq. 4-23
411.7.3.6 The transverse reinforcement for torsion shall be designed using:
Eq. 4-24

153
where Ao shall be determined by analysis except that it shall be permitted to
take Ao equal to 0. 85Aoll; e shall not be taken smaller than 30 degrees nor
larger than 60 degrees. It shall be permitted to take 8 equal to:
1. 45 for non-prestressed members or members with less p,restress than in
Item 2 below,
2. 37.5 for prestressed members with an effective prestress force not less
than 40 percent of the tensile strength of the longitudinal reinforcement.
411.7.3.7 The additional longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion shall
not be less than:
Eq. 4-25
where 8 shall be the same value used in Eq. 4 - 24 and A
1
/ s shall be taken as
the amount computed from Eq. 4 - 24 not modified in accordance with Section
411.7.5.2 or 411.7.5.3.
411.7.3.8 Reinforcement required for torsion shall be added to that required
for the shear, moment and axial force that act in combination with the torsion.
The most restrictive requirements for reinforcement spacing and placement
must be met.
411.7.3.9 It shall be permitted to reduce the area of longitudinal torsion
reinforcement in the flexural compression zone by an amount equal to
M,.j(0.9 d fy
1
), where M,. is the factored moment acting at the section in
combination with T,. except that the reinforcement provided shall not be less
than that required by Section 411.7.5.3 or 411.7.6.2.
In Prestressed Beams:
1. The total longitudinal reinforcement including tendons at each section
shall resist the factored bending moment at that section plus an
additional concentric longitudinal tensile force equal to A1 fyt, based on
the factored torsion at. that section, and
2. The spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement including tendons shall
satisfy the requirements in Section 411.7.6.2.
411.7.3.11 In prestressed beams, it shall be permitted to reduce the area of
longitudinal torsional reinforcement on the side of the member in
154
compression due to flexure below that required by Section 411.7.3.10 in
accordance with Section 411.7.3.9.
Details of Torsional Reinforcement
411.7.4.1 Torsion reinforcement shall consist of longitudinal bars or tendons
and one or more of the following:
1. Closed stirrups or closed ties, perpendicular to the axis of the member,
or
2. A closed cage of welded wire fabric with transverse wires perpendicular
to the axis of the member, or
3. In non-prestressed beams, spiral reinforcement.
411.7.4.2 Transverse torsional reinforcement shall be anchored by one of the
following:
1. A 135-degree standard hook around a longitudinal bar, or
2. According to Section 412.14.2.1, 412.14.2.2 or 412.14.2.3 in regions where
the concrete surrounding the anchorage is restrained against spalling by
a flange or slab or similar member.
411.7.4.3 Longitudinal torsion reinforcement shall be developed at both ends.
411.7.4.4 For hollow sections in torsion, the distance measured from the
centerline of the transverse torsional reinforcement tO" the inside face of the
wall of a hollow section shall not be less than 0.5Aoll/ p,,.
Minimum Torsion Reinforcement
411.7.5.1 A minimum area of torsion reinforcement shall be provided in all
regions where the factored torsional moment 1;, exceeds the values specified
in Section 411.7.1.
411.7.5.2 Where torsional reinforcement is required by Section 411.7.5.1, the
minimum area of transverse closed stirrups shall be computed by:
1 ,bw S
(Au+ 2Ar) = --
3 /yv
Eq. 4-261
411.7.5.3 Where torsional reinforcement is required by Section 411.7.5.1, the
minimum total area of longitudinal torsional reinforcement shall be computed
by:
5Jl': Acp - ( ~ ) f yv PIJ
A1, min = ___.c __ ~
12fyt s !yt
Eq. 4-27
155
where A,j s shall not be taken less than t b..,j /yv
Spacing of Torsion Reinforcement.
411.7.6.1 The spacing of transverse torsion reinforcement shall not exceed the
sma!Fer of p;,/8 or 300 mm.
411.7.6.2 The longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion shall be
distributed around the perimeter of the closed stirrups with a maximum
spacing of 300 mm. The longitudinal bars or tendons shall be inside the
stirrups. There shall be at least one longitudinal bar or tendon in each comer
of the stirrups. Bars shall have a diameter at least 1/24 of the stirrup spacing
but not less than a 10 mm diameter bar.
411.7.6.3 Torsion reinforcement shall be provided for a distance of at least (b, +
d) beyond the point theoretically required.
Shear failure of beam
156
PROBLEM 4.8
Calculate the required spacing of 10-min U stirrup in a rectangular beam with b
= 280 mm and d = 420 mm at a section where V, = 410 kN. Use f c = 28 MPa and
fy=345 MPa.
PROBLEM 4.9
Calculate the required spacing of 10-mm U stirrup in a rectangular beam with b
= 280 mm and d = 440 mm at a section where V, = 250 kN. Use f , = 20.7 MPa
and fY = 276 MPa.
PROBLEM 4.10
A rectangular beam with b = 270 mm and d = 510 mm is provided with 10-mm
vertical U stirrups withfy = 276 MPa. Assumefr = 22 MPa
a) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 45 kN
b) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 95 kN
c) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 247 .kN
d) Determine the required stirrup spacing for V, = 480 kN
PROBLEM 4.11
Select the stirrup spacing for the T-beam beam shown. The beam is simply
supported over a span of 6 m and carries a uniform dead load of 60 kN/m
(including its own weight) and live load of 100 kN/m. Use 10-mm U stirrups
and assumef, = 20.7 MPa andfy = 275.8 MPa
1400 mm
T
CHAPTER 5- BOND, DEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
Chapter 5
B o n ~ d , Development Length, Hooks,
and Splicing of Reinforcement
BOND
157
In reinforced concrete, we assume that the concrete and steel work as a. unit. For
this to happen there must be absolutely no slippage of the bars in relation to the
surrounding concrete. The steel .and concrete must stick or bond together for
them to act as a unit. If there is slipping of steel with respect to surrounding
concrete, there will be no transfer of stress from steel to concrete and vice versa
and as a result, the concrete will act as an unreinforced member and will be
subject to collapse.
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
For the cantilever beams shown in Figure 5.1, theoretically the maximum
moment occurs in the beam at the face of the support and at a small distance
from the back ofthe support is zero. Thus, it would seem that reinforcing bars
would only be necessary in the beam at the face of the support and a little at the
back of the support as in Figure 5.1 (a). Obviously, this beam would easily fall
down. (It's like a man playing tug of war holding the tip of the rope. No matter
how strong that man and that rope is, it would easily slip off his hand. )
(a) No development length
(beam will fall)
(b) With development length '-<!
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2: Development of bars in footing
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF STRAIGHT BARS
Bar development length Ld is the embedment necessary to assure that the bar
can be stressed to its yield point with some reserved to insure member
toughness. Development length is a function of bar diameter db, yield point Jy,
and concrete strength fc Other items affecting the development length are bar
spacing, concrete cover, and transverse reinforcement.
BASIC CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
In the basic concept of anchorage length, a bar is embedded in a mass of
concrete as shown. Under initial loading, the actual bond stress will be larger
near the surface and nearly zero at the embedded end. Near failure, the bond
stress along the bar will be more uniformly distributed. If the average bond
stress at ultimate is u, then
F = ~ fv
F = Foond
Ab fy = u X 7t db Ld
1j db
2
fy = u x 1t db La
CHAPTER 5 - BOND, DEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
159
Eq. s -1 1
According to Section 5.12.1, calculated tension or compression in reinforcement
at each of reinforced concrete members shall be developed on each side
of that section by embedment length, hook or mechanical device, or a
combination thereof. Hooks may be used in developing bars in tension only.
The Code provides the basic development length ldb for various situations. The
values provided by the code have to be modified for different condition. Thus,
the minimum development length Ld required by the code can be expressed as
Ld = ldb x applicable modification factor(s), m Eq. 5-2
but shall not be less than 300 mm, except for the lengths required for tension lap
splices and for the development of shear reinforcing.
BASIC DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BARS IN TENSION
According to Section 5.12.2 of the Code, the basic development shall be:
For 32 mm bar & smaller and deformed wire:
0.02Ab /y
ldb = but not less than 0.06 dbfy
ff;
Eq. 5-3
For 36 mm bar:
Eq. 5-4
For deformed wire
Eq. 5-5
160
MODIFICATION FACTORS FOR BARS IN TENSION
Basic development length ldb shall be multiplied by the applicable modification
factors m for the following conditions:
Condition
Modification
Factor, m
(a) For bars in beams or columns with a minimum
1.0
cover not less than specified the Code:
(b) Bars in beams or columns with transverse
1.0
reinforcement satisfying tie requirements of Code:
(c) Bars in beams or columns with clear spacing of not
1.0
less than 3db:
(d) Bars in the inner layer of slabs or wall
reinforcement and with clear spacing of not less 1.0
than3db:
(e) Any bars with cover of not less than 2db and with
1.0
clear spacing of not less than 3db:
(j)
For bars with cover of db or less or with clear
2.0
spacing of 2db or less:
(g) For bars not included in items a to f. 1.4
(h) For 32 mm bars and smaller with clear spacing not less than 5db and
with cover from face of member to edge bar, measvred in the plane
ofthe bars, not less than 2.5db , the factors in items a to g may be
multiplied by 0.8.
(i) Top reinforcement: 1.3
(j) Lightweight aggregate concrete: 1.3
(k) Lightweight aggregate whenfi-, is specified: .JTc I (1.8 fi-,)
(l) For reinforcement enclosed within special reinforcement not less
than 6mm diameter and not more than 100 mm pitch, within 12mm
or larger circular ties spaced at not more than 100mm on center or
within 12 mm or larger ties or stirrups spaced not more than 100
mm on center and arranged such that alternate bars shall have
support provided by the corner of a tie hoop with an included angle
of not more than 135, the factors in items a through g may be
multiplied by 1.8.
(m) Excess Reinforcement. Development length may be
As required
reduced where reinforcement in a flexural member
As provided
is more than that required by analysis by a factor:
CHAPTER 5 - BOND, DEVELOPMENT LENGfH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
161
BASIC DEVELOPMENT OF BARS IN COMPRESSION
According to Section 5.12.3.2 of the Code, the basic development for bars in.
compression shall be:
0.24db !y
ldb = Jf: but not less than 0.04 db,[y Eq. 5-6
MODtFICATION FACTORS FOR BARS IN COMPRESSION
Basic development length ldb may be multiplied by applicable factors for:
Condition
Modification
Factor, m
(a) Excess Reinforcement. Reinforcement IIJ.Ore than
A
5
required
that required by analysis A
5
provided
(b) Spirals and Ties. Reinforcement enclosed within
spiral reinforcement not less than 6mm diameter
0.75
and not more than 100 mm pitch or within 10 mm
ties and spaced at not more than 100 mm on center
DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
Development length of individual bars within a bundled, in or
compression, shall be that for the individual bar, increased 20 percent for three-
bar bundle, and 33 percent for four-bar bundle.
For determining the appropriate modification factors, a unit of bundled bars
shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total
area.
DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT (SEC. 5.12.10)
Tension reinforcement in flexural members may be developed by:
a) bending across the web to be anchored or
b) made continues with reinforcement on the opposite face of member.
Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at
points of maximum stress and at points within the span where adjacent
terminates, or is bent. Reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance equal to the
162
effective depth of member or 12db, whichever is greater, except at supports of
simple spans and at free end of cantilevers. Continuing reinforcement shall
have an embedment length not less than the development length ld beyond the
point where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to
resist flexure.
Flexural reinforcement shall not be terminated in a tension zone unless one of
the following conditions is satisfied:
a) Shear at the cutoff point does not exceed two-thirds that permitted
including shear strength of shear reinforcement provided.
b) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear and torsion is provided
along each terminated bar or wire over a distance from the termination
point equal to the three-fourths the effective depth of member. Excess
stirrup area Av shall be not less than 0.4 bw sjfy Spacing s shall not
exceed d/BI3b where pb is the ratio of area of cut off to total
area of tension reinforcement at the section.
c) For 32-rnrn bar and smaller, continuing reinforcement provides double
the area required for flexure at the cutoff point and shear does not
exceed three-fourths that permitted.
Adequate anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural
members where reinforcement stress is not directly proportional to moment,
such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets; deep flexural members;
or members in which tension reinforcement is not parallel to compression face.
DEVELOPMENT OF POSITIVE MOMENT BARS
According to Section 5.12.11 of the Code, at least one-third the positive moment
reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of
member into the support. In beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the
support at least 150 rnrn ..
At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension
reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter such that Ld computed by Eq. 5-2
need not exceed Eq. 5-7. The purpose of this limitation is to keep bond
within reason at the,se points of low moments and large shears.
I
M"
1 Ld::; -+a Eq.5-7
_____________________ v_u ______________________
163
where:
Mn is nominal moment strength assur:ting all reinforcement at the section
to be stressed to the specified yield strength Jy.
V, is factored shear force at the section {at point of support for simple
. $Upport and at point of inflection for continuous beam)
z. at a support shall be embedment length beyond center of support.
z. at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of member
or 12db, whichever is greater.
Value of MnfV, may be increased 30 percent when the ends of reinforcement are
confined by a.compressive reaction, such as where there is a column below but
not when a bea:m frames into a girder. i.e.
Eq. 5-81
When Ld computed by Eq. 5 - 2 exceed Eq. 5 - 7 or Eq. 5 - 8, use a smaller bar
size, or increase the value of end anchorage z. as by the use of hooks.
Vu
Mn = ~ fv (d -a/2)
a = ~ fv/(0.85 fc b)
Figure 5.3: Development length for
positive moment on simply supported beam
I, is the larger Max L.t
value of d or
12db Ia Mn/Vu
Moment Diagram
Mn = A. fv (d - a/2)
a = A. fy/(0.85 f, b)
Figure 5.4: Development length for positive moment
on continuous beam
DEVELOPMENT Of NEGAnYE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT
Negative-moment reinforcement should have an embedment length into the
span to develop the calculated tension in the bar, or a length equal to the
effective depth of the member, or 12db, whichever is greatest. At least_ one-third
of the total negative reinforcement should have an embedment length beyond
the point of inflection not less than the effective depth of the member, or 12db, or
1/16 of the clear span, whichever is greatest.
165
Ln = clear span
Moment diagram
Figure 5.5: Development length for negative moment
ln2
Figure 5.6: Recommended bar details for continuous beams
HOOKS
If sufficient space is not available to anchor tension bars by running them
straight for the required development length as required by the Code, hooks
maybe used.
,. 12 ~ i
Bend diameter, D = 2r:
D = 6 db for 10 mm through 25 mm bars
D = 8 db for28 mm through 32 mm bars
D = 10 db for 36 mm bar
(a) 90 hook
'
I
(b) 180 hook
Figure 5.7: Standard hooks
I Critical section
r
4 db for lOmm through 25 mm bar
14--...-.--+15 d ~ for 28mm through 32 mm bar
4db I 6 db for 36 mm bar
(65 mm min.)
lcsb
Figure 5.8: Hooked-bar detail for development of standard hook
Cl-tAPTER 5- BOND, DEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES ,
16Z
DEV.ELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS -
According to Section S.12.5, .the basic development length l
11
bfor standat:d hooks
with Jy;,. 41.5 MPa is equal to 100dbj J1': .. . .
The achlal developine.nt length ld11 is taken as the basic development length hh
multiplied by applicable modification factors, but ld" shall not qe Jess than Bdb
nor less than 150 mm. "'
Modification.factors (Sect. 5.12.5.3)
. 1. If the reinforcing bar has anjy otl1er than 415 MPa,l1,b is to be multiplied .
by_{y/415. (Sec. 5.12.5.3.1) >
2. When 90.hooksand or smaller bars are used and when 60 mm or
more of side cover normal to the hook is present, together with at least 50
mm cover for the bar extension, Z,.b is to be multiplied by 0.70.
(Sec. 5,12.5.3.2)
3. When hooks made of 32 mmor smaller bars are enclosed vertically and
horiz6ntally within ties or stirrup ties spaced no farther apart than 3db, hb
is to,be multiplied by0.80. (Sec. 5,12.5.3.3)
4. Where the amount of flexural . reinforcement exceeds the theoretical
. amount required and where the being used do not
specifically require that development lengths be based. on Jy the value of
)hb may be multiplie(i by (A; required)/ (As -provided}. (Sec. 5.12.5.3.4)
5. W:hen lightweight concrete are used, a modification factor of 1.3. be
applied. (Sec. 5.12.5.3.5) . .. ..
- '' - ' \
6. For bars being developed by standard hook at discon!lnuous ends of
members with both side cover .and top (or bottom) cover over' hook less
than: 60 mm, hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrup ties
spaced,along the full d(;!velopment length Idl, not greater than 3db where db .
is the diameter of hooked bar. For this case, the factor mentioned in item
3 shali not apply. (Sec .. .
SPUCES OF REINFORCEMENT, GENERAL
It is generally necessary to splice bars, partly because of the limited length of the
commercialbars but more because bf the <,iiffisulty of interweaving long on
the job. Splicing may be done by welding, by mechanical connections, OI' most
frequently by lapping bars. Lapped bars are_ usually tied in contact ..
168
Lap Splices
.,
Lap splices shall riot be used for bars larger than 32 mm except as provided by
the Code. Bars spliced by non-contact lap splices in flexural members shall not
be spaced transversely farther apart than 1/5 the required lap splice length, nor .;;
150mm. . A
..
.
f
Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections
i'
Welded splices and other mechanical connections are perrn.jtted by the Code. A
full welded splices shall have bars butted and welde(i to develop iri tension at
least 125 percent of specified yield strength fy of the bar. A full mechanical ' ':d
connections shall develop in tension or as required at least 125 _ .j
specified yield strength fy of the bar. -
Splices in Tension
The minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class
. A or B splice, but not less than 300 nlrn.,where j
j

Class A splice .......... .. .. , ..... 1.0 Ld
' . .;J

Class B spikes : .... .. .. : ...... : ... 1.3 Ld

where Ld is the ten5ile development length for the yield strength fy.
-1

Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wir'e in tension shail be. Class B j
except th;3.t Class A splices are allowed when: "'
(a) the area of reinforcement provided is at ieast twice that required by
analysis over the entire length of the splice, and
(b) -one-half or less of the total reinforcement is spliced within the required lap
strength.

.

,.
'
Welded or mechanical connections area of reinforcement
provided is at least twice .that required by analysis shall meet the following:
(a) splices shall . be staggered at least 6QQ rnrn and in such manner as to l
develop at ever}' section least twice the calculated tens!le fo.rce at that
_section but not less than 140 MPa for totaLarea ofreinforcemerit provided, 'l
i
(b) com,puting tensile force developed at _ portion; spliced
reinforcement maybe rated .at .. the _specified _splice strength. In spliced
reinforcement shall be rated at thatfracti<>n offy defined by the ratiO of the i
shorter actual development length to Ld reqtiired to develop the specified :j
yield fy. . - .
./
CHAPTER 5 - BONO, DEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
169
Splices of Deformed Bars in CompreSsion .
Compression bars may be by lapping_ by end bearing, and by weldin'g. .
or mechanical devices. According,to the Section 5.12.16.1, the minimum splice \
length of such barsshould be the development length Ld but may not be less '\
than0.Q7jyd;, for fy of 415 MPa or less, or (0.13fy - 24)d,_ for Jy greater than 415 ,
MPa. Should the concrete strength f c less than 20 MPa, the length of lap should
be increased by orie-third.
When bars{>f different size are lap spliced incompression, splice length shall be
the larger of development length of larger bar, or splice length of smaller bar:
UPDATE FROM NSCP 2001; .
Notations
Ab = area of an indjvidualbar, mm2
As= area of tension reinforcement, nun
2
.
Atr =-total area of all transverse reinforcement which is within
the spacings arid which crosses the potential plane of splitting through
the reinforcement being developed, mm
2
Av = area ofshear reinforcement witl\in a distances, mm
2
Aw =area of an individual wireto be developed or spliced, mm
2
a ::::depth of equivalent rectangular stress block asdefinedin Section 410.3.7.J,
nuri
. -
bw = web _width, or diameter of circular section, mm
c.= spacing or cover dimension, mm. See Section 412.3.4
d =: distance from extreme compression fiber . to centroid of tension
reinforcement, mm - I
db = nominal diameter of bar, wire or prestressing strand, imn.
f c = compressive strength of concrete, MPa '
.JF:- ;;._square root of specified compressive strength MPa .
/ct=: average splittingtensile strength of lightweight aggregate c_oncrete, MPa ,
fps = stre5s in prestressed MPa . . ':
,,; effective stre_ss irt prestressed reirtforceinent (after allowance for all
prestress losses);MPa .
fy = spedfiedyield strength of non-prestressed reinforcement,
fy, = specified strength of transverse reinforcement, MPa
h =overall thickness ofmember, mm
. .
Ktr = transverse reinforce;ment index = A,, ht/1 Osn
(
170
la = additional embedment length at support or at point of inflection,' rrun
ld = development length, mm
ld = ldb multiplied by applicable modification factors
ldb = basic development length, rrun
ld11 = development length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical
section to outside .end of hook [11traight embedment length between
critical section and start of hook (point of tangency) plus radius of bend
and one bar diameter], mm
ldh = lhb times applicable modification factors
lw = development length of standard hook in tension, mm
M .. = nominal moment strength at section, Newton meter
:4n =Ash (d- a/2)
N = number of bars in a layer being spliced or developed at a critical section
-n = number of bars or wires being spliced or developed along the plane of
splitting
s = maximum \center to !=enter spacing of transverse reinforcement within ld,
mn\
Si" = spacing wire to be developed or spliced, m:rh
Vu ='factored shear force at section
a= reinforcement location factor. See Section 412.3.4.
= coatingfactor. See Section 412.3.4.
= ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total area of tension reinforcement
at section
y = reinforcement size factor. See Section 412.3.4. ,
t..' =lightweight 'aggregate concrete factor. See Section 412.3.4.
DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL
412.2.1 Calculated tension or compression ih reinforcement at each section of
structural concrete members shall be developed on each side of tha,t section by
length, hook or mechanical device, or a combination thereof. Hooks
shall not be used to develop bars in compression.
412.2.2 The values of' f]'; used in Section 412 shall not exceed 8.0 MPa,
171
Development of defonned Bard and Y,lire in Tension
412.3.1 Development length, l4, in terms of diameter, db, for deformed bars artd
wire in tension shall be determined from either Section 412.3.2 or
412.3.3, but ld shall not be less than 300 mm.
4123.2 Fbr deformed bars or deformed wire, 1
4
/ db shall be as follo'ws:
\ ' ' - . . '
spacing of bars being
developed or spliced rtot less .
than db _clearcover not less
than d", and_stirrups or ties
thtougho\lt ld notless than the
code minimum
or
Clear spacing of bars being
developed or spliced notless .
than
Other cases
, td _ 12/yc;xPA
a;- 25.{f;
4123.3 For deformed bars or deformed
ld _ 3/ycxPA
a;- s.Jt;
ld _ 9fya.PX
10J7':
Eq. 9 '
in which the tern\ (c + k,)j db shall not be taken greater than 2.5
4123.4 The factors for use in the expressions for of deformed bars
and wires in tension in 412.1 through are as follows: :'
where:
A, = totaLcross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement which is within
the spacings andwhich crosses the potential plane of splitting through
the reinforcement being developed, square millimeters.
fy, = specified yield strength of tran5verse reinforcement, square m.illimeters.
s = maximum center-to-center spaCing of transv.erse reinforcement within ld,
millimeters. . . . . ..
N = number of bars or wires being developed along the plane of splitting.
It shall be permitted to use K, = (} as a design simplification even if transverse
reinforcement is present.
412.3.5 Excess reinforcement. Reduction. in devek1pmerit length shall be
permitted wher.e reinforce01ent in a flexural member is in excess of that required
by analysis except where anchorage or . development for h is specifically
required or the reinforcement is designed under provisions
of Section 421.2.1.4 ~ H A ~ reqwred)/(A. PJ'!'Vided)]
I
CHAPTER 5 - BOND, OEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
1-73
Development of Deformed Bars. in Compression
4i2.4.i Developmerirlength ld, in millimeters, for deformed bars in pression.
shall be computed as the product of the basic development length lab and,
applicable modification factors-as defined in this section, but la shall not be less
than -209 mm, - . .
. . . -
412.4.2 Basic development length lab shall be
.. Eq 5-101
412.4.3. Basic development lerigth lab shall be -permitted to be multiplied by
applicable factors for: -
412.4.3.1 Excess remforcement .
.. Reinforcement in excess of that required
by analysis ............................... ........................... : ..... .-........ (As required)/ (As provided)
412.4.3.2 Spirals and ties Reinforcement enclosed within spiral reinforcement
not less than 10 nun diameter and not more than 100 mm pitch or within 12
mm diameter ties in conformance with Section 407.11.5 and spaced hot more
than 100 min on ................ ;; ............................. , ................. , .... ..... : .......... .-;0.75
174
.REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
PROBLEM 5.1
A rectangular beam 260 nun by 580 nun is reinforced with four 2$ ttun
diameter top bars, with strength fy = 375 MPa, to resist tensile stress. Jf the
concrete strength [c is 21 MPa, calculate the required development length.
S O L O ~ ON
Basic development length for 25-nun-diameter bar:
0.02Ab /y
ldb = [71""
vfc
(Sec. 5.12.2.2)
0.02xf(25)
2
x (375)
lab= ---=--=,.----
Jil '
lab= 803 mm
and lab shall be not less than lab= 0.06 db fy
= 0.06 (25)(375) = 562.5 nun
-Modification factor for top bar= 1.3
Then,La= 803 x1.3
=1044mm
PROBLEM 5.2
(Sectiolll5.12.2.4.1)
Determine the development length requiredfor 25-nun diameter top barsin
lightweight concrete. Assume fy = 345 MPa and [c = 20.7 MPa.
SO LUttON
0.02Ab /y
For 25-nun bar, lab= ..[f;
_ 0.02 X f(25)f X 345
- .J20.7
ldb = 744m
but not less than, lab= 0.06 db}'y = 0.06 (25)(345)
=5t7.5mm
CHAPTER 5 - BONQ, DEVELOPMENT l-ENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICES
Modification factors:
For top bars = 1.3
For lightweight concrete= 1.3
theri, Ld=; 744 x 1.3 x 1.3
=1,257mm
PROBLEM 5.3 .
175
A reinforced. concrete wall footing has straight
extended from face of column to within 75 mm of the edge of the footing . . If
fy= 414 MPa ijndfc = 20.7MPa, how far should the edge of the footing from
the face of the wall? .
SOluTION
x= zd+75
but not less than; ld = 0.06 dt>fy = 0.06 x 25 x 414
=621 mrn ,
, Use Ld ,.,; 893.3 m:rn as there are no applicable modification factors .
. = 893.3 + 75 = %8 mm say 97(hnm
PROBLEM 5.4
A cartti]ever beam is reinforced with four 28-mrn diameter =
MPa. Detemune the if the bars ate straight.
Usefc = 27.6MPa and assume side, top, and bottom cover to be greater than
60min.
176 . REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
SOLUttON
If the bars are straight;
I 0.02Ab fy
ldb = ---==-::..._
ffc.
0.02x f (28)
2
x 276
= .}27.6
ldb = 647mm
b ~ t not less than, ldb = 0,06 dbjy = 0.06 x 28 x 276
= 463.68mm
Modification factor for top bars = 1.3
Required development length, Ld = 647 x 1.3
Required development length, Ld= 841.1 mm say 850 mm
PROBLEM 5.5 .
A cantilever beam is reinforced with four 28-mm diameter bar with fY = 276
MPa. Use f c = 27.6 MPa and assume side, top, and bottom cover to be greater
than60.mm.
a) Determine.the required development length if a 180 hook is used.
b) Determine the required development length if a 90 hook is used.
SOLUttON
Using a180 hook:
- 100db ' '
lllb- ffc (Sect. 5.12.5.2)
:.. 100(28)
- .i2'Z.6
ldb=53.3.mm
Modification factor forfyother fhan415MPa (sec. 5.12.5.3.1)
m = fy/ 415
= 276 I 41s
m = 0.665
Required development length, Ld11 = 53.3 x 0.665
Required development length, Ldl, = 354.4 mm
SflY Ld11 = 360 mm
Using a 90 hook:
. lOOd . ..
JJ! . ($ect. 5,12.5.2)
- 100(28)

ldb= 533mm
' .
Modification factor for fy Qther than 415 MPa (Sec. 5.12.5.3.1)
m=JY/415
=276 1415
m = 0.665
Modification factorfor 90 hook= 0.70 (Sect. 5.12.5.3.2)
Required development-length, Ldh = 533 x 0.665 x 0.70
Requiredde'vefopment length, Ldh = 248 inm
sayLdh= 250mm
PROBLEM 5.6
17.7
For the simply supported beam shown m Figure 5.9,investigate whether the
biu siZes are satisfactory for the required length. The-;beam is
reinforced with 28 mm bars and two bars were extended from the maximum'
moment area and into the support. Jy = 414: MPa, fc = 20.7 MPa,;V, = 290 kN.
The beam is made.of normal sand-gravel concrete and the reactiort produces
compression on concrete.
175mm
.Figure 5.9
178
SOLUTION
Basic development length, ldb= 0.02 Ab/y / ,fJ'; but not than 0.06 dbfy
zdb = o.o:i f(28)2 (4H)/ .J2o.1
ldb mm
f
hit not less than .0.06 db fy = 0.06(28)(414) = 695.5 mm
there is no applicablemodification factor, Ld = 1,121 ,llUll
. . M .
Maximum Ld = 1.3-1!..+ la
Vu
Mn = Asfy (d- aj2).
A. sfy.
a=.--"---
0.85-f'cb
=. t(28{x 2(414)
0.85(20.7)(300) .
tz=96.6mm_
. M;, = t (28)
2
X 2 (414)(600- %.6/2) .
Mn = 281,280',266 N
M. . . . L
1 3
281,280,266 +
175
axxmum d = . ..
29
0,000. .
Maximum Ld = 1436 nun > 1,121 (OK)
Thus, the ba:rsare satisfadory
'
,,

1 .:
1!.

Note: If this condition had not been satisfied, a smaller bar size may be used or the
anchorage 1. may .be increased, or !:he by the use of hooks.
PROBLEM 5.7
A rectan'gular beam has. b = 380 mm and d = 500 mm. The beam is simply
Supported overa length of 6 m (measured from-the center of support) and is "
reiriforcedfor tensi9n only 6 :.. 25 mm bars. Assutning.fY = 276 MPa c:tJtd
f, = 2lMPa, draw the detail of the bars. showing the cut-off points of each
; bar. Assume that the beam carries a uniformly distributed load throughout .
its lettgth and is made of normalsand-grav:el concrete. The .reaction .a.t the .
- -ends produces compression on concrete. Maximum value of la = 150 mm . .
V
11
= 210 kN support.
SOLUTION
Basic development length for 25 mm bars in tension:
lab= 0.02 Abfy / ..[F; but not less than 0.06 dbfy
= 0.02f (25)
2
(2'76)/ffl
lab= 591 mm
0.06 dbfy = 0.06(25)(276)
0.06 dbfy = 414 mm
Uselab == 591 mm
Since there is no applicable modification factor, La= 591 mm
179
At the point of maximum moment (at midspan), the required area is the
total area of the bars'
As = f (25)
2
(Q)
As ,;. 2945 mm2.
The following table shows how the moment is affected as tl,le. bar area is
changed.
Steel area (mm2) M,. (kN-m)
As= 2945 322
1963
3 '
224
!As= 982 117
It can be observed that as the area is reduced tQ 2/3, the moment is re<:luced
to a value a little higher than 2/3 of its original value (224 > 2/3 o322) and
as the area is reduced to 1/3, the mon:(ent is to a vall!e a little
higher than 1/3 of its original value (117 > 1/3 of 322). Thus, to avoid
tedious calculation, the cut-off points of the bars may be
(conservatively) from the shape of the moment diagram
180

) .... .t.: .. . l . J ,

4 bars
X2 X2
'
X!
2 bars
X!
For illustration purposes, the bars are drawn in layers (actually they
are placed in one layer). The code (Section 5.12.11.1) requires that at least
l/3 of positive moment reinforcement (As) be extended into the support,
then 2. bars will be extended into the support as shown in the "bottom"
layer.
. .
The theoretical length of each layer on each side "from the centerline is .
computed as follows (using the squared property of parabola):
X 2 X 2 32
_2_ = __ 1_ =--
y/3 2y/3 y
Xt =2.45m
X2 :;:J.73m"'
The code (Section 5.12)0.3) also requires that reinforcement be extend
beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure fof. a
distance equal <to the larger of the following: (except at supports of simple .
spans and ?t free end of cantilevers) -
a) 12 db = 12(25) = 300 mm
b) effective depth, d = 500 mm
181
Thus; Lt = x2 + 500
= 1730 +500
Lt = 2230 xnm> Ld (no need of hook)
L2 = Xt + 500 .
= 2450 +500
L2 = 2950 tnm > Ld (no need of hook)
For the "bottom layer" the Code {5.12.11.3) requires that the bars shall be
limited to a diameter so thatLd shoulcl 1.3 M,.jV,; + la:
As {y
.
a=
0.85f'cb
A$= f (25)2.x 2
As=982mm
2
982(276)
0.85(21)(380)
a=40mm
M
11
= As{y (d- aj2)
= 982(276)(500- 40/2)
Mn = 130,095,360 N-mm
1
.
3
Mn + la =
1
_
3
130,095,360 +
150
vu 210,000
M .
1.3 -. -" + 955 > Ld (OK)
vu ' . .
Thus, L3 '=.3000+ 150
L3 = 31SO nun (no neecl of hook)
Cuttin$J detail (symmetrical with the center of beam)
182
PROBLEM 5.8
Figure 5.10 shows the first support of a continuous beam. The
beam is reinforced with six 25 riun bars to resist a negative moment of 496
kN-m for which the calculated As required is 2600 mm2. Determine .and
draw the detail of the lengths of the bars requir_ed if the normal sand-gravel
concrete is used. Use fy == MPa and fc = 20.7 MPa,
SOL'!f!ON
2.4 m 2.1 m
Figure 5.10
b =350 mm
d = 60()mm
Section A
..
For illustration purposes, let us assume X1 = 330 mm and X2 = 300 mm
Basic development length for 25 mm bars in tension:
ldb = 0.02 Abfy I .[1': but not less than 0.06 dbfv
0.02 Ab/y I .[1': = 0.02 t (25)2 (414)1 .J20.7
0.02 Abfy I .[1': = 893 mm
0.06 db/y = O.Q6(25)(414) = 621 mm
Use ldb = 893 mm
For bar a: (Total As at section = 2-25 mm)
183
The Code (Sect. 5.12.121.3) requires that at least one-third the total tension
reinforcement provided for negative moment at a s'upport shall have an
embedment length beyond the point of inflection not less than effective
depth of member, 12db, or one-sixteenth the clear span, whichever is greater.
t of 6 = 2 bars
Embedment length, the larger value of:
a) d=600mm
b) 12 db = 12(25) = 300 mm
c) 1,116 = 7000116 = 438 mm for the 7-m span
1,116 = 10000116 = 625 mm for the 10-m span
For the 7-m span, use 600 mm
For the 10-m span, use 625 mm
Thus; L
3
= 2400 + 600 = 3000 mm
L4 = 2100 + 625 = 2725 mm
For barb: (Total A. at section = 4-25 mm)
The Code (Sect. 5.12.10.3) requires that reinforcement shall extend beyond
the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance
equal to the effective depth of member or 12db, whichever is greater, except
at supports of simple spans and at free end of cantilevers.
Extension, the larger value of:
a) d = 600mm
b) 12 db = 12(25) = 300 mm
Thus, L1 = 330 + 893 = 1,223 mm
L2 = 300 + 893 = 1,193 mm
184
For bar c: (Total As at section = 6-25 mm)
Required Ld = ldb x modification factor
The applicable modification factor, m = As reqd/ As provided
m = 2600 = 0.88
t (25)
2
(6)
Ld = 893 X 0.88
Ld = 785 mm = Ldt = Ld2
SUPPLEMENTARYPROBLEMS
PROBLEM 5.9
.
Calculate the basic development length fo;: a 25-mm bar havirig fy = 345 MPa
embedded in concrete with fc = 27 MPa to resist tensile forces.
PROBLEM 5.10
Calculate the basic development length for a 25-mm bar having fY = 414 MPa
embedded in concrete with f c = 48 MPa to resist tensile forces.
PROBLEM 5.11
Calculate the basic development length for a 20-mm bar having fy = 276 MPa
embedded in concrete withfc = 20.7 MPa to resist compressive forces.
PROBLEM 5.12
Calculate the basic development length for a 25-mm bar having fy = 414 MPa
embedded in concrete withfc = 48 MPa to resist compressive forces.
PROBLEM 5.13
A rectangular beam is reinforced with 4-28 mm top bars to resist tensile forces.
Assumingfr = 21 MPa andfy = 414 MPa, determine the required development
length.
PROBLEM 5.14
A rectangular beam is reinforced with 4-28 mm top bars to resist tensile forces.
Assuming f , = 21 MPa and fY = 414 MPa, determine the required development
length if the bars have clear spacing of 30 mm.
CHAPTER 6 -AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
185
Chapter 6
Axially Loaded Columns
CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS
In general, columns are classified as short columns and long columns. If the height
of the column is less than three times its least lateral dimension, it may be
considered as short compression blocks or pedestal. Pedestals may be designed
without reinforcement with a maximum permissible compressive strength of
0.850 f" where 121 is 0.70 (Sect. 5.10.15). If the compressive strength is greater
than this value, the pedestal will have to be designed as a reinforced concrete
short column.
If the reinforced concrete column fails due to initial material failure, it is
classified as short columns. The load of the short columns depends on the
dimension and the strength of the material of which it is made.
If the length of the column is increased, the chances that it will fail by lateral
buckling will be increased. Columns that fail by buckling are called long
columns.
P-delta Moment
When a column is subjected to priman;
moments M, such as those caused by applied
loads or joint rotation, the axis of the member
deflects laterally. This deflection causes
additional moment applied . to the column,
whiCh is equal to the column load times the
lateral deflection. This moment is called
secondary moment or P-delta moment, as shown
in FIGURE 6.1.
p
\
Figure 6.1: Secondary or P-delta moment
186
If the secondary moment becomes too large, the column is said to be long column
and it is necessary to design its section for the sum of both primary and
secondary moments. However, the Code permits that columns be designed as
short columns if the secondary or PL'l effect does not reduce their strength by
more than 5%:
TYPES OF COLUMNS
......
M
II
.c
x
"'
::E
b
(a) Plain concrete
pedestal
(b) Tied
column
(c) Spiral
column
Figure 6.2: Types of coi(Jmns
Steel tubing
(d) Composite columns
(a) Plain concrete pedestal - This may be used only if the height does not
exceed three times the least lateral dimension.
(b) Tied columns - A column in which the longitudinal bars are braced with a
series of closed ties.
(c) Spiral columns - a column in which the longitudinal bars and concrete core
are wrapped with a closely spaced helix or spiral.
(d) Composite columns - These columns may contain a structural steel shape
surrounded by longitudinal bars with ties or spirals or it may consist of
high-strength steel tubing filled with concrete.
Tied and spiral columns are the most common forms. Either type may be
circular, octagonal, square, or rectangular section. Tied columns may also be L,
T or other irregular shape.
187
AXIAL LOAD CAPACITY OF COLUMNS
Axial load without moment is not a practical case in design of columns, but the
discussion of such case is necessary for explaining the theory involved in
eccentrically loaded columns. For .a column subjected purely by an axial load,
the nominal load Pu that it can carry is the sum of the strength of steel which is
fyAst and the strength of concrete

- A
5
t), where A
8
- Ast is the net
concrete area, or
P, = 0.85fr(Ag- Ast) + fyAst Eq. 6- 1

To counter the effect of possible eccentricities, the nominal strength P, is
multiplied by 0.80 for tied columns and 0.85 for spiral columns. Finally, the
ultimate axial load capacity of the column P" is 0Pu, where 0 is 0.70 for tied
columns and 0.75 for spiral columns.
TIED COLUMN
s
s
s
Figure 6.3: Tied column
The axial load capacity of the tied column is given by
P" = 0 P,= 0 0.80 [0.85 f c (Ag- A,,)+ fy A,,] Eq. 6- 2

where 0 = 0.70
Ag "' gross concrete area = b x t
Ast = area of steel reinforcement
I
These maximum load limits govern wherever the moment is ,small enough to
keep the eccentricity under O.lOh where h is the column width parallel to the
applied moment.
188
Limits of Reinforcement for Tied Columns (Section 5.10.9)
I. Ast shall not be less than 0.01A
8
and Ast shall not be more than 0.06A
8
.
II. The minimum number of longitudinal bars is 4 for bars within rectangular
or circular ties, 3 for bars within triangular ties.
Sizes and Spacing of Main Bars and Ties
I. Clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5db nor 40
mm. (Section 5.7.6.3)
II. UseJO-mm diameter ties for 32-mm bars or smaller and at least 12 mm in
size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars. (Section 5.7.10.5.2)
III. Vertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the following:
(Sect. 5.7.10.5.2)
1. 16 x db (d
11
=longitudinal bar diameter)
2. 48 x tie diameter
3. least dimension of the column
IV. Ties shall be arranged such that every corner and alternate longitudinal
bar shall have latera] support provided by the corner of the tie with an
included angle of not more than 135 and no bar shall be farther than 150
rrun clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar.
Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a
complete circular tie is allowed. (Section 5.7.10.5.3).
150 mm (max)
150 mm (max)
Figure 6.4: Typical tie arrangement
150 mm
(max)
v
....
iS
3
3
CHAPTER 6- AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
189
SPIRAL COLUMN
5
Pitch, 5
h
Figure 6.5: Spiral column
The axial load capacity of a spiral column is given by
',,'I L P, = 0 P, = 0 0.85 [0.85 f , (Ag- A,,) + fy A,,] Eq. 6-3
I
I
where 0 = 0.75
This maximum load limit governs wherever the moment is small enough to
keep the eccentricity under 0.05h.
Limits of reinforcement for spiral columns (Section 5.10.9)
I. Ast shall not be less than 0.01A
8
and A,, shall not be more than 0.06A
8
.
II. The minimum number of longitudinal bars is 6.
I Sizes and spacing of spirals .
I I. For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall not be less than 10 mm
(Section 5.7.10.4.2)
II. Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 75 rnrn, nor less than 25
mm. (Section 5.7.10.4.3)
III. Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1-% extra turns of
spiral bar. (Section 5.7.10.4)
IV. Splices of spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48db but not less than
300 mrn or welded. (Section 5.7.10.5)
190
V. The percentage of spiral steel Psis computed from the following equation
volume of spiral in one loop
p.= ~ - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - ~ ~ - -
volume of concrete core for a pitch s
Eq. 6-4
_ 4a
5
(D, -db)
p-----
5 sD 2
c
Eq. 6-5
where a
5
is the cross-sectional area of spiral bar, D, is diameter of the core
out to out of the spiral, and d
1
, is the diameter of the spiral bar.
VI. The minimum spiral percentage is given by: (Section 5.10.9.3)
Psmin "= 0.45 (Ag -lJL
A, fy
where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more
than 415 MPa.
ECONOMICAL COLUMN DESIGN
In beams, where 60% to 70% of its section is under tension and assumed to be
cracked, a section can be made economical by making the tension part smaller in
area, as in I or T section. In columns where all the concrete is under
compression, savings can be made by using small percentage of longitudinal
percentages (since reinforcing bars are quite expensive). This can be
accomplished by "using larger column size and/ or higher-strength concrete.
If floor space is not a problem, tied columns are more economical than spiral
columns particularly if square or rectangular shapes are used. For multi-story I
buildings, savings can be achieved by using uniform column size. This means
that a designer may select a column size for the top floor with the least \
percentage of steel then continue to use the same size for as many stories as J
possible by increasing the steel percentage floor by floor as required. \'
Consistency of column sizes will provide appreciable savings in labor cost.
\
191
COMPOSITE COLUMNS (SECTION 5.10.14)
Composite compression members include all such members reinforced
longitudinally with structural steel shapes, pipe, or tubing with or without
longitudinal bars. Strength of a composite member is computed for the same
limiting j;Onditions applicable to ordinary reinforced concrete members. Any
axial load strength assigned to concrete of a composite member should be
transferred to the concrete by members or brackets in direct bearing on the
composite member concrete. All axial load strength not assigned to concrete of
a composite member should be developed by direct connection to the structural
steel shape, pipe, or tube.
According to Sec. 5.10.3.5.1, the design axial strength P, of a composite member
is:
l_ __________ P_,_=_0_P_n_=_0 __ ______
where = 0.75 for composite member with spiral reinforcement
= 0.70 for other reinforcement
As, = area of reinforcing steel of strength fy
Ass = area of structural steel shape of strength Fy
Ac = net concrete area
For evaluation of slenderness effects, radius of gyration of a composite section
should not be greater than the value given by
Eq. 6-8
[
r = Eel
8
I 5 + E5 I 1
EcAg I 5 +
5
A
1
---------'
Structural Steel Encased Concrete Core (Section 5.10.14.6)
t
D
t t
(a) Steel pipe filled with conc;rete (b) Steel tubing filled with concrete
Figure 6.6: Composite columns
192
For steel pipe filled with concrete Figure 6.6 (a) :
Eq. 6-9
For steel tubing filled with concrete Figure 6.6 (b):
Eq. 6-10
Spiral Reinforcement Around Structural Steel Core (Section 5.10.14.7)
7\ composite member with spirally reinforced concrete around a structural steel
core should conform to the following:
1. Specified compressive strength of concrete [c should be not less than 17
MPa.
2. Design yield strength of structural steel core should be the specified
minimum yield strength for grade of structural steel used but not to
exceed 350 MPa.
3. Spiral reinforcement should conform to Sec. (See page 189)
4. Longitudinal bars located within the spiral should be not less 0.01 nor
more than 0.08 times net area of concrete section.
5. Longitudinal bars located within the spiral may be considered in
computing A,, and I,.
Tied Reinforcement Around Steel Core (Section 5.10.14.8)
..
A composite member with laterally tied concrete around a structural steel core
should conform to the following:
1. Specified compressive strength of concrete f c should be not less than 17
MPa.
2. Design yield strength of structural steel core should be the specified
minimum yield strength for grade of structural steel used but not to
exceed 350 MPa.
3. Lateral ties should extend completely around the structural steel core.
4. ties should have a diameter not less than 1/50 times the greatest
side dimension of composite member, except that ties should not be
smaller than 10 mm and are not required to be larger than 16 mm.
Welded wire fabric of equivalent area is permitted.
193
5. Vertical spacing of lateral ties should not exceed 16 longitudinal bar
diameters, 48 tie bar diameters, or V2 times the least dimension of the
composite member.
6. Longitudinal bars located within the ties should be not less than 0.01 nor
.more than 0.08 times net area of concrete section.
7. A longitudinal bar should be located at every corner of a rectangular
cross section, with other longitudinal bars spaced not farther apart than
one half the least side dimension of the composite member.
8. Longitudinal bars located within the ties may be considered in
computing Ast for strength but not in computing It for evaluation of
slenderness effects.
(a) Spiral reinforcement around
structural steel core
(b) Tied reinforcement around
structural steel core
Figure 6.7: Composite columns with spiral and tie reinforcement
194
PROBLEM 6.1
A square tied column 400 mm on each side is reinforced with 8-25 mm bars
withfy = 275 MPa. Assumingfc = 22 MPa, determine the ultimate axial load
capacity of this column.
SOLUTION
Pu = $ 0.8 [ 0.85 /c (Ag - Ast) + fy Ast]
Ast = f (25)2 X 8
Ast = 3927 mm
2
P,. = 0.70(0.8) ( 0.85(22)(400
2
- 3927) + 275(3927)]
Pu = 2,239,154.456 N
P, =2,239kN
PROBLEM 6.2
Design a square tied column is to support an axial dead load of 575 kN and
an axial live load of 795 kN. Assume f r = 27.6 MPa, and Jy = 414 MPa. Use
28 mm main bars and 10 mm ties.
SOLUTION
In the design of column, first we assume value of steel ratio from 1% to 6%
of the gross concrete area. (Ast = 0.01A
8
to 0.06A
8
). Obviously, if we assume
small values of this ratio, the column.size would be bigger and the steel area
would be smaller, and vice versa. The author suggests using a value less
than the upper limit of 6%A
8
, to provide an allowance for excess
reinforcement due to availability of bar sizes. The ideal value is from
0.015A
8
to 0.03A
8
.
Let us assume Ast = 0.02A
8
The axial load capacity of a tied column is
Pu = 00.80[0.85 /r {Ag- Ast) + fy Ast]
where 0 = 0.70
P,. = 1.4DL + 1.7LL
. = 1.4(575) + 1.7(795)
Pu = 2,156.5 kN
Ast= 0.02A
8
2156.5 X 10
3
= (0.70)(0.80)[0.85(27.6)(Ag- 0.02Ag) + 414(0.02Ag)]
Ag = 123147 mm2 = tz
t
2
= 123,147
t =351 mm
~ As, = 0.02(123,147)
A st = 2463 mm
2
f (28)
2
X N = 2463
N = 4 bars
Use 355mm x 355mm column with 4-28 mm bars
Spacing of ties:
a) 16 x db = 16(28) = 448 mm
b) 48 x tie diameter= 48(10) = 480 mm
c) Least dimension of column = 355 m.m
Use 10 mm ties at 355 mm o.c.
PROBLEM 6.3
195
Design a square tied column of smallest cross-section to carry an axial dead
load of 684 kN and an axial live load of 542 kN. Assume f c = 20.7 MPa and fy
= 276 MPa. Use 22 nun main bars and 10 m.m ties.
SOLUTION
For the section to be smallest, use A,, = 0.06 A
8
(the maximum value)
P" = 00.80[0.85 f , (A
8
-A,,) + fy A,,]
where 0 = 0.70
p/1 = 1.4(684) + 1.7(542)
P
11
= 1879 kN
1879 X 103 = 0.70(0.80)(0.85(20.7)(Ag- 0.06 A g) + 276(0.06 Ag)]
A
8
= 101,372 mm
2
= t2
t = 318 mm say 320 mm
A,,= 0.06(101,372)
Ast = 6,082 mm
2
Number of bars:
~ - (22)2 N = 6,082
N = 16 bars
196
Check for maximum steel ratio:
A,,= t (22)2 X 16
A,, = 6,082 mm2
Ag = 320 X 320
Ag = 102,400 mm2
Pg = Ast / Ag
= 6,082/102,400
Pg = 0.059 < 0.06 (OK)
PROBLEM 6.4
.:
Calculate the ultimate axial load capacity of a round spiral column having a
diameter of 450 mm reinforced with six 25 mm bars having fy = 276 MPa.
Assume f, = 34 MPa.
SOLUTION
P" = 00.85[0.85 f,(Ag ~ A , , ) + Jy A,,]
Ast = f (25)
2
X 6
Ast = 2945 mm
2
Ag = f (450)2
Ag = 159,043 mm2
P
11
= 0.75(0.85)[0.85(34)(159,043- 2945) + 276(2945)]
= 3,394,083 N
P,. = 3,394 kN
PROBLEM 6.5
Design a round spiral column to support an axial dead load of 800 kN and
an axial live load of 1350 kN. Assume that 2% longitudinal steel is desired,
fc = 27.6 MPa, and fy = 414 MPa. Use 25-mm main reinforcement and 10-mm
spiral with 30 mm steel covering.
SOLUTION
The axial load capacity of spiral column is:
P" = 00.85[0.85 fc(Ag- A,,) + Jy Ast]
-c where 0 = 0.75
P" = 1.4DL + 1.7LL
= 1.4(800) + 1.7(1350)
P" = 3415 kN
A,t = 0.02A
8
3415 X 10
3
= (0.75)(0.85)[(0.85)(27.6)(Ag- 0.02Ag) + 414(0.02Ag)]
Ag= 171,306
Ast = 0.02(171,306)
AM = 3,426 mm
2
Diameter of column:
t D
2
= 171,306
D = 467 mm say 470 mm
Number of bars:
f (25)2 N = 3,426
N= 7 bars
Spiral pitch, s:
d' = covering = 30 mm
D,. = 470 - 2(30)
0,=410mm
A
8
= f (470)2 = 173,494 mm2
A,. = f (410)2 = 132,025 mm2
Psmin = 0.45 (Ag -1JD_
Ac JIJ
= 0.45[173,494 -1] 27.6
132,025 414
Ps min = 0.00942
_ 4a, (Dc- db)
Ps- 2
sOc
as= f (10)2
as= 78.5 mm
2
0.00942 = 4(78.5)( 410 -10)
s(410)
2
s = 79 mm (clear spacing
s = 79- 10 = 69 mm)
d'
E
o E
0
d'
" v
197
Maximum clear spacing by the Code = 75 mm
Mirumum clear spacing by the Code = 25 mm
Thus, use 10 mm spiral bar with pitch s = 79 mm
PROBLEM 6.6
Design a spiral column to carry a factored load of 1,570 kN and a factored
moment of 20 kN-m. Assume [c = 27.6 MPa. Use 22 mm main bars with fy =
345 MPa and 10 mm diameter spiral bar with jy = 276 MPa.
SOLUTION
The eccentricity of the load is, e =I! M .. / P .. = 20/1570 = 0.0127 m = 12.7 mm
This column can be designed as axially loaded if the eccentricity is kept
within 0.05/z, where h in this problem id the column diameter.
Assuming that e < 0.05h
P .. = 0 0.85[0.85 [c(Ag- A,,) + jy Ast]
Assume e = 0.03A
8
1570 X 103 = 0.75(0.85)[0.85(27.6)(Ag- 0.03Ag) + 345(0.03Ag)]
A
8
= 74,389 mm2
fD
2
= 74,389
D =308mm
0.05(308) = 15.4 > 12.7 (OK)
Thus, this column can be designed as axially loaded with D = 310 mm
Ast = o:03(74,389)
Ast = 2,232 mm
2
f (22)
2
N = 2,232
N = 5.87 say 6 bars
Spiral: (Use concrete covering of 25 mm)
De= 310- 2(25}
De= 260mm
25
E
A
8
= f (310)
2
A
8
= 75,476 mm
2
0 ;
Ac = f (260)
2
Ac = 53,093 mm
2
25
.....
...,
Psmin = 0.45
Ac /y
. = 0.45[75,476 -1] 27.6
Ps mm 53,093 276 r
Ps min = 0.01897
a,= f (10)2
a, == 78.5 mm
2
0.01897 = 4(78.5)(260- 10)
. . s (260)
2
s = 61 mm (clear spacing = 61 - 10 =51 mm)
Maximum clear spacing by the Code = 75 mm
Minimum clear spacing by the Code = 25 mm
Thus, use 10 mm spiral bar with pitch s = 60 mm
PROBLEM 6.7
Calculate the ultimate axial load
capacity of the composite column
shown. Assume fc = 21 MPa and Fy =
250 MPa for the W section.
Properties of Wl4 x 211:
Weight= 315 kg/m
Area = 40,000 mm2
Depth, H = 399 mm
Ir = 1,107 X 106 mm4
ly = 429 x 106 mm4
SOLUTION
P, = 0 P, = 0 0.85 [0.85 fr Ac + Fy A .. ]
A,,= 40,000 mm
2
Ac = Ag- Ass
Ac = 480
2
-40,000
Ac = 190,400 mm2
1ft
200
P, = 0.70(0.85)(0.85(21)(190,400) + 250(40,000)]
P, = 7,972,191 N = 7,972.2 kN
PROBLEM 6.8
Calculate the maximum axial load that the concrete-filled pipe shown can
resist. Verify also if this section complies with the requirement of the Code.
Use f , = 27.6 MPa and Fy = 250 MPa for the steel pipe.
SOLUTION
Verify if the section complies with the Code:
fmin = D ~ /y
8E
5
,..--....,..,.,.-,----
= 300 250
8(200,000)
tmin = 3.75 mm < 12 rnrn (OK)
[P, = 121 Pn]
P, = 121 0.85 [0.85 f, A,+ Fy Ass)
A, = t (276)2
A,= 59,828 rnrn2
Ass = i" (300
2
- 276
2
)
Ass = 10,857 rnrn
2
P, = 0.70(0.85)[0.85(27.6)(59,828) + 250(10,857)]
P, = 2,450,100 N = 2,450 kN
. . II d p Pu 2,625
Maxtmum ax1a oa , n = - = --
q, 0.70
Maximum axiaiioad, P, = 3500 kN
CHAPTER 6- AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS
201
PROBLEM 6.9
Determine the ultimate axial load capacity of the composite column shown.
Use f, = 20.7 MPa, fy = 276 MPa for steel reinforcement, and Fy = 250 MPa for
the structural steel section.
Properties of W14 x 48:
Area = 9,097 mm2
Depth, h = 350 nun
SOLUTION
Weight= 72 kg/m
Ix = 201,87 x 10
6
mm
4
Pu = 0 Pu = 0 0.85 [0.85 [c Ac + fy Ast + Fy Ass]
Ass = 9,Q97 rnrn
2
Ast = f (20)2 X 8
Ast = 2,513 rnrn
2
Ac = 5002- 9,097- 2,513
A = 238,390 rnrn
2
P
11
= 0.70(0.85)[0.85(20.7)(238,390) + 276(2,513) + 250(9,097)]
= 4,261,575 N
P .. =4,262kN
202
PROBLEM 6.10
Calculate the ultimate axial load capacity of a rectangular column 350 mm x 450
mm reinforced with six 25 mm bars. Use fy = 276 MPa and fc = 28 MPa.
PROBLEM 6.11
Design a square tied column to support an axial dead load of 850 kN and an
axial live load of 1040 kN. Use fy = 414 MPa and fc = 27.6 MPa. Assume 2%
steel ratio and use 28 mm main bars and 10 mm ties.
PROBLEM 6.12
Repeat Problem 6.11 using 5% steel ratio.
PROBLEM 6.13
Calculate the ultimate axial load capacity of a 480-mm round spiral column
reinforced with six 22 mm bars. Use fy = 345 MPa andfc = 34 MPa.
PROBLEM 6.14
Design a round spiral column to support an axial dead load of 950 kN and an
axial live load of 1210 kN. Use fy = 276 MPa and fr = 27.6 MPa. Assume 2%
steel ratio and use 28 mm main bars and 10 mm spiral. Use 30 mm steel cover.
PROBLEM 6.15 .
Repeat Problem 6.14 using 5% steel ratio, 25 mm longitudinal bars, and 12 mm
spiral.
CHAPTER 7 - SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING 203
Chapter 7
Short C.olumns Subject to
Axial Load and Bending
AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING
All columns are subject to axial forces as well as some bending and they need to
be proportioned to resist both forces. The load capacity given by Eq. 6 - 2 and
Eq. 6- 3 are only applicable of an eccentricity of 0.10h for tied column and 0.05h
for spiral columns.
Columns will tend to bend under the action of moment, . which produces
compression on one side of the column and tension on the other side. The
following failures are possible under the combined axial and bending loads.

centroid
1. Large with negligible moment-
Failure under this condition occur by
crushing of concrete with all reinforcing
bars in the column having reached their
yield stress in compression
2. Large axial load and small moment with
the entire cross-section in compression -
Failure occurs by crushing of concrete
with all bars in compression.
3. Large axial load with.moment larger than
in (2) - Bars in far side in tension but have
not yielded. Failure occurs by crusping
of concrete.
4. Balanced loading condition - Bars on
tensile side yield at the same time
concrete on compression side crushes at
0.85 f ,.
PLAStiC CENTROID
5. Large moment, relatively small axial load
- Failure initiated by yielding of tensile
bars.
6. Large bending moment - Failure occurs
like a beam.
The plastic centroid of a column cross section is the point through which the
. resultant column load must pass to produce uniform strain in failure. It
represents the location of the resultant force produced by the steel and concrete.
The eccentricity of a column load is the distance from the load to the plastic
centroid of the column.
.
In locating the plastic centroid, all concrete is assumed to be stressed in
compression to 0.85 fc and all steel to Jy in compression and the centroid is then
located by taking moments due to these forces.
For symmetrical sections, the plastic centroid coincides with the centroid of the
column cross-section.
I
See PROB,LEM 7.1
ANALYSIS OF ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS
The following procedure and formulas may be applied on determining the
value of P" for columns with four rows of reinforcement perpendicular to the
axis of bending (along side h).
..
h
T
b
l
Given or known data:
A.t, As:u A,3, As4, fy, fer
b, h, d', e, Xt, X2, X3, and X4:
Z2 = X4- X2
Z3 = X4- X3
Z4 = d'
Steel stress:
x = e + lf2x2
d=h-d'
Xc = d- a/2
d-e
fs
1
= 600 -- must not be taken more than fY
c
c-z
2
fs
2
= 600-- must not be taken more
c
than fY or less than -fy
c-z
3
/s3 = 600 -- must not be taken more
c
than fY or less than -fy
c-z
4
fs4 = 600 -- must not be taken more than fy
c
T = Ast/st
c2 = Asz/sz
C3 = As3/s3
[Lfv = 0]
[LMr= 0]
=As4/s4
Cc = 0.85 [c a b = 0.85 [ c C b
:t J J J
..... -
N
rvi
v-
;: ;:

'

,

'
,.
'
'
'
'
----X----+:'

: ' I
I
: I I
'
b
M
8
0
206
The task is to solve the value of c or a . .If all steel yields, the value of c or a can be
solved by quadratic equation. However, if some or all steel will not yield, the
equation becomes a cubic equation, which can be solved by trial and error.
Another approach to solve for Pn is to have series of assumption for the values
of c until equilibrium conditions are satisfied.
ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN WITH TWO ROWS OF REINFORCEMENT
If there are only two rows of reinforcements, this procedure can also be used
with, As2 = As3 = 0. The following formulas can be applied for columns with two
rows of reinforcements.
FiJr column with large eccentricity and when all steel has yielded:
[f,l ... /s4 .. fy)
T= A.tfy
Cc 0.85 /c a b
(4 .. AsAfy (but since .Asl = As4 =due to symmetry)
c4 ... A,1Jy
['LFv = 0] P" = Cc + C4- T (since C4 = 1)
P" = C, = 0.85 fc b a
['LMr .. OJ C, Xc + c4 X4- P,. X = 0
Let
X4 and x are known values
x.- = d- a/2
0.85fc b a (d- a/2) + As1fy X4- 0.85 fc b a X= 0
0.5 a2 + (x- d) a- Ast /y x
4
= 0
0.85 f', b
0.5 a2 + ma - n = 0
m =x-d
Ast /y X4
n= ---=--
0.85/', b
a=
- m

2(0.5)
Eq. 7-1
Eq. 7-2
CHAPTER 1 - SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING
C""a/lh
d-e
/st :;::600--
c
c-d'
/54""600--
c
207
Eq. 7-3
Eq. 7-4
Eq. 7-5
If both /st and /s4 exceed fy, then assumption is correct and P .. = 0.85 fr b a
See Problem 7.3.
BALANCED LOADING CONDmON
Columns normally fail by either tension or compression. In between the two
lies the so-called balanced load condition where failure may be of either type.
Balanced loading occurs when the tension steel just reached its yield strain hiEs
and the concrete is strained to 0.003. For every column there is always a
balanced loading situation where an ultimate load Pb, placed at an eccentricity eb
will produce a moment Mboo If the eccentricity of a column is less than its
balance eccentricity eb (e < eb), the column fails in compression (compression
controls, /st <-fy), otherwise tension controls (/st = fy).
In computing the . balanced loading, the procedure presented in page 205 is
applied with/st =hand solving for c. See Problem 7.2.
COLUMN INTERACTION DIAGRAMS
It can be seen that the analysis of with statics equations is very tedios
and complicated. As a result, designers resort to diagrams or computer in
designing columns.
Interaction diagram. is a plot the axial load P, that the column can qury versus
its moment M, capacity. This diagram is very useful for studying the strengths
of columnS with varying proportidns of loads moments. Any combination
of loading that falls inside the curve is satisfactory, whereas arty combination
that falls outside represents failure.
The diagram is made by plotting the axial load capacity of the column at A, then
the balanced loading B, then the bending strength of the column if it is subjected
to pure moment only at C. In between the points A and C, the column fails due
to combination of axial and bending. Point B is called the balanced point. In
reference to point D, the vertical and horizontal dotted lined represents the
particular load combination of axial load and moment.
+ Pure axial load
A :1 D
IC Compression failure
0
Figure 7.1: Interaction diagram
CHAPTER 7- SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING 209
.
PROBLEM 7.1
The T -shaped column shown is reinforced
with 4-28 mm diameter bar with fy = 414
MPa. Determine the plastic centroid of the
column measured from the 400-mm side.
Assumefc = 27.6 MPa.
SOLUTION
The plastic centroid of the column is at
the resultant of the forces due to concrete
and steel.
Dividing the section into two rectangles;
For concrete:
Ct = 0.85 [c Ac
Ct = 0.85(27.6)(150)(400)
Ct = 1,407,600 N
c2 = o.85(27.6)(200)(200)
C2= 938,400
. For steel (less concrete)
Ab = t (28)
2
= 616 mm2
c3= c4
c3 = (/yAb- 0.85fcAb) X 2
c3 = 2Ab(fv- 0.85fc)
c3 = 2(616)[414 - o.85(27.6)J
C3= 481,145 N
Total C = C1 + C2 + 2C3
C = 3,308,290 N
'
~ ~
150 mm 200 mm
X
~ ~
~ ~
E
E
~
E
8 E
N ~
8
.....
210
Solving for x:
. C x = C1(7S) + C2(2SO) + C3(75) + (4(275)
3308290x =1407600(75) + 938400(250) + 481145(75) + 481145(275)
x=154mm
PROBLEM 7.2 .
A rectanghlar column 350 mm by 600 mm is reinforced with 6-28-mm
diameter bars with three bars along each 350 mm side. The center of the bars
is located 65 mm from the column edge. Assume fy = 414 MPa and /c = 20.7
MPa. Calculate the balanced loading Pbn, eb, and M,, for bending parallel to
the long side of the column.
SOLUTION
With reference to the procedure presented in Page 205:
d=h-d'=600-65
d=535mm
X4 = h- 2d'
X4 =470mm
Asl = A.s4 = {- {28}
2
X 3
As1 = A .. = 1847 mm2
d-e
/sl =600- =fy
c
414 = 600
535
-c
c
c=317mm
a = ~ 1 c = 0.85(3l7)
a=269mm
Xc = d- aj2
Xc=400.5mm
/s4 = 600 c- z4 .
c
'
317-65
/s4 = 600
317
= 477 MPa > fy
Use /s4 = fy = 414 MPa
T = Ast/st = 1847(414)
~ T = 764,658 N
~ = As4/s4
= 1847(414)
c4 = 764,658 N
C= 0.85f,a b
= 0.85(20.7)(269)(350)
C = 1,656,569 N
[LFv = 0]
Pbn = ~ + C,- T
= 764,658 + 1,656,569 - 764,658
= 1,656,569 N
Pb, = 1656.6 kN
[Th1r= 0]
~ X4 + C Xc - P, X = 0
764,658(470) + 1,656,569(400.5)- 1,656,569 X= 0
x=617.45mm
x=eb+x4/2
617.45 = eb + 470/2
eb=382mm
Mb, = P ~ n , x eb
= 1656.6(0.382)
M ~ n , = 632.82 kN-m
PROBLEM 7.3
In Problem 7.2 , calculate the nominal axial load capacity of the column that
can be applied at an eccentricity of 450 mm.
SOLUTION
With reference to the procedure presentE7_9 in Page 205:
X4 = h - 2d' = 600 - 2(65)
X4 =470mm
x=e+lflx4
. i = 450 + 1/2 (470)
x,;.685mm
Assuming all steel yields:
a= -m + ~ m
2
+.2n
m=x-d
= 685-535
m=150mm
Asl /y X4
n= ----"--
0.85 f'c b
= 1847(414)(471/
0.85(20.7)(35fJ/ 0'
n ~ 58,359 0 / C'
a= -150 + ~ 1 5 0
2
+ 2(513S9) e I
a=223mm
c = a/131
= 223/0.85
c=262mm
Check for steel stress:
d-e
/sl = 600- - .
c
f,
= 600 535 - 262
sl 262
/s1 = 625 MPa > fy (OK)
CHAPTER 7- SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDJNG 213
c-d'
/!4=600--
c
{ = 600 262 - 65
)!4 262
/!4 = 451 MPa > fy (OK)
P, = 0.85f,a b
P, = 0.85(20.7)(223)(350) = 1,373,290 N
P, = 1,373.3 kN
PROBLEM 7.4
Calculate the nominal axial load capacity of the column shown that can be
applied at an eccentricity of 200 mm. Use fc = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 MPa.
SOLunON
With reference to the procedure presented in Page 205:
X4=d-2d'
X4 =450mm
x = e + 1/2(450)
x=425mm
d=d-d'
d=525mm
Xc = d- a/2
= 525- P1c/2
Xc = 525 - 0.425c
Ast = As4 = f (25)2 X 4
Asl = As4 = 1,963 'nun2
Assume compression steel yields:
j,4 = 413.7 MPa
d-e
[{sl = 600-]
c
/s1 = 600 525 -c
c
[Cc = 0.85/ca b]
Cc = 0.85(20.7)(P1 c)(400)
Cc = 5982.3 c
[T= As1/s1]
T = 1,963 X ,600
525
- c
c
T= 1,177,800
525
-c
c
. = As4/s4]
= 1,963(413.7)
= 812,093 N ' )
1
t
[LFv=OJ.
1
1 t
P, = Cc + c.- T \ l
\. 525 ..:"c
P, = 5,982.3 c + -1,177,800----L-
c
[LMr= 0]
Cc Xc + X4 - P, X = 0
(5982.3 c)(525- 0.425c) + 812,093(450)
- (5,982.3 c + 812,093- 1,177,800
525
- c )(425) = 0
c
7390 c- 5.98 c
2
+ 859,863- 5,982.3 c- 812,093 + 1,177,800
525
- c = 0
c
1407.7 c- 5.98 c
2
+ 47,770 + 1,177,800
525
-c = 0
c
1,407.7 c2- 5.98 c3 -1,130,030 c + 618,345,000 = 0
Solving for c by trial and error:
Thus,
After successive trials, c = 403 mm
Steel stress:
d-e
./sl = 600--
c
= 600 525- 403
403
./s1 = 181.6 MPa <fy (OK)
c-d'
./s4 = 600--
c
= 600 403-75
403
js4 = 488 MPa > fy (OK)
525-c
P,. = 5,982.3 c + 812,093-1,177,800--
c
P" = 2,866,405 N
Pu = 2,866.4 kN
The student can now imagine how tedious the solution is if all steel does
not yield and can now realize the importance computer programs or the
interaction diagram.
Using Interaction Diagram
Interaction diagrams are <wailable on different bar arrangements, varying
values of fy and f,; and different values of y.
1
Should there be no available
diagram for a value of y, in
1
terpolation b e t w e ~ n two diagrams can be done.
Using the Interaction Diagram:
y = 450/600
y = 0.75
e/h = 200/600
ejh = 0.333
Pg =As/ Ag
- 2(1963)
pg - 600( 400)
pg = 0.016
216
50
45
40
35
10
~ , . ~
0 1 2 3 " 4 5
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c = 3 ksi (20.7 MPa)
fy = 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
y = 0.75 ---- n____.,
ll_rh---1 1

b

'= 'y
6 7 9 0 11
(W,JAg)(elh), MPa

I :
i :
",.0==
13 4 5
From the diagram shown:
~ P n = 8.2 MPa
Ag
~ P, = 8.2(600 X 400)
~ P" = 1,968,000 N
<!> P., = 1;968 kN
p = 1,968
n 0.7
P, = 2,811 kN
PROBLEM 7.5
Calculate the nominal axial load capacity of the column shown that can be
applied at an eccentricity of 200 nun. Use fc = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 MPa.
SOLUTION
A
[pg= _s J
Ag
- {(28)
2
(16)
Pg - 500(500)
Pg = 0.0394
ejh = 400/500
ejh = 0.80
y = 360/500
y= 0.72
SOOmm
360mm
e=400mm
.
Since there is no available interaction diagram for y = 0.72, let us use the
diagrams for y = 0.6 andy= 0.75 (with fy = 413.7 MPa and /r = 20.7 MPa) and
interpolate the values obtained.
218
From Figure 7.3:
= 4.6 MPa
Ag
From Figure 7.4:
= 5.8 MPa
Ag
By interpolation:
X- 5.8 0.72-0.75
4.6- 5.8 0.60-0.75
x =5.56MPa
= 5.56 MPa
Ag
P = 5.56(500x500)
, 0.70
P, = 1,985,714 N
P, = 1,985 kN
50
40
;,<> _
10
,!g = 0.03!
y

0.60 4.6
0.72
X
0.75 5.8
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c = 3 ksi (20.7
fy = 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
r = o.6o r h l
I

I
b
. ' .

:.o =I=
Figure 7.3: Interaction diagram for y = 0.6
CHAPTER 7 -SHORT COLUMNS SUBJECT TO AXIAL LOAD AND BENDING 219
Figure 7.4: Interaction diagram for y = 0.75
For the spiral column shown:
a) Determine the pg in percent, if the eccentricity is 150. millimeters.
b) Determine the ratio of the center-to-center spacing of.reinforcement to the
column dimension in the direction of bending.
c) Using the Interaction Diagrah1, determine the maximum downward load
that the column can support.
220
SOLUTION
A
[pg = ---lL]
Ag
t(22)
2
x8
Pg t(500)2 .
pg = 0.0155
y=375/500
y = 0.75
e/h = 150/500
e/h= 0.3
From the interaction diagram
(+PrJAg)(e/h) = +M.J (Agh), ksi
Note: 1 ksi = 6.8928 MPa
~ P n =.1.3 ksi x 6.8928 MPa/ksi
'A
g
~ P n = 8.961 MPa
Ag
0.75 Pn = f (500)2 X 8.961
Pn =2346kN
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
fc = 4 ksi {27.6 MPa)
fy = 60 ksi {413.7 MPa)
6.0 J--+-+--1---1---+---+---.4 y = 0.75
PROBLEM 7.7 (CE BOARD NOVEMBER 2002)
2.00
A rectangular column is shown in Figure 09. It is acted upon by the
following loads:
Axial load due to dead load = 450 kN
Axial load due to live load= 500 kN
Bending moment due to dead load = 134 kN-m
Bending moment due to live load = 150 kN-m
The column is to be analyzed and designed using the strength method.
Use b = 400 mm, h = 600 mm, and y = 0.75.
a) Determine the eccentricity of the column, in millimeters,
b) Determine the area of t h ~ required steel reinforcement.
222
SOLUTION
P, = 1.4(450) + 1.7(500)
P, = 1480kN
[Pn = pu ]
q,
p = 1480
n 0.7
Pn = kN
M, = 1.4(134) + 1.7(150)
M, = 442.6 kN-m
[M, = Mu]
q,
M = 442.6
II 0.7
Mn = 632.28 kN-m
E
. . Mn 632.28
ccentnCity, e = -- = ---
Pn 2114.28
Figure 09
Eccentricity, e = 0.3 m = 300 mm of the column
!_ = 300 = 0.5
h 600
$Pn = 0.7(2114.28x1000)
A
8
600(400)
~ $Pn = 6.17 MPa
Ag
$Mn = 0.7(632.28x 10
6
)
A
8
h [(600)(400)](600)
$Mn = 3.07 MPa
A
8
h
From the interaction diagram, pg"" 0.017
A
.Pg = Ast
g
Ast = 0.017(600 X 400)
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
rc = 21 MPa
fy = 415 MPa
600
m!<
~ ..
Pn
1_ e .1
:=r
Ast = 4,080 mm
2
7 Required steel reinforcement
PROBLEM 7.8
Determine the required number of 25 mm bars to be used in two end faces
only for the 300 mm x 500 mm rectangular column shown to support the
following loads:
PoL =440kN
PLL = 490kN
Usefc = 20.7 MPa
and fy = 413.7 MPa
MoL=80kN-m
MLL = 110 kN-m
500mm
625 m ~ jf-r __ 37_5_mm_-----*1 ~ . 5 mm
SOLUTION
E
E
~
P
11
= 1.4(440).+ 1.7(490)
Pu = 1449kN
[
p = Pu ]
, q,
P, =
1449
= 2oio kN
0.7
M
11
= 1.4(80) + 1.7(110)
Mu=299kN-m
[M, = Mu]
. q,
299
M,=- =427kN-m
0.7
M
[e= _n]
pn
e =
427
= 0.206 m = 206 mm
2070
efh = 206/500 = 0.412
y = 375/500 = 0.75
cjl Pn = 0.7(2070 X 10
3
)
A g 500(300)
cjl Pn = 9.66 MPa = 1.4 ksi
Ag --
From the interaction diagram in Figure 7..5:
Ps = 0.032 < 0.06 (OK)
As= pgAg
As = 0.032(300 x 500) :;: 4,800 mm2
f (25)
2
N = 4,800
N = 9.78 say 10 bars .(5 on each side)
0 0.20 0.40 0;60 0;80 1.00 I .20 I AO 1.60 1.80 2.00
PROBLEM 7.9
Design a square tied column to carry a factored axial load of 2,000 kN and a
factored Il10ment of 190 kN-m. Use 25 mm bars to be placed uniformly
around the faces of the column. Assume f , = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 M!a.
SOLUTION
The size of the column for this condition can be. obtained by assuming an
average compressive stress in concrete under the load P,.. This assumed
value must be less than 0.85 f , (usually from 0.5f, to 0.6f,). With the
column dimension known, the steel ratio can be computed. However, if p
obtained from this assumption is unreasonable, the size can be revised and
a new value of p is obtained.
Assume average compressive stress as 0.5fc:
A = _!.y_
g 0.5f',
A
_ 2000x10
3
g-
0.5(20.7)
Ag = 193,237 mm2 = h2
h =439mm
Try 450 x 450 column
M
e= _u_
Pu
190
e=--
2000
e=0.095m
e=95mm
efh = 95/450
efh = 0.211
y=325/450
y = 0.722
I
h = 450 mm I __
(It-'(
E
E
0

II
.c.
e = 95 mm
Since is no available diagram for y = 0.722, let us use the available
diagrams for y = 0.6 andy = 0.75
Pn = pu fh : 4,.

Pn=
2000
=2857kN
0.7 I
+Pn = 0.70(2,857 x 10
3
)
Ag 450(450)
+Pn = 9.876MPa = 1.433 ksi
Ag
7.0
-----
3.0
:z.o
IN11l&ACI10N
I
+ ++-t--HH
, . ;,=).018-
q 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.10 1.00 l.lO 1.40 1.60 1.10 1.00
&. )(!. .&,kll
A
1
II A
1
11
From the diagram, pg = 0.018
From the diagram, p
1
,;., 0.016
x-0.016
0.018- 0.016
=
0.722-0.75
0.6-0.75
X = 0.01637 = Pt
As = Pg Ag = 0.01637(450 X 450)
A.=3315mm2
f (25)2 N = 3315
N= 6.75
y
Pt
0.60
O.Ql8
0.722 X
0.75 0.016
Since the bars must be placed uniformly around the faces, use 8-25 mm bars
with 3 bars in each face.
Computer calculation for this column (with 8-25 nun bars and e = 95 mm)
yields the following results:
Pn = 3,089kN Pu = 2162.3 kN > 2000 (OK)
Mn = 293 kN-m M,. = 205.1 kN-m >190 (OK)
Co!IIJ'IIf,, 11 < ~ , , u 1 1 1 1 ' ti11 , ottol'lc ntoii/JI'r, lilt' '" aila/J!c at GERTC
You <l'tli "'', 1, , . 11\l [ ,opu ... of tltc:-1' J'"'\1'11111 ... 1( lfllll ENT<OLL!
AXIAL LOAD PLUS BENDING IN BOTH AXES
(BIAXIAL BENDING)
In most cases, columns are subject to bending in both axes, or biaxial bending.
This is t:Jle usual case of corner columns in buildings where beams or girders
frame into the column from both directions only.
Biaxial bending on circular columns would not be a problem due to polar
symmetry of the column. If there is bending moment about both x and y axes,
the biaxial moment and eccentricity can be computed from the following
formulas:

Eq.7-6
c =

+(ey)
2
Eq. 7-7
For column shapes other than circular ones, the analysis would be as shown in
the figure below. Y
N.A.
\'"
\
cc)
\
\\/
c
T3
0.003
~
JM
One could think how difficult to solve for Pu using the statics equation as
presented in Problem 7.4. Such solution would lead to correct answer, but the
mathematics involved is so complicated that the method is not a practical one,
but with the aid of computer such is not a problem.
BRESLER EQUATION
A method published by Professor Boris Bresler in 1960 relates the desired value
of 4lPu under biaxial loading (ex and ey) to t h r e ~ other P, values.
The equation is:
1 1 1 1
-=-+---
pn Pnx Pny pno
where:
P,x = axial load capacity of the column for eccentricity ex with ey = 0
P,y = axial load capacity of the column for eccentricity ey with ex = 0
P,
0
= pure axial capacity of the column
Eq. 7-8
Eq. 7 ~ 9
The Bresler equation works well as long as P" is at least as large as 0.1P,o.
Should P, be less than 0.1P""' it is satisfactory to neglect the axial force
completely and design the section as a member subject to biaxial bending only.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
PROBLEM 7.10
Calcu}ate the permissible load capacity P11 of the short tied column shown if
ex= 200 mm and ey = 100 mm. Use [ c = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 MPa.
SOLUTION
A
pg= -;t
g
1!.(28)
2
(8)
Pg = ~ 0 0 ( 3 7 5 )
Pg = 0.022
Using theinteraction diagram:
For eccentricity ex: (Bending about Y-axis)
y = 450/600
y = 0.75
ex= 200 mm
ejh = 200/600
ejlz = 0.333
232
o 0.20 o.40 o.60 o.ao hOO tao uo 1.60 uo i:'oo
+Pnx = 1.28 ksi
Ag
+P nx = 8.823 MPa
Ag
p = 8.823( 600 X 375)
!IX 0.7
Pnx = 2,835,918 N
P,.x = 2,836 kN

A
1

For eccentricity ey: (Bending about X-axis)
y = 225/375
y =0.6
ejh = 100/375
ejh = 0.267
'
J.O
, U'l liiKA\iUUI'I
Ia'
.r. 3 kll (20.7 IO'l>
6:0
.60ki1(4t).?'IO'a)
I 'j a 0.60
'T : 1"' I"
-.-,--.-:
P,
)I
(
0.00
0.15
l.l
0.07 O.DJ
5.0
'
1.00 l\00 1.01 t.g, 1 17 1.24 J.ll )')'
... .. i
4.0

.!!a.kll
r I
A,.
.1 e/h =
3,0
'
:z.o
,
iPg=

0 O.:ZO 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 J.:ZO 1.40 1.60 1.80 :Z.OO
A X .f!L. bl
A
1
jlj A
1
jlj
= 1.35 ksi = 9.305 MPa
Ag
p = 9.305(600 X 375)
ny 0.7
P,y = 2,990,893 N
P,v = 2,991 kN
P,o = 0.85 f , Ag + A.fy
P,
0
= 0.85(20.7)(600 X 375) + f {28)2 X 8 {413.7)
P,o = 5,996,768 N
Pno = 5,997kN
1 1 1 1
-=-+---
P, P,_,. Pill/ P,IO
1 1 1 1
-= - - +-----
P,, 2,836 2,991 5,997
Pn = 1,922 kN
P, = cj> P" = 1345.4 kN
PROBLEM 7.11
Calculate the nominal axial load capacity of the. column shown that can be
applied at an eccentricity of 80 mm. Usefc = 20.7 MPa andfy = 413.7 MPa.
PROBLEM 7.12
E
E
g
v
SSOmm
Repeat Problem 7.11 withe= 150 mm.
PROBLEM 7.13
Repeat Problem 7.11 withe= 450 mm.
PROBLEM 7.14
Pn
.
Repeat 7.11 usingfc = 27 MPa,fy = 345 MPa and e = 300 mm.
PROBLEM 7.15
In Problem 7.11, calculate the balanced eccentricity eb and balanced loading
PROBLEM 7.16
Repeat Problem 7.11 usingfc = 27 MPa,fy = 345 MPa and e = 80 mm.
PROBLEM 7.17
Calculate the n ~ m i n a l all:ial load capacity of the column shown that can be
applied at an eccentricity of 150 mm. Use fc = 20.7 MPa and fv = 413.7 MPa.
PROBLEM 7.18
Repeat Problem 7.17 withe= 600 nun. Find also the balanced loading Pbn
PROBLEM 7.19
Calculate the nominal axial load capacity of the spiral column shown that can be
applied at an eccentricity of 250 mm. Use fc = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 MPa.
60omm
236
PROBLEM 7.20
Determine the required number of 28 mm bars to be distributed uniformly
along each side of a 450mm x 450mm column. The column is to carry a factored
load of 1,180 kN and a factored moment of 295 kN-m. Used' ;., 62.5 mm.
Assume [c = 20.7 MPa and fy = 413.7 MPa.
CHAPTER 8- LONG COLUMNS
237
Chapter 8
Long Columns
SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COLUMNS
The slenderness of columns depends on its unsupported length and the
geometry of its section. As the slenderness increases, the tendency that it will
buckle also increases.
To visualize the effect of slenderness, let us imagine a stick (say wire or
broomstick) with the same cross-sectional area but with varying length, .being
compressed until it breaks as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Stick of the same material and cross-sectional area
subjected to different compressiv!'! force P until it breaks
Obviously, Figure 8.1 (a) and Figure 8.1 (b) would have larger value of P until it
fails by crushing. This is the situation of a short column. However, Figure 8.1
(c) will fail by lateral buckling due to its length (which increases the slenderness)
'and the value ofP would be lesser than that of(a) and (b).
According to Section 5.10.10.1 of NSCP, design of compression members shall
be based on forces and moments determined from analysis of the structure.
Such analysis should take into account influence of axial loads and variable
moment of inertia on member stiffness and fixed-end moments, effects of
deflections on moments and forces, and the effects of duration ofJoads. In lieu
of this procedure, the slenderness effects in compression members may be
evaluated in accordance with the approximate procedure presented in Sec.
5.10.11.
APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS
(SECTION 5.10.11)
Unsupported Length of Compression Members
Unsupported length lu of a compression member should be taken as the clear
distance between floor slabs, beams, or other members capable of providing
lateral support for that compression member. Where column capitals or
haunches are present, unsupported length should be measured to the lower
extremity of capital or haunch in the place considered.
effective Length Factors (5.10.11.2.1 & 5.10.11.2.2)
For compression members braced against sidesway, effective length factor k
should be taken as 1.0, unless analysis shows that a lower value is justified. For
compression members not braced against sidesway, effective length factor k
should be determined with due consideration of e f f ~ c t s of cracking and
reinforcement on relative stiffness, and should be greater than 1.0.
Radius of Gyration
Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in
the direction stability is being considered for rectangular compression members,
and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression members. For other
shapes, r may be computed for the gross concrete section.
For rectangular compression members:
r = 0.3h Eq. 8-1
where h =overall dimension in the direction stability is being considered
For circular compression members:
r= 0.250 Eq. 8-2
239
CONSIDERATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS
According to Section 5.10.11.4.1 of the Code, for compression members braced
against sidesway, effects of slenderness may be neglected when
k lu <
34
_
12
Mlb
r M2b
where M1b is the smaller factored end moment (positive if bent in single
curvature) and M2b is the larger factored end moment.
For compression members not braced against sidesway, effects of slenderness
may be neglected when
klu < 22
r
For all compression members with kl, I r > 100, an analysis as defined in Sec.
5.10.10.1 (See Page 237) should be made.
Braced and Unbraced Frames
As a guide in judging whether a frame is braced or unbraced, the Commentary
on ACI 318-83 indicates that a frame may be considered braced if the bracing
elements, such as shear walls, shear trusses, or other means resisting lateral
movement if a storey, have a total stiffness at least six times the sum of the
stiffnesses of all the columns resisting lateral movement in that storey.
Alignment Charts
The ACI Committee 441 has proposed that k should be obtained from the
Jackson and Moreland alignment chart as shown in Figure 8.2. To use this chart,
a parameter 'VA for end A of column AB, and a similar parameter \jiB must be
computed for end B. The parameter 'V at one end of the column equals the sum
of the stiffnesses (.L: EI I L) of the column meeting at that joint (including the
column in question), divided by the sum of all the stiffnesses of the beam
meeting at that joint. Once \j/A and 'VB are known k is obtained by placing a
straightedge between 'VA and 'VB The point where the straightedge crossed the
middle monograph is k.
I
LEI I L of columns
\jl = -=__:_ ___ _
.L:EIILofbeams
Eq. 8-3
fA
ljJ = oo for pinned ends and 1.0 for fixed ends
k
1.0
0.11
'
0.8
0.7
0.6
o.5
BRACED FRAMES
(a)
;a
CD
50.0
10.0
5.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
k
UNBRACED FRAMES
(b)
Figure 8.2: Alignment chart
lQ.O
8.0
6.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
For columns for which the slenderness ratio lies between 22 and 100, and
therefore the slenderness effect on load-carrying capacity must be taken into
account, either an elastic analysis can be performed to evaluate the effects ~ f
lateral deflections and other effects producing secondary stresses, or an
approximate method based on MOMENT MAGNIFICATION may be used.
MOMENT MAGNIFIER METHOD
The effect in slenderness in long columns may be approximately accounted for
in design by empirically increasing the factored design moment. According to
Section 5.10.11.5.1 of the Code, compression members should be designed using
the factored axial load P, from a conventional frame analysis and a magnified
factored moment Me defined by
Me= ov M2b + o.M2s Eq. 8-4
211
where
M1b = value of smaller factored end moment on a compression member due
to the loads that result in no appreciable sideways, calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single
curvature, negative if bent in double curvature.
Mw = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to
loads that result in. appreciable sidesway, calculated by conventional
elastic frame analysis. According to Sect. 5.10.11.5.4, for use in Eq. 8-4
M2b ~ Pu(15 + 0.03h)
where h is the column dimension in the direction of bending.
M2s = value of larger factored end moment on compression member due to
loads that result in appreciable sidesway (such as wind, earthquake,
and other lateral loads), calculated by conventional elastic frame
analysis. According to Sect. 5.10.11.5.4,
M2s ~ P,(15 + 0.03h)
where h is the column dimension in the direction of bending.
8b = moment magnification factor that takes into account the effect of
member curvature in a frame braced against sidesway and:is equal to
em >1 0
p - .
1--u
$Pc
Eq. 8-5
8s = moment magnification factor that takes into account the lateral drift of a
column caused by lateral and gravity loading the frame not being
braced against sidesway and is equal to
Eq. 8-6
and
Eq. 8-7
242
"'.P, and "'.Pr are the summations for all columns in a story.
For frames not braced against sidesway, both Ob and o, shall be computed. For
frames braced against sidesway, o, shall be taken as 1.0. In calculation of P .. , k
shall be computed according to Sec. 5.10.11.2.1 for Ob and according to Sec.
5.10.11.2.2 for Os (See Page 238)
In lieu of a more accurate calculation, EI in Eq. 8- 7 may be taken either as
Eq. 8-8
or conservatively
Eq. 8-9
where
f3d = the ratio of maximum factored dead load moment to maximum total
factored moment (always positive), where the load is due to gravity
effects only in the calculation of P, in Eq. 8 - !), or the ratio of the
maximum factored sustained lateral load to the maximum total
factored lateral load in that story in the calculation of Pc in Eq. 8 - 6.
Max. factored dead load moment
f3d = ------------
Total factored moment
Eq. 8-10
lg = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centToidal axis,
neglecting reinforcement
lse =moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member
cross section
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa
Ec = 4700 JTc
Eq. 8-11
E, = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement= 200,000 MPa
In Eq. 8-5, for members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads
between supports, there is a modification factor C, that relates the actual
moment diagram to ai:J. equivalent uniform moment diagram. For braced
243
frames without transverse loads, it can vary from 0.40 to 1.0. The value of C'"
may be taken as
M1b
Cu = 0.6 + 0.4--, but not less than 0.4.
M2b
Eq. 8-12
For all other cases, Cu shall be taken as 1.0.
According to Section 5.10.11.5.4, the Ratio M11>/ M2b in Eq. 8 - 12 shall be
determined by either of the following:
(a) When computed end eccentricities are less than (15 + 0.03h) mm,
computed end moment shall be used to evaluate M1b j M.
2
[>.
(b) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends
of a compression member, the ratio M1h / M21r shall be taken equal to
one.
MINIMUM ECCENTRICITY WHEN SLENDERNESS IS TO BE CONSIDERED
According to Section 5.10.11.5.4, if computations show that there is no moment
at both ends of a braced compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (15 + 0.03h) mm, M 2 ~ in Eq. 8- 4 shall be based on a
minimum eccentricity of (15 + 0.03h) mm about each principal axis separately.
If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a cop1pression
member not braced against sidesway or that computed end eccentricities are
less than (15 + 0.03h) mm, M2s in Eq. 8 - 4 shall be based on a minimum
eccentricity of (15 + 0.03h) mm about each principal axis separately.
MOMENT MAGNIFIER o FOR BIAXIAL BENDING
For compression members subject to bending about both principal axes,
moment about each axis shall be magnified by 8, computed from corresponding
conditions of restraint about that axis.
PROBLEM 8.1
A square column having an unsupported length of 6 m is used in a frame
braced against sidesway (k "" 1.0). The column is bent in single curvature
and subjected to factored end moments of 80 kN-m at the top and 60 k N ~ m
at the bottom. Find its minimum dimension such that slenderness may not
be considered in the analysis.
SOLUTION
Mtb = smaller factored end moment= +60 kN-m
M2b = larger factored end moment = 80 kN-m
So that slenderness may not be considered:
k lu <
34
_
12
Mlh
r M2b
1
(
6
000) ' = 34 -12(60/80)
r
1(6000) = 25
r
r= 240 = 0.3h
h=800mm
PROBLEM 8.2 (CE BOARD NOVEMBER 1997)
A rectangular tied concrete column has dimensions of300mm x 380mm. The
column length is 4.5 m and is to be used in a frame braced against sidesway
(the effective length factor k can be taken as 1 and EI = 34 MN-m
2
) . The
column is loaded in single curvature by the ultimate (factored) moments of
110 kN-m at its top end and 120 kN-m at its bottom end. The column carries
factored axial load due to dead load of 150 kN and 350 kN due to live load.
Calculate the magnified factored moment Me.
SOLUTION
M2b = larger factored end moment = 120 kN-m
Mtb =smaller factored end moment= +110 kN-m
Note: Mt b is positive because it is bent in single curvature
Mtb/ Mzb = 110/120
Mtb/ M2b = 0.917
CHAPTER 8- LONG COLUMNS 245
Radius of gyration = 0.3h
Note: This problem did not mention on which side the moments were applied, but
practically for columns subject to bending on one side, h should be bigger than b.
Thus, for this problem, let us assume h = 380 mm
r = 0.3(380)
r= 114
L, =4.5m
L, =4500m
kL, = 1(4500)
r 114
kL, = 39.47
r
34-12 Mlb = 34 -12(0.917)
M2b
34 - 12 Mlb = 22.996
M2b
Since kL, > 34 -12 Mlb , slenderness must be considered. (Sect. 5.10.11.4.1)
r M2b , .
M25=0
o. = 1.0
(because it is not given)
(Sect. 5.10.11.5.1)
Since the given axial loads were already FACTORED loads, then
P, = 150 + 350
P, =500kN
rr:2 EI
P, = ---
(kL,)2
EJ=34MN-m2
EI = 34 x 1012 N-mm2
1t
2
(34x 10
12
)
p = --'----::--'-
( . [l( 4500)]
2
= 16,571,188 N
P, = 16:,571 kN
246
M1b
em= 0.6 + OA--
M2b
= 0.6 + 0.4(0.917)
ell/= o.9668
0.9668
8
b = --'"""=5o=-=o:---
1-----
0.7(16,571)
Db= 1.0103
Me = 1.0103{120)
Me= 121.24 kN-m
PROBLEM 8.3
Repeat Problem 8.2 if wind loads cause an axial load of 130 kN and a
moment of 100 kN-m to the column.
SOLUTION
M2s = 0.75(1.7 Wind Load)
M2s = 0.75(1.7(100)]
M2s = 127.5 kN-m
P,. = 0.75(1.4Fot + 1.7PLL + 1.7PWL)
(Section 5.9.2.2, See Page 21)
(Section 5.9.2.2, See Page 21)
Where 1.4Pot + 1.7PL.L =Factored axial load
1.4Pot + 1.7PLL = 150 + 350 = 500
P,. = 0.75(500 + 1.7(130)]
P,. = 540.75 kN
em
&b =
1- Pu
~ p c
0.9668
Ob = --"::":':":=-==---
1_ 540.75
0.7(16,571)
ob = 1.014
Me = Db M2b + Os M2s
Me= 1.014(120) + 1(127.5)
Me= 249.18 kN-m
,.
, \
J1
)
I
(
ij
.I
l
'1
)
'
247
PROBLEM 8.4
Using the results in Problem 8.3, select the steel area for the column using b
300 mm, h = 380 nun, and d' = 47.5 mm with bars on two faces of the column
only. Use fv = 413.7 and fc =
SOLUTION
M, =Me= 249.18 kN-m
P, = 540.75 kN
M
e=-"
pu
249.18
---
540.75
= 0.461 m
e =461 mm
!.. = 461
h 380
!.. = 1.213
h
285
y= 380
y = 0.75
P,= Pu
cp
540.75
0.7
P, =772.5kN
cpPn = 0.7(772.5x 1000)
Ag 300(380)
cp Pn = 4.74 MPa
Ag
From the interaction diagram, pg = 0.04 < 0.06 (OK)
As= pgAg
= 0.04(300)(380)
A.=4560mm2
Using 25 mm bars:
f (25)2 N = 4560
N = 9.29 say 10 (5 in each side)
248
50
45
40
35
PROBLEM 8.5
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c = 3 ksi (20.7 MPa)
fy = 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
y = 0.75 h
1'1 yh

b

The column shown is subject to an axial dead load of 265 kN and an axial
live load of 440 kN. The frame is braced against sidesway and the column is
bent in single curvature with equal end moments of MoL = 160 kN-m and
Mtt = 190 kN-m. Use fy = 20.7 MPa and f r = 413.7 MPa. Investigate the
adequacy of the column for an unsupported length of a) 3 meters, and b) 6
meters. Assume k = 1.
SOLUTION
As = f (32)2 X 10
As = 8,042 mm
2
8,042
Pg = 375(500)
pll = 0.043
a) Lu=3m
r = 0.3(500)
r= 150mm
M1b = 1.4(160) + 1.7(190)
M1b = 547 kN-m
M2b = 547kN-m
M1b/M2b = 1
k Lu = 1(3000)
r 150
kLu = 20
r
. M
34 - 12 ____!!!_ = 34 - 12(1) = 22
M2b
(positive for single curvature)
kL Mtb
Since .-u < 34 -12- -,slenderness may be neglected
r M2b
P,. = 1.4(265) + 1.7(440)
P, = 1,119 kN
P,= pu
+
p = 1,119
II 0.7
P,= 1599kN
Mu = M2b = 547 kN-m
M
e=-u
Pu
547
e= - -
1,119
250
e = 0.489m
e =489mm
ejh = 489/500
ejh = 0.978
375
y= 500
y = 0.75
From the interaction diagram, ~ Pn = 6 MPa
Ag
0.7P,. = 6(375)(500)
P, = 1,607,143 N
P, = 1,607 kN > 1,599 (adequate)
50
45
40
35
b) Lu = 6 m
kLu = 1(6000)
r:. 150
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c = 3 ksi (20.7 MPa)
fy = 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
y = 0.75 h
I" yh 'I

b : I :
: i :
ri"
kLu = 40 > 34-12 Mtb (Slenderness must be considered)
r , . M2b .
Me = ob Mzb + os M2s
M2s=O
Os = 1.0
Mzb = 547 kN-m but not less than M = P,(15 + 0.03h)
M = 1,119[15 + 0.03(500)]/1000 = 33.57 kN-m (OK)
Use M2b = 547 kN-m
em
ob= - ~ -
1- pu
$P,
_ Mlb
C
111
- 0.6 + 0.4--
M2b
c,/1 = 0.6 + 0.4(1)
Cm = 1.0
P, = 1.4(265) + 1.7(440)
P" = 1,119 kN
n
2
EI
P,=--
(kLu )2
( E, I g / 5) +
5
I se
1=-___:;:._ ___ _
1 + ~ d
. bh3
Ig=u
I = 375(500)
3
8
12
1
8
= 3,906,250,000 mm4
E, = 4,700 ..{j';
E, = 4,700 .J20.7
E, = 21,384 MPa
Es = 200,000 MPa
Ise =LAs y
2
(about centroidal axis)
As = f (32)
2
X 5
As = 4,021 mm
2
(in each row)
y = 375/2
y= 187.5mm
211
252
lse = 4,021(187.5)2 X 2
I .. = 282,726,563 mm4
A _ Max. factored dead load moment
I-'d-
Max. Mu oL = 1.4(160) = 224 kN-m
M, = 1.4(160) + 1.7(190)
M, =547
224
J3d = 547
J3d = 0.4095
EI = (21,384 X 3,906,250,000 I 5) + 200,000(282,726,563)
1 +0.4095
EI = 51,969,891,876,552 N-mm2
Pc = rt
2
(51,969,891,876,552)
(1 X 6000)
2
= 14,247;841
Pc = 14,248 kN
1
~ b = ---::-:-:-=----
1- 1,119
0.7(14,248)
~ b = 1.126 > 1 (OK)
Me= 1.126(547) + 1(0)
M.- = 615.922 kN-m
Let us now investigate the adequacy of the column with this modified
moment:
M, =Me= 615.922 kN-m
P, = 1,119 kN
M
e=-u
Pu
615.922
1,119
e = 0.550 m = 550 nun
p
p,::: ...E..

P =
1
'
119
= 1 599 kN
II 0.7 I
CHAPTER 8-LONG COLUMNS
ej h = 55Q.f500
ejh=1.1
y = 375/500 = 0.75
"!
From the interaction diagram, $ pn = 5.5 MPa
Ag
0.7P, = 5.5(375 X 500)
P, = 1,473,214 N
P, = 1,473 kN < 1,599 (not adequate)
50
45
40
35
Comment:
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c = 3 ksi (20.7 MPa)
fy = 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
y = 0.75 h
I' rh 'I
I I

b

I

i

.253
;,, '
Computer calculation shows that the column will be adequate with 6-32 mm bars on each
side, for a total of 12 bars, with Pn = 1,670 kN. However, with these steel requirements,
the author suggests to increase the size (specially h) of the column to for reasons of
economy.
254
PROBLEMS. 6
Oesign the steel requirements for a 7.5-m, 600 mm x 600 mm square tied
column bent in single curvature in a braced frame with 1J1 value assumed
equal to 1.0 at one end and 2 at the other end. The column is used to carry
the following loads:
Axial dead load = 800 ,kN
Axial live load = 88Q kN
Dead load moment = 135 kN-m
Live load moment = 175 kN-m
Use f, = 20.7 MPa, Jy = 413.7 MPa and place the bars in the two end faces
orily with d' = 75 mm.
SOLUTION
P, = 1.4(800) + 1.7(880)
Pu = 2,616 kN
M2b =1.4(135) + 1.7(175)
. M2b = 486.5 kN-m
M1b/M2b= 1
34 -12 Mtb = 34 -12(1)
M2b
34-12 Mtb = 22
M2b
Value of k, from the alignment chart, k = 0.82
r = 0.3h :;: 0.3(600)
r=180mm
k lu = 0.82(7500)
r 180
klu = 34.17 > M -12 Mtb
r M2b
Slenderness must be considered
M2b = 486.5 kN-m
but not less than Pu(15 + 0.03h) = 2,616[15 + 0.03(600)]/1000
P,(15 + 0.03h) = 86.328 kN-m
M1b = .M2b = +486.5 kN-m
E
E
~
jA k tB
co
1.0 !50.0
10.0
5.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
0
BRACED FRAMES
Since the steel area is not known yet, EI may be
computed conservatively as: (Section 5.10.11.5.2)
Ec Ig /2.5
EI = --"-----
1 + 13d
Ec = 4,700 ..jJ';
E,. = 4,700 .J20.7
Ec = 21,384 MPa
255
256
I = 600(600)
3
g 12
I
8
= 10.8 x 109 mm
4
~ d = Max. factored dead load moment
Max. factored dead load moment= 1.4(135)
Max. factored dead load moment = 189 kN-m
Total factored moment= 1.4(135) + 1.7(175)
Total factored moment= 486.5 kN-m
189
~ d = 486.5
~ d = 0.3885
EI = 21,384(10.8 X 10
9
) I 2.5
1 + 0.3885
EI = 66,531,422,398,271 N-mm
2
n
2
(66,531,422,398,271)
Pc = --'--------=--_:_
[0.82(7500)]
2
Pc = 17,361,063 N
Pc = 17,361 kN
1
o,, = ---::-:;-::-:;--
1- 2,616
0.7(17,361)
&,, = 1.274
Me = o, M2, + 8. M2s
Me= 1.274(48q.5) + 0
Me=;' 619.801 kN-m
Design the column with M, = 619.8 kN-m and P, = 2,616 kN
M
e=-u
pu
e =
619
8
= 0.237 m
2,616
e=237mm
ejh = 237/600
ejh = 0.395
y = 450/600
y = 0.75
Pn"' Pu .
cj>
p "' 2,616
71
0.7
J!n "'3737.14 kN
c!>Pn _ 0.7(3737.14x 10
3
)
Ag - 600
2
cj> Pn "' 7.27 MPa
Ag
50
45
40
35
:.
0
= 0.1)11
INTERACTION DIAGRAM
f c 3 ksi (20. 7 MPa}
fy- 60 ksi (413.7 MPa)
y- 0.75 't .
II' yh .I I

b : I :
: i :
~ n
,\)
:.of==
(+P ,/'\ )(Bih), MPa
From the interaction diagram, p
8
= 0.016
A.= p
8
A
8
A. = 0.016(600 X 600)
A. = 5,760 mm
2
Using 25 mm bars:
t ' (25)2 N = 5,760
N = 11.7 say 12 (6 on each side)
257
PROBLEM 8.7
The column shown has an unsupported length of 8 m, and subjected to moment
along the 600 mm side. Assume f.- ~ 28 MPa and fy = 345 MPa. The column is
use in a frame braced against sidesway and is bent in single curvature.
Calculate the value of M ...
.600 mm
PROBLEM 8.8
Po= 1200 kN
PL = 900 kN
Mo = 120 kN-m
ML = 160 kN-m
The column shown is 5.5 m long and is part of a braced frame. The column is
braced against sidesway with k factor of 1.0. Is the column satisfactory to
support a P
11
of 885 kN and an Mnx of 200 kN-m? Assume !3d= 0.40, fc = 20.7
MPa, andfy ='413,7 MPa.
E
E
0
0
v
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
259
Chapter 9
Footings
DEFINmON
Footings are structural members used to support columns or walls and transmit
their load to the underlying soils. Reinforced concrete is the most suited
material for footing for reinforced concrete and structural steel buildings, walls,
towers, bridges, and other structures.
~ i n c e the bearing capacity of soils is normally low (usually less than 400 kPa),
and the load from a column or wall is large (usually greater than 1000 kPa), the
footing spreads the column or wall pressure to the soil by providing bigger
bearing area, thus reducing the bearing pressure within permissible values.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS
The common types of footing are the wall footing, isolated or single-column footing,
combined footing, raft or mat, and pile caps. ,
1. A wall footing, is a continuous strip of concrete that supports a
bearing wall.
2. An isolated or single-column footing, is a square, rectangular, or
circular slab of concrete that supports an individual column.
These are widely used for columns with light load and are not
closely spaced.
3. A combined footing is a longer rectangular slab strip that supports
two or more individual columns. This type might be economical
where two heavily loaded columns are so spaced that when
designed for isolated footing would run into each other. Isolated
footings .are usually square or rectangular and, when used for
columns located right at the property line, would extend beyond
those lines. The footing for such a column can be combined with
an interior column to fit within the property line.
4. A floating, raft, or mat foundation is a single thick mat or slab that
supports the entire structure. This kind of foundation is used
where soil strength is low or where column loads are large but
where piles or caissons are not used. For these types of footings,
the excavations are deep. The goal is to remove an amount of
earth approximately equal to the building weight.
5. Pile caps are slabs of reinforced concrete used to distribute column
loads to group of piles.
Wall Footing
Mat or Raft Foundation
Columns
Pile Cap
Figure 9.1: Types of footing
CHAPTER 9- FOOTINGS
261
PERMISSIBLE SOIL PRESSURES, qa
The allowable soil bearing capacity q" to be used in the design of footing can be
obtained by the principles of soil mechanics through the services of a soils
engineer. This can be derived on the basis of test borings, load tests, and other
experiL11ental investigation.
In the absence of soil investigation, the building code of the Philippines provide
certain approximate allowable bearing pressures that can be used for the type of
soil and soil conditions.
Table 9.1: Allowable Soil Pressure, q,
Source: National Building Code of the Philippines/ Table 7.04-(A)
Minimum depth Value
Increase in
value for each 1
Classification of of footing below permissible if
m of depth that
Maximum
Material adjacent virgin footing is at
footing is below
value
ground minimum depth
minimum depth
1 2 3 4 5
Meter Feet kg/m
2
kPa Kg/m
2
kPa kg/m
2
kPa
0.20
20% ultimate 20% ultimate
Rock crushing 0 0 crushing
0.3 1
strenath strenath
Compact coarse sand 0.6 2 *7,500 *75 *5,000 *50 40,000 400
Compact fine sand 0.6 2 *5,000 so *3,300 *33 40,000 400
Loose sand 0.9 3 *2,500 *25 *1,600 *16 15,000 150
Hard clay or sanoy
0.6 2
20,00
200
13,30
133 40,000 400
clay 0 0
Medium stiff clay or
0.6 2
10,00
100 3,300 33 30,000 300
sandv clav 0
Soft sandy clay or clay 0.9 3 5,000 50 830 8.3 10,000 100
Compact inorganic
0.6 2 5,000 50 3,300 33 20,000 200
sand and silt mixtures
Loose inorganic sand .
0.9 3 2,500 25 1,600 16 5,000 50
silt mixtures
Loose organic and silt
0 0 0 0 0 0
mixtures and muck
These values are for footing 300 mm in width and may be increased in direct proportion to the width
of the footing to a maximum of three times the designed value
Table 9.2: Allowable Foundation Pressure
Source NSCP Table No 7-B
Allowable Lateral Bearing
Foundation (kN/m
2
/m of
Pressure depth) below
kN/m
2
(3) natural
Classes of Material (1) Grade (4)
1. Massive Crystalline Bedrock 200 190
2. Sedimentary and Foliated Rock 100 60
3. Sandy Gravel and/or Gravel (GW & GP) 100 30
4. Sand, Silty Sand, Clayey and Clayey
Gravel and Clayey Gravel (SW, SP, SM, 75 25
SC, GM and GC).
5. Clay, Sandy Clay. Silty Clay and Clayey
50 15
Silt (CL, ML, MH, and CH)
(1) Lateral bearing and lateral sliding resistance may be combined
Lateral Sliding (1)
Coefficien Resistant
t (5) KN/111
2
(6)
0.70 -
0.35 -
-
0.25 -
7
pl For soil classifications OL, OH and PT (i.e. organic clays and peat), a foundation investigation shall
be required.
(3) All values of allowable soil pressure are for footing having a minimum width of 300 mm and a
minimum depth of 300 mm into natural grade. Except as in Footnote (7) below, increase of 20% is
allowed for each additional foot of width and/or depth to maximum value of three times the
designated value.
(4) May be increased in the amount of the designated value for each additional 300 mm of depth to a
maximum of 15 times the designated value. Isolated poles for uses such as flagpoles or signs and
poles used to support buildings which are not adversely affected by a 12-mm motion at ground
surface due to short term lateral loads may be designed using lateral bearing values equal to two
times the tabulated values.
(5) Coefficient to be multiplied by the dead load.
(6) Lateral sliding resistance value to be multiplied by the contact area. In no case shall the lateral
sliding resistance exceed one half the dead load.
(7) No increase for width is allowed.
LOADS AND REACTIONS IN FOOTING
According the Cqde Section 5.15, the base area of footing and the number of
piles may be determined from unfactored forces and moments transmitted by
footing to soil or piles and permissible soil pressure or permissible pile capacity.
Unfactored load (D L + LL)
Area of footing = -------'-----'-
Effective soil pressure, q e
f
.
1
Unfactored load (DL + LL)
Number o pt es = -------'-----'-
Load capacity per pile
Eq. 9-1
Eq. 9-2
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
ag ..
Natural grade
. hs Soil, Ys
' . "
where q, is the effective soil bearing capacity and is given as
qe = qa- Yc he- Ys hs . : Eq. 9-3
where Yc is the unit weight of concrete (usually taken as 23.54 kN/m
3
),h c is the .
total depth of footing, Ys is the unit weight of soil above the footing, and h
5
is.the
height of soil above the footing.
CRITICAL SECTIONS IN FOOTINGS
The critical sections for moment, shear, and development reinforcement in
footings supporting a rectangular or square columns or pedestals are measured
at the face of the column or pedestal. For footings supporting a circular or
regular polygon shaped columns orpedestal; the Code Section 5.15.3 permits to
treat these sections as square members .with the same area.
Circle Square with equal
area as the circle
CRITiCAL SECTIONS FOR MOMENT
Regular polygon Square with equal
area as the polygon
Footings are similar to beams or slabs carrying the effective soil pressure as the
load and the column as the support, hence it is subject to moments. According
to Section 5.15A.l, the external moment on any s e c t i o ~ for a footing may be
determined by passing a :vertical plane to the footing, and computing the
264
I
moment of the forces acting over the entire area on one side of that vertical
plane.
For isolated footings, the critical sections fot moment are located as follows:
..
(a) At the .face of column, pedestal, or wall for footings supporting a
concrete column, pedestal, or walL
(b) Halfway betv.;reen middle and edge of wall, for footing 'supporting a
masonry wall. ' ,
Middle pf wall
~ t
t/4
(c) flalfway between face of column and edge of steel base plate, for
footing supporting a column with steel base plate:
Steel base
a
CHAPTER 9 - FOOTINGS
DISTRIBUTION OF. FLEXURAL OR MAIN REINFORCEMENT
'' . . '
Footings may be classified .as a one-waY, footing o:r: two 1vay footing. One-way
footings are those, which are reinforced' in one ditection only, while two-way
footings are reinforced in two directions.
According to Section 5.15.4, in one-way foo.tings, and two-way square footings,
reinforcement may be distributed uniformly across entire width of footing.
One-way footing
Two-way footing
In two-way footings, reinforcements may be distributed as follow;s!
(a) Reinforcement in long directions may be distributed uniformly across
. the entire width of footing. ' .
(b) For . the reinforcement in the short directions, a portion of the total
reinforcement may be distributed uniformly over a bandwidth (with
center on cnterline of column). equal to the length of the short side of
footing. The rest of the reinforcement may be distributed \lDifon!Uy
outside the center footing. The area of reinforcement in
the center band is given by the formula
where
A
5
in center band width
TotalA
5
inshortdirection
. long side of footing
short side of footing
2
P+l
Eq. 9-4
266
.Outside
center band
'
:
;
:
:
:
;
I
T

. \
Center b'and, S
Long side, L
'
1:
:
:
:
:
:
..
:
:
J
T
Vl
.Q) .
"0
'iii
' t:
0
.s::;;
. Vl
Outside
center band
Figure 9.2: Reinforcement distribution for two-way footing
SHEAR IN FOOTINGS
. The shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of the columns,
concentrated load, or reactions. is governed by the more severe of two
conditions, the .beam action or one-way shear and the two-way or punching
shear. In any of these two conditions, the Code requires that the maximum
value of V, if stirrups are not used is ia V(/ where Vc. is the shear strength
l?rovided by concrete.
1. Beam action (one-way), where each critical' section . to be investigated
extends in a plane across the entire width. For this case, the slab .or
footing may be designed in accordance. to Section 5.11.1 through Section
5.11.5. According to this section, the shear strength provided by concrete
Vc may exceed t ..JF: bw d.
c
j
L
Eq. 9-6
I

CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
With reference to the figure, V,; = q" x. area; where q, is
factored soil pressure and is equal to P,;j A tooting
2. Two-way action where each of the critical section to be investigated may
located so that its perimeter bois a mfnimum but need not approach
dqserthan d/2 to:
(a) edges or corners of columns, concentrated loads, or reaction areas,
or
(b) changes' in slab thickness such as edges of capitals or drop panels ..
c
Qu
L
With to the figure,_ bo = 4(c + d), V" = q" x shaded area.
For two-way action, V, is tile smaller value of Eq. 9 -7 & Eq. g,_ 9.
(
... . 2 )ff
V. c= 1+- --bod
' , 13c 6
where
' '
long.side of column
13r = --=--,------'--
short side of column
v = l . (71!' b A '
' 3 VJ c ""'
Eq, 9 c 7
Eq: 9-8
Eq. 9-9
One"way shear will very often control the depths for rectangvlar
footings, whereas twocway shear normally controls the-depth of square
footings.
268
MINIMUM DEPTH OF FOOTING
According to Section 5.15.7, the depth of footing above bottom reinforcement
may not be less than 150 rnrn for footings on soil, and 300 mm for footings on
piles.
CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Q.F R.EINFORCEMENT IN FOOTINGS
The developmeht of reinforcemmt in footings is in accordance with Section 5.12.
The critical sections for development of reinforcement may be assumed at the
same locationas those of critical moment.
LOAD TRANSFER FROM COLUMNS TO FOOTINGS
All forces acting at the base of a column must be transft!rred into the footing.
Compressive forces may be transferred directly by bearing, while uplift or
tensile forces must be transferred by developed reinforcing such as dowels and
mechanical connectors.
At the base of the column, the permissible bearing strength of for either surfaces
is 0 ( 0 . ~ S f, A1), where 0 = 0.70, but it may be.multiplied by ~ A
2
/ A
1
:5:2 for
bearing in the footing (Section 5.10.15) where A1 is the column area and A2 is the
area of the portion ofthe supporting footing tl;lat is geometrically similar and
concentric with the columns.
. :::. :;:::;<
. . .
. .
. .
. .
:: . : '::;,:::::.:
.269
DOWELS
If the computed bearing force.is higher than the allowable value, it is necessary
to provide dowels to cauy the excess force . . Thiscanalso.be done by extending .
the column bars ihto the footing. If the computed bearing force is less than the
no dowels are heeded but the code specifies a rrtinimum
value.
Fqr 'cast-in-place columns and pedestalS, the area of reinforcement across
interface shall not be less than 0.005 times the gross area of the colunin or
and at footings and 3p-mm longitudinal bars, in compression only,
rnay be lap spliced with qowels to provide the required reinforcement. bowels
may not be larger than 32 mrh bar and may extend into a distance not
less than the development length of 36 mm bars or the sphce length of the
dowel, whichever is greater, and into the footing a distance not less than the
development leng.th of the dowels (Sections 5.15.8.2.1 and 5.15.8.2.3).
I
I
I
11 . '
II
II
II
II
..-----11
I
e-:e---;
Footing \Nith dowel
I
I
I
I

I
A g - 1! .- - ' A -p- -e-. - 9 2
bars extending into
footing
270
PROBLEM 9.1
A square column footing is to support a 400-mm square tied column that .
carries a dead load of 880 kN ahd a live load of 710 kN. the column is
reinforced, with 8-25 mm bars. The base.of the footing is 1.50 m below the
natural grade where the allowable soil pressure is kPa. The soil above ;j
the footing has a weight of 15.6, kN/m3.: Assuming fy = 275 MPa, fc = 27.5 .. __-_ ; __
MPa, and unit weight of concrete as 23.50 kN/m3,design the footing. Use 25 l
min main bars. .J
SOLUTION
Our firsrtask in the design of footing is' the determination of its depth. This requires
several cycles of trial and error procedure because its value affects the . effective soil
bearing capacity; There are several rules of thumb used by designers for making initial
thickness estimates, such as 20% qf the footing. width plus 75 mm. However, with the aid
of computer (available at GERTC), this will become easier.
lriitial estimate of footing depth:
A ttg = L2 = (880 + 710)/235 _
L = 2.6m
L = 2600mm
Depth = 20% (2,600) + 75 = 595 mm say 600 mm
Effective s'lil . bearing capacity:
q, = q. - r. 'Y h
= i35 .:: 23.5(0.6) - 15.6(1.5- 0.6)
q. =:= 2o6.86 kPa
Dimension ofthe footing:
Unfactored'Load
. E
qe
= 880+710
206.86
Attg = 7,.69 m
2
= L x _L
L 2.77m say 2.8 m
Footing dimension= 2.8 m x 2.8 m
y..,. = 15.6 KN/m
3
Yconc = 23,5 KN/m
3
p
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
D'pth of Footing:
Factore Load
q, =. .
Area of Footing
1.4(880) + 1.7(710)
= .
2.8(2:8)
= 311.1 kPa
q, = 0.3111 MPa
Based on wide-beam shear:
V, ,;, q, A shaded
= (0:3111)[2800(1200 -d)]
v, '= 871.08(1200- d)N .
Vc t ..jf; bw ti
= t .J27.5 (2800) d .
Vc = 2447.2d N
V, = Q! Vc
871.08(1200 - d) = 0.85(2447.2d)
1200 - d ;, 2.388d
d=354.2mm
Based on way or purtching shear:
V, ;,. q, A shaded , . .
= (0.3111)[(2800)2- (400 + d)2]
= 0.3111(2800
2
-160000
- 800d- d2)
V, = 0.3111(7,680,000- 800d .,.' d2)
.bo = 4{400 + tf)
, Vc = f .J27.5 [4{400 + d)]d
v, = 6. 99( 400d + d2)
]V, =
2800 m.m
.. 800d- dl) = 0.85[6.99(400d + dl)]
7,680,000- 800d- d2 = 7639d + 19d
2
20dl + 8439d - 7,680,000 = 0
-8439

d= .. ___ ::...;__;_,_---..;._:,_.:..__ __ _:_.
. 2(20)
. d =443.6 mm say 445 mm
271
E
E
O
g
N
272
Total-depth of footing= 445 + 1.5(25) + 75
Total depth= 557.5 mm < 600mm (OK)
Required Steel Area:
d =445:atm
M" = (311.1)(1.2)(2.8){1.2/2)
= 627.18 KN-m
M., = cp R" b d
2
. .
X 1()6 = 0.9 R" (2800)(445)
2
, R"= 1.26 MPa .
p=0:85j', f
1
_.
1
....:: 2R
11
' .j
/y l 0.85 f c '
= 0.85(27.5) . f
1
_
1
_ 2(1.26) . j .
' 275 l . 0.85(27.5) '
p= 0.00471
' ' 1.4 1.4
Pmtn= - - = - .-
. /y 275
' =
P = o.oo5091
A,"= pbd , .
= 0.005091(2800)(445) .
A, = 6,343 mm
2
Number of 25-mm bars:
t (25)2 N = 6,343
N = 12.9 say
Development Length:
lilb = 0.02 Ab fyj .{f; .
ldb = 0.02 x t (25)
2
(275)/ .J47.5 = 515 mm
. or ldb = 0.06 db h = 0.06(25)(275) .,:, IIWl
'' .\ ..
Furnished Ld = 1200 - 75 = 1125 mm > 515 mm (OK)
I
Qu = 311.1 KPa
,
l, ,
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
Vedfy if dowels or column bars extension are necessazy:
Actual bearing strength =P,. ;= 1.4(880) + 1.7(710)
J?, = 2439 kN
P-ermissible bearing stress:
$ 0.85.fr A1 = 0.7{0.85){27.5)(400
2
)
. . .
= 2,618,000 N
q, 0;85f, A1 = 2,618 kN
But this may be multiplied b y ~ A
2
I A
1
. :S 2
A1 = 0.4 x. 0.4 = 0.16 m
2
A2 = 2.8 x 2.8 = 7,84 m2
~ A 2 I A
1
=7use1
. Permissible bearing stress = 2,618(2) = 5,236 kN > 2439 kN ( ~ o need)
. Minimum area of dowel or extension bar required by the Code:
273
Area = 0.005(400 x 400) 800 mm2
At least two column.bars (25-mm) must be extended into the footing.
. . '
Use 2.8 m x2.8 m footing with an effective depth to top bars of445mm (total depth
= 560 m), with 13-25 min bars on. each side of tl;ze footing, and at least two column
bars (25-mm as given) must be extended into the footing.
PROBLEM 9.2/ . _ _ . _ _ -,
A 600 mm >< 600 nun column caiTies a total live ioad of 1,200 kN and a total . 1
.dead load of 1,500 kN . . The column is to be supported by a rectangular .)
spread footing whose width is limited to 3 m (lnd whose bottom is 2 m J
below the ground surface. Allowable soil bearing capacity at the l:>ase of
. footing is 230 kPa. l:}nit weight of soil above footing is 16 kN/m
3
and unit :,;
weight ofconcrete is 23.5 kN/m
3
Assume f C:= 18MPa and fy = 275 MPa. j
SOLUTION
Trial depth= 20%(3000) + 75 = 675 say 700 mm
Effective soil pressure
qe .;,;qa- L,yh
= 230- 16(1.3) - 23.5(0.7)
qe = 192.75kPa ,' ,
of footing:
Att = . Unfactored Load
g qe . .
A =
1200
+
1500
= 14.01 m2
ftg 192.75 '
3(L)'= 14.01
L = 4.67 m say 4.7 m
Depth qf foofing:
Factored Load
q,=-----
Ajtg
= 1:4(1500)+ 1.7(1200)
3(4.7)
= 293.6kPa
q, = 0.2936 MPa
Based on wide beam shear:
'
V, :i:: q, Ashaded
'= 0.2936(3000)(2050 .:- d) N
. v, .::= 880.8(2050 - d)
V,= fJfc .b;,d

4700 mm
9 FOOTINGS
Vc = i J28 {3000)d
Vc = 2645.75d N
V, = Vc
880.8(2050 - d)= 0.85(2645.75d)
2050 - d = 2.55d
d=.577min
Based on two-way shear:
V, = q, Ashadro
= 0.2936[4700(3000) - (600 + d)2]
v, = 0.2936(13,740,000 -1200d- d
2
]
Vc ;= t J1': bo d .
bo := 4{600 +d)
Vc = t J28 (4{600 + d)]d
Vc = 7.05S(600d + di)
[V, =
E
E
8
M
..
. 0.2936(i3,740,000- 1200d- d2] = 0.85[7.055(600d + d2)]
13,740,000 - 1200_d'- d
2
= 12255d + 20.4d2 ' . .
21.4d2 + 13,455d - 13,740,000 = 0 '
-13,455
4(21.4)(-13,740,000)
d= . .
. . 2(21.4) '

Used =577mm
Total depth= 577 + 1.5(25) + 75
TotaFdepth =:: 689.5.< 700 (OK) .
' . ' '
Steel requirements
Along long direction:
. M, = (293.6)(2.05)(3)(2.05/2)
. M, = 1850.781 kN-m .

1850.781 X 10
6
= 0.90R,(3000)(577)
2
R, = 2.059 MPa . . .
p= o.85f', .['" z'R, ]
/y 0.85 f',
215 . .
276
= 0:85(28)[1- 1- 2(2.059) l
p 275 0.85(28)
p = 0.0078
'1.4 1.4
Pmin = /y =
275
Pmin = 0.0051
Pmax = 0.75 Ph . . .
. = 0.750.85(28)(0.85)(600) = 0.0378
Pmax . 275(600 + 275) ,
Use p = 0.0078
As"' pbd
A
5
= 0.0078(3000)(577) = 13502 mm2
.ll (28)2 N = 13502 .
4 . .
N=2L9say22
Along short direction:
M,= 293.6(4.7)(1.2)(1.2/2)
M,. = 993.54 kN-m
M, =R, bd2
993.54 X 106 = 0.90 ~ ~ ~ (4700)(577)2
R,. = 0.7055 MPa .
E
N
...;
= 0:85 J', [
1
- r-l-_ -2...--R-.-. ~ - . l
p . /y 0.85 f',
= 0,85(28. ) [
1
-
1
_ 2(0 . . 70.S5) ]
p . . .. 275 . . ' 0.85(28)
p = 0.0026 < Pmin
Use p = Pnl1n = 0.0051
REINFORCED.CONCRETE DESIGN .
.As= pbd= 0.0051(4700)(577 + 28) = 14,502 rnrrt2
f (28)
2
N = .14,502 .
N = 23.55 .say 24
Development length:
LJ = ldb = 0.02 Abfy/ ..{f;
id = 0.02 x. f (25)2{275)/ .J27.5 = 515 mm
' .
or Ld == o,o6 db fv = 0.06(25)(275) = 412.? mm
)
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
Minimum L.t furnished=:= 1200- 75 = 1.1.25,mm > 5 1 5 . ~ (OK)
(no need to bend the bats)
Bar distribution in short direction:
f} = long side offooting . = 4.7
. shortsideoffooting 3
~ =1.57
Along center band:
N center band
N
N center band
24
2
~ + 1
2
1.57+1
N center barid"" 18.7 say 19 bars .
N outer band=:: (24 -19)/2 = 2.5 say B bars
3 mcenter band, 19 bars
4.7 in
25 bars
277
PROBLEM 9.3
A reinforced concrete square footing s11pports a 400 nuh x 400 mttl square J
column carrying a total dead load of 700 kN and a total live load of 1100 kN. }
The footing dimension is 3m x 3m and is supported by 9 piles spaced 1 m, ;r.J
apart on a 3 x 3 formation. f, = 30 MPa, fy = 375 MPa. Design the footing. :
Assume the piles are adequate to resist the loads. .
SOLunON
Factored load on each pile:
P, = 1.4(700) + 1.7(1100)
P,=2850kN
9Ru:= P, = 2850
f{, = 316.67 kN
Effective depth of Footing
Based of Wide.:beam shear
- Vc =, t ,fJ'; bw d
= t J30 (3000)d
v, = 2738.6 d (N)
V,, = 3R, :: 3(316,67)
v, ... 950kN
[Vu = ~ Vc]
950 X 1()3 = 0.85 X 2738.6 d
d=408mm
Based on punching shear
V, = l ,fJ'; bod
= t J30 [4(400 + d)]d
V,= 7.303(400d + d2)
V, ~ 8R,. = 8(316.67) ..
. v ~ = ~ 3 . 3 ' 6 kN
1
1
1m
3m
....... . !: ..
,'_:1
. - - ~ ~
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
[VII= <J>Vc]
2533.36 X 10
3
= 0.85(7.303)
X (400 d + d2)
d
2
+ 400d - 408,109 = 0
d=469.4 mm
Used= 470 m
Main bars:
Mu = (3 R
11
)(0.8)
= (3 X 316.67)(0.8)

[M11 =<!>Rub d
2
]
760 X 10
6
= 0.90 Ru (3000)(470)2
R
11
= 1.274 MPa
p= 0.85/'c [
1
-
1
_ 2Ru ]
/y 0.85 f'c
= 0.85(30) [1- 1- 2(1.274) l
p 375 0.85(30)
p = 0.0035
Pmin =
1
.4 = 0.0037
375
Use p = 0.0037
A,= pbd = 0.0037(3000)(470) = 5,217 mm2
Using 25 mm bars:
1- (25)2 N = 5217
N = 10.6 say 11 bars on both sides
Development length:
Ld = ldb = 0.02 Ab jy/ .fj';
Ld = 0.02 x f (25)2(375)/ J30 = 672 mm
or Ld = 0.06 db jy = 0.06(25)(375) = 562.5 mm
Ld furnished = 1,300 - 75 = 1,225 mm > 672 mm(OK)
279
1.3 m
PROBLEM9.4
Design the footing shown using the following data:
Soil bearing capacity, qa = 180 kPa
Steel strength, fy = 275 MPa
Concrete strength, [c = 27.5 MPa
Unit weight of soil above the footing= 15.2 kNfm3
Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN I m3
Deal load, PDL = 1,400 kN
Live load, Pu = 1,850 kN
Dead load moment, Mot = 450 kN-m
Live load moment, MLL = 280 kN-m
Column size = 600 mm x 600 mm
Depth of footing = 1.8 m
Use 28 mm diameter bars.
1------- L
SOLUTION
Assume depth of footing = 750 mm
Effective depth, d = 750- 75 -1.5(28)
d=633mm
Effective soil bearing capacity:
q. = 180- 24(0.75) - 15.2(1.8 - 0.75)
q. = 146.04 kPa .
. j
CHAPTER 9- FOOTINGS
For combined axial load and bending:
P Me
q=-A-I-
P 6M
qmax=----
bd bd
2
p = 1,400 + 1,850
P= 3,250kN
M=450+280
M=730kN-m
b=4.5m
d=L
-146.04 =- 3,250 - 6(730)
4.5(L) 4.5L
2
L2- 4.945L - 6.665 = 0
L = 6.04 m say 6.1 m
Verify if the stress at the other end is compression:
qmin = _ 3,250 + _6__:.(7_3_:.0)-=-
4.5{6.1) 4.5(6.1)
2
qmin = -92.24 (compression, OK)
Note: Should the stress at the other
end is(+) tension, the value of L must be
computed using the following procedure.
(Since soil pressure cannot be in tension).
e=M/P
lh(a)(q,)(b) = P
2P
a=-=
qe b
L/2 = e + a/3
L = 2(e + aj3)
281
e
p
p
a/3
a
282
Design of Footing:
P, = 1.4(1400) + 1.7(1850)
P, =5,105kN
M, = 1.4(450) + 1.7(280)
M, = 1,106 kN-m
- 5,105 6(1,106)
qu-- (4.5}(6.1) _:!: 4.5(6.1)
2

q, max= -225.61 kPa (compression)
q, min = -146.34 kPa (compression)
Investigating the adequacy of assumed "d" on wide-beam shear:
d = 633 mm (assumed)
_}f_ = 79.27
;3.983 6.1
y = 51.759
z = 146.34 + 51.759
z = 198.1 kPa
Vu = 225.61 + 198.1 (
2
.l17) X
45
2
V, = 2018.2 kN
Vc= t Jl':bwd
= t ./27.5 (4500)(633)
= 2,489,610 N
Vr = 2,489.61 kN
ljl Vc = 0.85(2,489.61)
~ V, = 2116 kN > V,. (OK)
0.6 m
t
79.27
-----+1225.61 J.
Note: This type of footing seldom fail by two-way or punching shear.
0.6m
Steel Requirements
Alopg long direction:
y_ = 79.27
3.35 6.1
y = 43.53
z = 43.53 + 146.34
z = 189.87 kPa
2.75 m
- ~ I
. M
11
= 2(2.75)(189.87)(4.5)
2
X
5
+
1
12(2.75)(225.61)(4.S)i (2.75)
M11 = 3,636.18 kN-m
[ M11 = 4> R,. b d
2
]
3,636.18 X 106 = 0.90 R, (4500)(633)2
R,. = 2.241 MPa
P = 0.85 f' c [
1
-
1
_ 2 Ru ]
/y 0.85 f' c
= 0.85(27.5) [1- 1- 2(2.241) l
275 0.85(27.5)
p = 0.00858
Pmin =
1
.4 = 0.005091
275
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
= 0.75 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600)
275( 600 + 275)
Pmax = 0.0372
Use p = 0.00858
As = pb10d = 0.00858(4500)(633)
As = 24,440 mm
2
f (28)2 N = 24,440
N = 39.7 say 40 bars
283
f
79.27
225.611
284
Along short direction:
F, = 225.61 + 146.34 (
6
.
1
)(
1
.
95
)
2
F, = 2212.17 kN
M, = F,(0.975)
M, = 2156.9 kN-m
d=633+28
d=661 mm
[M, = +R,bd2]
2156.9 X 1()6 = 0.90 R,(6100)(661)2
R, = 0.899 MPa
p = 0.85 f'c [
1
-
1
_ 2 Ru l
/y 0.85 f'c
= 0.85(27.5) [1- 1- 2(0.899) l
275 0.85 (27.5)
p = 0.0033
Use p = Pmin = 0.005091
A.=' pbd = 0.005091(6100)(661)
As = 20,527 mm2
f (28)
2
N = 20527
Distribution of bars:
j} = 6.1/4.5
~ = 1.356
N center band 2
34 1.356+ 1
Use 29 bars across center band width
Use 3 bars acr.oss outer strip
'.i
1.95 m
Development length:
Ld = ldb = 0.02 Abfy/ .[1';
= 0.02 X t (28)2(275)/ .J27.5
Ld= 646mm
or Ld = 0.06 dbfy = 0.06(28)(275) = 462 mrn
Min Ld furnished = 1950 - 75
Min Ld furnished = 1,875 mm > 646 mm (OK)
6.1 m with 35 bars, 29
r
. across center band and 3 ---1
across each outer bMd 1
285
PROBLEM 9.5
Design a rectangular column footing to carry the following column loads:
PoL= 800 kN
MoL = 160 kN-m
PLL = 670 kN
MLL = 170 kN-m
The column is 500 mm x 500 mm and is reinforced with 8-25 mm bars. The
base of footing is 1.6 m below the natural grade and the effective soil bearing
capacity may be conservatively taken as 190 kPa. Design the footingsuch
that the soil pressure at the base is uniform.. Take L = 1.4B and use fc = 27.6

MPa andfy = 414 MPa. Use 20 mm main bars.
SOLUTION
For the soil pressure to be uniform, the centroid of footing must coincide
with the resultant column load, which is at a distance of "e" from the
column center.
E
. . M
ccentricity, e = -
p
e = 160+ 170 =
0
.
224
m
800+670
e=224mm
L = 3.3 m
e = 224 mm
1
I
1.65 m
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
Since the soil pressure is uniform, then;
PoL+ PLL
Area of footing = -'-='---"-'-'--
Area = 800 + 670
190
Area= 7.74 m2 = L x B
(1.4B) X B = 7.74
B = 2.35 m say 2.4 m
L(2.4) = 7.74
L = 3.225 m say 3.3 m
P, = 1.4(800) + 1.7(670)
P, = 2,259kN
p 2,259
q, = L ;'B = 3.3(2.4),
q, = 285.23 kPa
Effective depth of footing:
Based on wide-beam shear:
v, = q, X A shaded r
= 285.23(2.4)(1.624- d)
V, = 684.552(1.624 - d) (kN)
V, = t .jl'; bw d
= t -./27.6 (2400)(dx1000)
= 2,101,428 d (N)
V, = 2,101.43 d (kN)
V,=<jiV,
E
684.552(1.624- d)= 0.85 X 2,101.43 d
1.624- d = 2.61d
d ~ 0.45 m
d =450 mrn
287
L = 3.3 m
1.624- d
Qu = 285.23
Check for adequacy of "d" in punching shear:
bo = 4(c + d) = 4(500 + 450)
bo = 3800
V, = t JF;bod
= t .J27.6 (3,800)(450)
V, = 2,994,535 N = 2,994.5 kN
41 v, = 0.85(2,994.5)
ell V, = 2,545 kN
Vu = qu (Attg- Apunch)
Apunch = (0.5 + 0.45)2 = 0.9025 m
2
Vu = 285.23(2.4 X 3.3- 0.9025)
Vu = 2,002 kN < ell V, (OK)
Design of reinforcement
E
.,.
...,;
II
..0
Bars alon& the len!t:
Mu = qu b Lt
2
/2
Mu = 285.23(2.4)(1.624)2/2
Mu = 902.7 kN-m
[Mu = 4R,btf2]
L = 3.3 m
902.7 X 1()6 ~ 0.90Ru{2400)(450)2
R,=2.06MPa
p- 1- - - - ~ -
_ 0.85 f'c [
1
2 Ru ]
!y 0.85 f'c
= 0.85(27.6) [1- 1- 2(2.06) l
414 0.85(27.6)
p = 0.00522
Pmin = 1.4/ fy
Pmin =1.4/414 = 0.00338
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
= 0.75 0.85(27.6)(0.85)(600)
414(600 + 414)
Pmax = 0.0214
Use p = 0.00522
As = pbd = 0.00522(2400)(450)
As= 5638mm
2
f (20)2 N = 5638
N = 17.9 say 18 bars to be distributed across the 2.4-m side
Bars along the width:
d=450+db
d=470mm
M, = q, XL X L2
2
/2
= 285.23(3.3)(0.95)2/2
M, = 424.74 kN-m
[M, = $R, b d2] where b = 3300 mm
424.74 X 102 = 0.90 R, (3300)(470)
2
R, = 0.647 MPa
p= 0.85J'c [
1
-
1
_ _ 2 _ R ~ l
!y . 0.85f c
= 0.85(27.6) [1- 1 2 (0.647) l
414 0.85 (27.6)
p = 0.00158
Use p = Pmin = 0.00338
289
290
A, = pbd = 0.00338(3300)(470)
As = 5,242 mm
2
f (20)2 N = 5,242
N= 16.6870
N center band 2
---
Ntotal P+ 1
p =
3
3
= 1.375
2.4
N center band 2
16.687 1.375 + 1
N center band= 14.05 say 15 bars
N outer bands = 2 bars
Development length:
Ld = ldb
= 0.02 Abfy I..[!';
= 0.02 X t (20)2 (414)/.J27.6
k=495mm
or Ld = 0.06 dbfy = 0.06(20)(414) = 497 mm
Minimum Ld furnished = 950 - 75 = 875 mm > 497 mm (OK)
500 mm x 500 mm
Total depth
= 560mm
PROBLEM 9.6 (CE MAY 1998)
For the wall footing shown in the Figure:
fc = 28 MPa
fv = 280 MPa
unit weight of cone. = 24 kN/m
3
unit weight of soil = 16 kN/m
3
E
0
~
.....
I Po= 200 kN/m} .
t pL =
180
kN/m serv1ce loads
Ho = 60 kN/m}
HL = 30 kN/m service loads
a) Determine the effective soil pressure, in KiloPascals, if the allowable soil
pressure is 200 KiloPascals (effective soil pressure is the remaining soil
pressure available to support the wall loads after the effects of the soil
and concrete weights are deducted)
b) Determine the minimum width of the wall footing, in meters rounded
upwards to the nearest 0.10 meter, such that the effective soil pressure is
not exceeded.
c) Using the dimension obtained in (b), and considering a one-meter strip,
determine the ultimate shear due to factored loads, in KiloNewtons,
acting on the critical section for one-way or beam shear.
d) Using 25 nun diameter bars, what is its required spacing.
e) Using 10 nun shrinkage and temperature bars with Jy = 275 MPa,
determine the required spacing.
SOLUTION
Part a:
Effective soil pressure, q.:
q, = q.- L.yh
= q.- Yconc hconc- Ysoil hsoil
= 200- 24(0.46} - 16(1.2- 0.46)
q, = 177.12 kPa
Part b:
Considering 1 m strip:
I Po = 200 kN/m
't Pl = 180 kN/m
a
The maximum soil pressure is given by the equation:
P 6M
qmax = - + - . S q,
A bd
2
P = 200 + 180 = 380 kN (unfactored load)
E
E
~
A= B(1) (considering 1m width of footing only)
M = (60 + 30)(1.04)
then;
M = 93.6 kN-m (moment at column base)
b = 1m (width along the axis of bending)
d = B (width transverse to the axis of bending)
- 380 6(93.6)
qmax- B(1) + . 1(8)2
where qmax = 177.12
177.128
2
- 380B- 561.6 = 0
B = 3.15 say 3.20 m
Part c:
Qu min
= 100.86
2.14m .
3.20m
1.45m
Critical Section
for beam shear
1.06m
. I
); ( :
Qumax
= 265.39
The ultimate soil pressure qu is given by: (considering 1m strip)
Pu 6Mu
q" = 1\ 1(B)
2
then;
P" = 1.4Pv +-1.7PL
P,. = 1.4(200) + 1.7(180) = 586 kN
A= 1(3.2) = 3.2 m2
M" = Hu(1.04)
Mu = [1.4(60) + 1.7(30)] (1.04)
Mu = 140.4 kN-m
586 6(140.4)
qu = 3.2 1(3.2)
2
using(+)
using(-)
qumax = 265.39 kPa
qumin = 100.86 kPa
From the stress diagram shown above:
q, = 100.86 + y
Solving for y from similar triangles:
J_ = 164.53
2.14 3.2
293
294 REINFORCED COI';-ICRETE DESIGN
y = 110.03 kPa
qc = 100.86 + 110.03 = 210.89 kPa
The ultimate shear Vu acting on the critical
section is the volume of the diagram shown
to the right
v,. = [1/2(210.89 + 265.39)(1.06)1(1)
V. =252kN
Verifying the adequacy of" d" against wide-beam shear:
Vc = t ..Jl': bw d
bw = 1000 mm; d = 390 mm
Vc = t J28 (1000)(390)
Vc = 343,948 N = 343.948 kN
~ Vc = 0.85(343.948) = 292 kN > Vu (OK)
Part d:
Steel Requirements
_}/_ = 164.53
1.75 m 1.45 m
1.75 3.20
y = 89.977 kPa
3.20 m
q ~ = 100.86 + 89.977 = 190.837 kPa
1.06 m
Mu =
1
/2(1.45)(190.837) X t (1.45) +
1
/2(1.45)(265.39) X i (1.45)
Mu = 252.87 kN-m
265.39
i
j
l
.11
' ~
l
i
.. J
:l
I
i
~
I
'I
' .,
'
[Mu = + R,; li tPJ
252.87 X 106 = 0.90 Ru (1000){390)2
Ru = 1.847 MPa
.. , .. = 0.85f'c [
1
. _ l ~ 2R"]
p /y . . 0.85 f'c ,
'= 0.85(28) [1- 1- 2 (1.847) J
280 0.85 (28)
p = 0.00687. -
Pmin = 1.4/280 = (J.005
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
= 0.75 0.85(28)(0.85)(600) = 0.036 . 9
Pmax . 280{600 :t.280) ,
Use p = 0.00687 .
As= pbd = 0.00687(1000)(390).
A,=2679mm
2
f (25)2 N = 2679; N = 5.458
S
. '
1000
18. 3 80 . . -
pacmg = -- = . mm say 1 . mm o.c.
. 5.458
Parte: _
Shrinkage and temperature bars: ..
A$, = 0.002 b h .
= 0.002(3200)(460)
Ast = 2,944 mm
2
f (16)2 N = 3,944
N= 19.616
s . 3200-75(2)
pacmg = 19.619
Spacing= 155 mm
aps
' ..
, , I . ~
,.
296
COMBINED FOOTINGS
. Combined footings support more than one column. One situation where these
footings may be used is when the columns are so close together so that isolated
or individual footing would run into each other. Another situation is when the
column is very near the property line, such that an isolated footing would
extend across the line. A trapezoidal footing or strap (T) footings may also be
used 'the two adjacent column are very near the property line. ,
In. any of these shapes, it is very ip1portant to let the centroid bf the footing
coincide with the centroid of the combined column loads. In this manner, the
oearing . pressure underneath the footing would be it prevents
uneven settlement. '"' -
Interior columns with equal loads
1 , q
Interior & exterior columns
with Load 2 > Load 1
Property line Property line ..
.,
Exterior columns with
Load 2 > Load 1
\ I
Rectangular corl')bined footing
Rectangular (free to extencj
beyond column 2)
Trapezoidal combined footing
Figure 9.3: Combined footings
. . . . . . . I '
STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTING
When space is restricted for -a single columrt footing, the soil pressure under tl;e
footing be made uniform by co"mbining it with the adjacent colUilU'l or
columns using a rectangular of trapezoidal shape. As the distance between
-such columns increases, the cost of such shapes rises rapidly: - For column
spacing inore than 4.5 m, a strap footing may be more econoll)ical. It consists of
a separate footing under each colun,m connected by a }Jearn or strap to distribute
the column loads.
The footings are sized to produce the same constant under base:
This is attained wh,li!n the centroid of their areas coincide with the resultant of
the column loaqs.
S
( t, [ .
'tr'?! .. Pl +., J r_- ,.,
i1r: n /?\
PLAN
ELEVATION
298
Usually, the strap is raised above the bottom of the footing so ,as not to bear on
the soil. The strap should be designe.d as a rectangular beam spanning between
the columns. The loads on it inc_lude its own weight (when it does not rest on
soil), the1upward pressure from the footings, and the colun1n loads. The width
of strap is usually Selected equalto that of the largest c9lumn plus 100 mm to
200mm so thatcolumn forms can be supported on top of the strap. Its depth is
determined by the maximufl' bending moment.
The main reinforcement in the s.trap is placed near the tOJ? and stirrups are
normally needed near, tfie columns. Longitu?inal placement . s.teeUs also set
r'i.ear the bottom, plus reinforcement to guard against Settlement stresses.
The footing under the exterior column may be designed as a wall footing, The
interior footing should be designed as a single-column footing; however its
Gt"itical section for punching shear should be computed on a section parallelto
the strap at a d/2 from its face.
..

ItLUSTR.t\ TIVE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 9.7 .
Design the combined footing to support the two columns shown. The base
oHootingis 2 m below the ground Use the following qata: Yconc =
23.5 kNjm3, Yson 17.2 'kN/m
3
, jy = 345 MPa, /c = 21.5 Use 25 nun .
diameter main bars. Allowable soil bearing pressure, q. = 290 kPa
Column 1:
PoL =.650kN
PLt=940kN
20() mm
SOLUTION
Solving for L:
' I
J: !. pl
-I
o
<lJI ,

I X1
I (
Column2:
PDL = 1,120 kN
Ptt = 1,430 kN
. I
I
v
p
f
.I
300
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN.
PI= 650+ 940
p, = 1,590 kN'
x, =;' 0.2 in
p2 = 1,120 + 1,430
Pz = 2,550 kN
Xz = 0.2 + 4 = 4.2 nt
P = P, + Pz = 4,140 kN-
X =? __lP.
g
1
1' lt'\11)
[PXg= P, x, + Pz xz]
4,140 Xg = 1,590(0.2) + 2,550(4.2)
Xg = 2.664 m = L/2
L = 5.33m
'!Note: Due to complexi,ty of the calculation, the value of d for combined footing is usually
assumed and checked later. Usually two or more trials are made before getting its most
reasonable. The student may find this procedure too tedious and tiresome, but one
should think that iffooting fails, the wholebuilding fails,. so this effort is worth it.
Tryd = 680 mm (the author got this value after several trials)
Total depth offooting = d + 0.5 x bar diam. +cone. cover
Total depth of footing, h, = 680 + 0.5(25)+ 75
Total depth of footing, he= .= 767Ssay 768 mm
fleightof soil above footing= 2- 0.768 = 1.232 m
qc = q;,- Yc he c Ys-hs
q. = 290 - 23.5(0.768) - 17.2(1.232) .
q. = 250:8 kPa
Area = !_
qe
A f
' f . . 4,140 16 5 2
rea o ooting = --,------'- = . 1 m
. . 250.8
Area offooting := 5.33 B = 16.51
B
P,,, = 1A(650) + 1.7(940)

P;11 = 2,508 kN .
' Pu2= 1.4(1,120) + 1.7(1,430)
Puz = 3,999 kN
P" = P111 + p,;2
Pu = 2,508 + 3,999 = 6,507kN
_c_H_A_PT_E_R_9_-..,F_o_o_TI_N_G_s __ _... _________ ....;... _ __;._;...._...,;._.. ' ';', ' ,
. p 6,507
q,.= _ _ u_ .= ~ - -
. Area 3.1(5.33)
q,. = 393.815 .kPa . _
Check "d'' for two-way or punching shear:
Column 1:
b.= 0.74(2) + 1.08 = 2.56 m
b.=2,560mm
V,. = Put - q,. X Ashad'ed
';" 2,508.,. 393.815(0.74 X 1.08) j
V,. =2193.26kN . J
' 1
v = .1. rii'J' b d - r -- , s ~ P-el-
' 3 "1/J c 0 . "fY"U-- .
= t ./27.5 (2,560)(68q)
V, = 3,042,944 N
rv - .
~ V, = 0.85(3,042,944) = 2,586,502 N
~ v; = 2,586.5 kN > V,. (OK)
Column2:
bo = 1.18(4) = 4.72 m
b. = 4,720 trim.
302
V, = P,2- q, X Ashaded
= 3,999 _; 393.815(1.18)2
V, ; 3450.65 kN
v= 1. I b .a
I 3 vJ. c o
= t .J27.5 (4,720)(680)
V c = 5,610,428 N
.
$ Vc = 0.85($,610,428)
REINFORCED CONCRETE DES.IGN
$Vc = 4,768,864 N = 4,769 kN > V, (OK)
. Check "d" for beam shear:
V,, = q,(0.4 + 0.68)(3.1)- P,1
= 393.815(1.08)(3.1}- 2,508
v,l = -1189.5 kN
Vu2 = P,2- q,G 0.5 + 0.68)(3.1) .
= 3,999 5(2.06)(3.1)/
V,2 = 1484.1 kN /
v,3 = -q,(0.88 '- o.68)
V!'3 = -(393.815)(0.2) =
Max V, = 1484.1 kN
Vc= t Jf;bwd
= t .J27.5(3100)(680) .
Vc = l,842,408N = 1,842.4kN
$ Vc = 0.85(1,842.4)
$ Vc = 1,566 kN > v, (OK)
Design of main bars along length:
WJ = 2,508/0.4
W1 = 6,270 kNjm
lV2 = .
w2 :;:_ 7,998 kN/m
.
w, =393.815(3.1)
w, = 1220.83 kNjm
.'.=:
CHAPTER.9- FOOTINGS
E
From the. shear and moment diagram shown:
X. 3.55 ,
2019.668
2019.668 + 2314.2785
x:o:1.654m
M = Area of shear diagram
M1 = 1/2(0.4)\--2019.668) .
M1 =.-403.93 kN-m
-M2 = 1ff(0.4 + 1.654)(-2,019.668) /
M
2
= -2074.2 kN-m
M3 = -2074.2 +
1
h(3.55 -
M3 = 119.74 kN-m .
M. = 1220,83(0.88)(0.88/2)
M. = 472.7 kN-m
131 =0.85
- 0.85 !', 131 600
Pb- fy(600+ /y)
. ,; 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600) = 0.03657
Pb , 345( 600 +
Pmx = 0.75 Pb
Pmax = 0.0274
Pmin =.1.4/345 = 0.00406
b =:= 3.1 m = 3,100 mm
. d=680mm
Abar = 'i (25)
2
= 491 rhJn2
r>-
.
::;:, , ... ,
>:
...
Moment,Mu.
M

Ru= -"- ..
+6d
2
0.85/'c [ ) 2Ru J
p=. -- 1- 1--
/y 0.85f'c
Usep
As=pbd
Number Of bars, N = As/
. UseN=
Location ..
.
-
... '. !, ',.
-403.93 -2074.2.
0.31310
z60779
0.00091
0.00406 '
0.00483
8,558 10,187
17.4
!
20)'
18 21
Top _
Top
,.,

119.74 472.7
0.09281 0.36641
I
-
0.00027 0.00107
000406 '
0.00406
I) 8,558
17.4 17.4
' 18 18
Bottom . Bottom
,,._.
. .:
::';
-'l
'
' >
':-,'
301
Design of main bars along width
E
.....
,...;
Note: The Code did not specify the width to be considered in the design of transverse
bars. It is usually assumed equal to column width plus 0.75 d.
Column 1:
b = 400 + 0.75(680)
b;.,910nun -
d = 680 - 25 = 655 (tt;ansverse bars on top of longitudinal)
Mut =393.815(0.91)(1.35
2
/2)
Mut = 326.57 kN-m
Column2:
b = 500 + 0.75(680)
b=1010ni
lvfu2 = 393.815(1;01)(1.32/2)
Mu2 = 336.1 kN-m
0 ~ 9 2 9 0.862
0.00275 0.00255
306
Development length:
Ld = 0.02Ab.fv /..{f;
= o.oz .x 491 (345)/ .J27.5
Ld=646mm
or Ld = 0.06 db.fv = 0,06(25)(345) = 518 mm
Minimum Ld furnished = 1800 - 75 .
Minimum Ld furirished = 1725 mm > 646 mm (OK)
Shrinkage and temperature bars:
Using 16 mm bars withf:v = 275 MPa
For b = 1000 mm:
Ast = 0.002bh
= 0.002(1000)(793)
' Ast = 1586 mm
2
f (16)2 N =1,586
N= 7.888
. 1000
Spacmg = -- = 127 say 125 mm p.c.
7.888
75mm

910 mm 1. 75 mm
307
PROBLEM 9.8
Design the combined footing to support the two columns shown. The base
of footing is 2.2 m below the ground surface. Use the following data:
23.5 kN/m
3
, Ysoil = 17.6 kN/m
3
, JY '"\275 MPa, fc = 27.5 MPa; Use 25 m.m
diameter main bars. Allowable soil bearing pressure, qa = 245 kPa. Use 28-
mm diameter main bars.
Column 1:
PoL= 550 kN
S60kN
SOLUTION
Pt =550+ 860
Pt = 1,410 kN
Xt = l.m,
p2 .= 945 + 1,175
P2= 2,120 kN
x2=4m
P= Pt + P2.
P =3,530 kN
P Xc = Pt Xt + P2 X2
Column2:
PoL= 945 kN
PLL = 1,175 kN,
Length, L
>; = L/2
I (
3,530 Xc = 1,410(1) +2,120(4)
Xc = 2.802 m = L/2
L = 5.?04 m say 5.61 m

REINFORCED .CONCRETE DESIGN
Try d = 540 mm (the author goUhis value after several trials)
Total depth of footing= d + 0.5 x bar diam +cone. cover
Total depth of footing, he= 540 + 0.5(28) + 75
Total depth of footing, he = 629 say 630 m.Q.l
Height of soil above footing :: 2.2 "" = 1.57 m
q, = qa - Ychc - Ys hs .
q, = 245- 23.5(0.63)- 17.6(1.57)
q, = 202.56 kPa '
A ff
. p 3,530
rea: o . ooting = - = -. --.
qe 202.56
Area of footing= 17.43 m2
At:ea offooting = 5.61 _x B = 17.44
B = 3.11 m
P,1 = 1.4(550) + 1.7(860)
P,1 = 2,232 kN
P;,2 = 1.4(945)+ 1.7(1,175)
P,2 = 3,320.5 kN
P, = P,1 + P,2
= 2,232 + 3,320.5
P, = 5,552.5 kN
Pu
q, = Area
5,552.5
3.11(5.61)
q, = 318.25 kPa
Check" d" fbr two-way or punching shear:
Convert the circular column tb square area; (Code Section 5.15.3)
Asquare =: Acircle
a
2
= f (480)2
a=425mm
. \!
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
r
E
For column ~ :
VII =P,;t '- q,. X Ashaded
= 2,232- 318.25(0.99 X 0.99)
v , ~ = 1,920.1 kN
V,=;= t ..[1'; bod
= t .J27.5 (990 X 4)(540)
= 3,737,955 N
V, = 3,738 ,kN
~ v, = 0.85(3,738)
. ~ v, = 3,177.3 kN > VII (OK)
For column 2:
V, = Pu2 - q11 X Ashaded
= 3,320.5- 318.25(0.965 X 0.965)
VII = 3,024 kN . .
V, = t .J27.5 (965 X 4)(540)
= 3,643,562 N
Vc= 3,644kN
~ V< == 0.85(3,644)
~ V, = 3097.4 kN > 3,024 kN (OK)'

310 CONCRETE DESIGN
Check "d" for shear:
Solving for the Vu:
At section a:
VII= 318.25(0.235)(3.11) = 232.6 kN
At section b:
V, = 318.25(1.765)(3.11)- 2,232 = -485.1 kN
At section c:
V, = 3,320.5- 318.25(2.3645)(3.11) = 982.2 kN
At section d:
V, = -318.25(0.8575)(3.11) = kN
UseV, = 982.2 kN
Vc:= f.[l';bwd
where,b;,, = 3.11 m == 3110 mm
Vr = t )27.5(3110)(540)
V, = 1,467,808 N = 1,468 kN
$ v, = 0.85(1,4.68)
$ V, = 1247.8 kN > V,, (OK)
. .
.
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
Moment along long direction:
E
....
....
,....;
X
. b
I
450
425

: 1m 3m -----M--1.61 m
5.61 m
Pu1 2,232 kN
............
. . . . . . ' . .
::::::::::
i
Pu1 3,320.5 kN
c
: :::::.: : ' : .
. . . . .. . . .. '
. ... ... .
. :. ::: : . : ..
. . :::. ::. : ...
1 qu = 318.25 kPa
I 1 \ I
, .. , ' , , ..
: . :
, ' I I I .. ..

. .,,"
\ ,' i _, ,'
'.' / Moment diagram '. ,....,___,
\./ \ Shear
\ .- diagram
..
At section a:
, M, 318.25(3.11)(0.7752/2) .. 297.24 kN-m
At section b:
M, 318.25(3.11)(1.225
2
/2)- 2,232(0.45/2) 240.4 kN-m
JU

At section c:
Solve for x (point of zero shear) .
Vr = 318.25(3.11) X- 2,232 = 0
x=2.255m ,
Mu = 318.25{3.11)(2.255
2
/2)- 2,232(2.255- 0.775- 0.45/2)
M, = -284.7kN
At section d:
M, = 318.25(3.11)(1.8225
2
/2)- 3,320.5(0.425/2) = 938.1 kN-m
At section e:
M, =
= 966.5 kN-m
= 0.85
- 6_00_
Pb-
/y(600+ /y)
= . 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600) = 0.0495
Pb 275(600 + 275)
Pmax = 0.75 Pb = 0.0371
Pmln = 1.4/275 = 0.0051
b3110mm
d=540mm
t (28)
2
- 616 mm2

Moment,M,
_ Mu
R,--, -
41bd
2
_ OR.Sf', [ } 2R, l
p--- 1- 1---
!y 0.85f',
Usep
As= pbd
Number of bars, N = A,f Ab
UseN=
Location
a b
297.24 240.4
0.3642 0.2945
0.0013 0.0011
0.0051 0.0051
8564.9 8564.9
13.9 .
13.9
14 14
Bottom Bottom
c d
284.7 938.1
0.3488 1.1494
0.0013 0.0043
0.0051 0.0051
8564.9
13.9 13.9
14 14
Top Bottom
e
966.5
0.3642
0.0013
0.0051
8564.9
13.9
14
Bottom
CHAPTER 9 FOOT.INGS
Moment along short direction:
Column 1:
bl = 450 + 0.75(540)
b1 =855mm
M, = 318.25(0.855)(1.332/2)
M, = 240.66 kN-m
Column2:
b2 = 425 + 0.75(540)
b2 =830mm
M, =: 318.25(0.83)(1.34252/2)
M, = 238.04 kN"m
' dl = d2 = 540 - 28
d1 = d2 = 512 mm (transverse bars above longitudinal)
Section ~ Column 1 Column2
Moment, M, (kN-m) 240.66 238.04
b_(mm) 855 830
R,= Mu
~ b d
2
1.19 1.216
0.85f'c [ i 2Ru ]
0.00446 0.00454
p= -- 1- 1---
fy 0.85 f'c
Usep 0.0051 0.0051
As= pbd 2,233 2,167
Number of bars, N =As/ Ab 3.6 3.5
UseN= 4 4
Location Bottom Bottom
313
314
Using 16 mm bars withfy = 275 MPa
For b = 1000 mm:
Ast = 0.002bh
= 0.002(1000)(657)
Ast = 1,314 mm2
f (16)2 N = 1,314
N = 6.535
. 1000
Spacmg= --
6.535
Spacing = 153 say 150 mm o.c.
Development length:
Ld = ldb = 0.02 Abfy I ffc
Ld = 0.02 x 616 (275)/.J27.5 = 646 mm
or Ld = 0.06 dbjy = 0.06(28)(275) = 462 mm
Minimum Ld funtished = 1,330 + 450 - 75
Minimum La furnished= 1,705 mm (OK)
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
PROBLEM 9.9
Given the following column properties and loads:
Column 1 Column 2
300 mrn x 300 mrn 400 mrn x 400 mrn
4 - 25 mrn bars
DL=425kN
LL = 340 kN
'
6 - 25 mrn bars
DL =535 kN
LL =490kN
----- 4.5m ..

Design a suitable trapezoidal-shaped footing. Use fc = 21 MPa, fy = 414
MPa, and assume q. = 160 kPa. Use 20 mrn main bars and 16 mrn
temperature bars withfy = 275 MPa.
SOLUTION
Solving the location of the resultant force on footing:
Pt = 425 + 340
Pt = 765kN
Xt = 0.3/2
xt=0.15m
p2 = 535 + 490
P2 = 1,025 kN
X2 = 4.5- 0.4/2
x2=4.3m
P= Pt + P2
P= 1,790kN
p XG = Pt Xt + p2 X2
1,790 XG = 765(0.15) + 1,025(4.3)
XG= 2.526m
316
Solving for dimensions a and b:
p 1,790
Ang=- =--
qe 160
Ang = 11.1875 m2
~ - - - - - L = 4.5 m - - - - - - - + ~
A1 = V2(a)(4.5) = 2.25 a
A2 =
1
/2(b)(4.5) = 2.25 b
A =A1 +A2
11.1875 = 2.25a + 2.25b
a 4.972- b ~ Eq. (1)
A Xc A1(1.5) + A2(3)
11.1875(2.526) = 2.25a(1.5) + 2.25b(3)
a + 2b = 8.373 ~ Eq. (2)
Substitute "a" in Eq. (1) to Eq. (2):
4.972- b + 2b = 8.373
b = 3.401 m
a= 4.972-3.401 = 1.57 m
Use a "" 1.57 m and b = 3.41 m
A tu if tin 1.57 + 3.41 (4 5)
c a oo garea=
2
.
Actual footing area:= 11.205 > 11.1875 (OK)
A
b
P111 = 1.4(425) + 1.7(340)
P111 = 1,173 kN
pl/2 = 1.4(535) + 1.7(490)
P112 =:. 1,582 kN
P" =Put+ Pu2
P, = 2,755kN
Pu 2,755
q ~ ~ = - - = - -
Aactual 11.205
q, = 245.87 kPa
Wt = q,. X a
I I
j d I
. I
~ j
I .
j
I
= 245.87(1.57)
Wt = 386.02 kN/m
w2 = qu x b
= 245.87(3.41)
w2 = 838.42 kN/m
317
200
311
1173 kN
l 838.42- 386.02
X 4.5
y 100.533x
W 386.02 + 100.533 X
Width of footing at any value of x:
b 1.57 + 0.4089x
Shear at any point:
V 386.02 x + Vz(x)(100.533x) -1173
V 50.21 x
2
+ 386.02 x -1,173
Moment at any polr\t:
1582 kN
838.42
4.Sm .
~ Eq. (1)
M 386.02(-t'/2) + Vz(x)(100.533x)(x/3)- 1173(x- 0.15)
M 193.01 xl + 16.76 xs -1173x + 175.95 ~ Eq. (2)
Ataume d 620 mm:
Wide beam hear at column 1:
x 0.3 +d
x0.92m
Vu 50.27 (0.92)2 + 386.02 (0.92} - 1,173
Vu -775.3 kN
b 1.57 + 0.4089(0.92)
b1.946m
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
v, = t ffi (1,946)(620)
V, = 921,495 N = 921.495 kN
 VII (OK)
Wide beam shear at column 2;
x = 4.5 - 0.4 - d = 3.48 m
VII= 50.27(3.48)
2
+ 386.02(3.48) -1,173
VII= 779.14 kN
b = 1.57 + 0.4089(3.48)
b = 2.993 m
v, = t ffi (2,993)(620)
V, = 1,417,284 N = 1,417.28 kN
 VII (OK)
Punching shear at column 1;
V., = P11t - q11 x Area
= 1,173- 245.87[(0.3 + 0.62/2)(0.3 + 0.62)]
VII = 1,035.02 kN
b
0
= 2(300 + 620 /2) + (300 + 620)
bo= 2,140mm
v,"' t ffi (2,140)(620) = 2,026,720
V, = 2,026.72 kN
 VII (OK)
Punching shear at column 2;
V11 = P112 - q11 x Area
.. 1,582- 245.87[(0.4 + 0.62/2)(0.4 + 0.62)]
VII= 1,404kN
b
0
= 2(400 + 620/2) + (400 + 620)
bo=2,440mm
V, = t ffi (2,440)(620) = 2,310,840 N
V, = 2,310.84 kN
 VII (OK)
319
320
The assumed depth is OK, governed by wide beam shear at column 1:
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Moment at the face of column 1:
x=0.3m
Mu = 193.01(0.3)
2
+ 16.76(0.3)3 -1173(0.3) + 175.95
Mu = -158.13 kN-m
b .. 1.57 + 0.4089(0.3)
b=1.693m
Moment at the face of column 2:
X =4.5 -0.4
X""4.1 m
M, == 193.01(4.1)
2
+ 16.76(4.1)3 -1173(4.1) + 175.95
M .. = -233.74 kN-m
b = 1.57 + 0.4089(4.1)
b=3.246m
Maximum moment (point of zero shear)
V = 50.27 x2 + 386.02 x- 1,173 = 0
x=2.33m
.
M, = 193.01(2.33)2 + 16.76(2.33)3 -1173(2.33) + 175.95
M, = -1,297.3 kN-m
b ... 1.57 + 0.4089(2.33)
b=2.523m
Transverse Reinforcement
At column 1:
X = 0.3 + 0.75d
x=0.765m
b = 1.57 + 0.4089(0.765)
b= 1.883m
Lt = (1.57- 0.3)/2 = 0.635
L2 = (1.883- 0.3)/2 = 0.7915 m
L = (Lt + L2)/2., 0.713 m
M, = q, (x)(L2/2)
= 245.87(0.765)(0.713
2
/2)
Mu = 47 .. 81 kN-m
Atcolumn2:
a
I
I
---
~
---
---
... --
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Y1
b
---
---
---
Xt 0.4 + 0.75d = 0.865 m
x = 4.5 - 0.865 = 3.635 m
b = 1.57 + 0.4089(3.635) = 3.056 m
Yt = (3.056- 0.4)/2 = 1.328 m
yz = (3.41 - 0.4)/2 = 1.505 m
L = (y1 + yz)/2 = 1.4165 m
Mu = qu (xt) (L2j2)
= 245.87(0.865)(1.41652/2)
Mu = 213.4 kN-m
Pmln =
1
4
= 0.00338
414
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
= 0 75 0.85(21)(0.85)(600) = 0.0163
Pmox 414(600 + 414)
Ab = t ( ~ 0 )
2
= 314 mm2
!Z!
3.41
0.4

............ ,
.. ,. iij;
' .
b,_(mm) 1,693
Moment, Mu (kN-m) 158.13
Ru,. Mu .
fbd
2
0.27
0.85/', [ r 2Ru l
0.00066 p -- 1- 1---
fy 0.85 f'c
Usep 0.0034
A, pbd 3569
Number of bars, N = A,j Ab 11.4
UseN 12
Location Top
Using 16 mm bars with Jy = 275 MPa
For b = 1000 mm:
h = 620 + 0.5(20) + 75
h-705mm
A., = 0.002bh
..
\\ J}.
1,523
1297.3
1.49
0.00375
0.00375
5866
18.7
19
Top
A,, 0.002(1000)(705) 1,410 mm2
f (16)2 N 1,410
N7.0127
Spacing
1000
= 143 say 140 mm o.c.
7.0127
Development length:
Lt = ldb ... 0.02 Abfy I .[1';
Lt = 0.02 x 314 (414)/ J2l = 567 mm
or Lt = 0.06 dbfy = 0.06(20)(414) = 497 mm
.,,
e
3,246
233.74
0.21
0.00051
0.0034
6843
21.8
22
Top
Minimum Lt furnished (transverse on at column 1)
;, 635 + 300 - 75 .. 860 mm (OK)
I!)
E
765 865
47.81 213.4
0.1806 0.7131
0.000438 0.00176
0.00338 0.00338
1603 1812
5.1 5.8
6 6
Bottom
CHAPTER 9 ~ FOOTINGS 323
~ - - ' - - - - - L = 4.5 m - - - - - - - ~
4-20 mm
PROBLEM 9.10
Given the following column properties and loads: ,
Column 1
400 mm x 400 mm
4- 25mm bars
DL =480kN
LL =350kN
Column2
450 mm x 450 mm
6-25 mm bars
DL =640kN
LL =510kN
The edge of column 1 is at the property line and the footing is 2.2 rn below
the ground surface. The spacing of columns is 6.5 rn o.c.. q. = 200 kPa, Yc =
23.5 kN/rn
3
, Ys = 15.4 kN/rn
3
, /c = 27.5 MPa. Use 25 mm bars for footing and
28 mm bars for strap, with fy = 345 MPa. Use 16 mm temperature bars with fy
= 275 MPa.
SOLUTION
n 1'---: -.Xg
''l--
q.
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
325
In the previous problems, we start the design by assuming a value of tl.
Another procedure is to assume a value of effective soil bearing capacity q,.
qe must not exceed, qa- Ys hs = 200- 15.4(2) = 169.2 kPa
Assume q. = 160 kPa
Pt = 480 + 350
P, =830kN
p2 = 640 + 510
P2 = 1,150kN
P= P, + P2
P= 1,980kN
p 1,980
Atotal = - = --
qe 160
Atotal = 12.375 m2
At + A2 = 12.375 m2 ~ Eq. (1)
For the soil pressure to be uniform, the centroid of A 1 and At must coincide
with the resultant of Pt and P2.
p Xg = Pt Xt + p2 X2
1,980 Xg = 830(0.2) + 1,150(6.7)
Xg"'3.975m
We will start by assuming a value of Lt until a desirable ratio L
1
/B1 is
obtained (usually from 0.75 to 1)
Try L, = 2.2 m
A Xg = A,(L,/2) + A2(6.7)
12.375(3.975) == A,(1.1) + 6.7 A2
At= 44.72- 6.091A2
Substitute At in Eq. (2) to Eq. (1):
44.72- 6.091A2 + A2 12.375
A2 = 6.353m2
A,= 44.72- 6.091(6.353)
At= 6.024 m2
7 Eq. (2)
[Al = LJ X 81] 6.024 = 2.2 X Bl
81 = 2.74m
LJ/B1 = 0.8 (this appears to be reasonable)
[A2 = L2 x 82] Using square footing, L2 = B2
6.353 = L
2
2
L2 = 82 = 2.5205 say 2.53 m
Design of footing
Pul = 1.4(480) + 1.7(350)
Pu1 =1267kN
P
11
2 = 1.4(640) + 1.7(510)
Pu2= 1763 kN
P
11
= 1,267 + 1,763
P,. =3,030kN
'Attg =A1+ A2
A1 = 2.2(2.74) = 6.028 m2
A2 = 2.532 = 6.401 m2
Attng = 6.028 + 6.401
Attng = 12.429 m
2
_ Pu _ 3,030
q, - A ftg - 12.429
q,. = = 243.78 kPa
Footing 1:
Solve for d from wide-beam shear:
Assume width of strap = 550 mm (larger than the column)
q,. = 0.24378 MPa
V,. = q,. X Ashaded
= 0.24378(2200)(1095- d)
v,. = 536.316(1095- d)
Vr= t .Jf; bwd
= .t .J27.5 (2200)d
Vc = 1,923 d
b= 2200 mm
~ - - - - - ' L - - - - - t
L----....
1095- d
d
550 mm
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS
[V, = <PV.- J
536.32(1095 - d) = 0.85 X 1,923 d
1095- d = 3.0477d
d = 270.5 mm say 271 mm
Check for actual q,:
he = 271 + 0.5(25) + 75
he :; 358.5 say 360 mm
h, = 2.2- 0.36 = 1.84 m
q, = qu- Yr he- Ys hs
= 200- 23.5(0.36)- 15.4(1.84)
q, = 163.204 kPa > 160 (OK)
This means that the q, used in the design is lesser than the
actual value.
327
Before we proceed with the design of bars, let us first solve the depth
required for footing 2 so that we can check for q,.
Since Footing 2 is square, punching shear will surely govern.
V, = Pu2 - q, X Ashaded
V, = 1763 X 103- 0.24378(450 + d)2
Ve = ! ..{1'; bo d
= t [4(450 + d)](d)
Ve = 6.992(450d + cfl)
[V, = <jlVc)
1763 X 1Q3 ":' 0.24378(450 + d)2 = 0.85 X 6.992(450d + cfl)
'0
+
0

1763 X 1Q3- 49365- 219.4 d- 0.24378 cf2 = 2674 d + 5.9432 cf2
6.187 d2 + 2,893 d -1,713,635 = 0
- 2893

-4(6.187)(-1713635)
d = ___ ::....;_ _ _..;.._.;___..;....;__ __ ...;,_
2(6.187)
d = 342.1 mm say 343 mm
Check for q,:
he = 343 + 0.5(25) + 75 = 430.5 say 431 mm
2.2- 0.431 = 1.769 m
qe = qu - Yc he - Ys hs
= 200- 23.5(0.431)- 15.4(1.769)
q, = 162.6 kPa > 160 kPa (OK)

328 '
Moment:
0 . 2 ~
L
Footing 1 (transverse section):
M .. = 243.78(2.2)(1.0952/2)
M, = 321.53 kN-m
b=2200mm
d = 271 rnm
Footing 2 (transverse section):
M .. = 243.78(2.53)(0.992/2)
M;, = 302.24 kN-m
b= 2,530mm
d=343mm
Footing 2 (Longitudinal section):
M, = 243.78(2.53)(1.042/2)
. M.1 :::: 3 ~ 3 . 5 5 kN-m
b= 2,530mm
6.5 m
d = 343- 25 = 318 mm (longitudinal above transverse)
Pmin = 1.4/fy = 1.4/345
Pmin = 0.00406
Pmax = 0.75 Pb
= 0.75 0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600)
345(345 + 600)
'f'max = 0.0274
Ab = t (25)
2
= 491 mm2
..
CHAPTER 9 FOOTINGS

Footing1 Footing2
Transverse Transverse
Moment, M, (kN-m) 321.53 302.24
R, = M, (MPa)
- +bd
2
.
2.21 1.13
_ 0.85f', [

2R, ]
p---.-...-- 1- 1---
fy 0.85f'c
0.00674 0.00336
Usep O.OQ674 0.00406
As= pbd 4,018 3,523
Number of bars, N = AJ_Ab 8.18 7.2
UseN= 9 8
Location Bottom Bottom
Shrinkage and temperature bars for Footing 1: (h = 360 mm)
Using 16 mm bars with fy = 275 MPa
Forb = 1000 mm:
A., = 0.002 b h
= 0.002(1000)(360)
Ast=720mm
2
f (16)2 N = 720
N=3.58
S
. 1000
pacmg= --
3.58
Spacing = 280 mm o.c . ./
Development length:
L.t = ldb
= 0.02 Abfy I.[!':
L.t = = 0.02 x 491 (345)/ .J27.5 = 646
or Ld = 0.06 db fy = 0.06(25)(345) = 518 mm
Minimum Ld furnished = 990 + 550 - 75
Minimum Ld furnished = 1,465 mm (OK)
Footing2
LongitudUial
333.55
.
1.45
0.00434
0.00434
3,492
7.1
8
Bottom
IE----2.53
...... '\
___ . ..- ..
,, .. "---- ... .... ---- ----------- ..... --- _ ..
'
'
'
' '
~ , "'
"
At section A-A:
M, = Rut(1.1)- Put(2)
Moment Diagram
= 243.78(2.2)(2.74)(1.1)- 1267(2)
Mu = -917.54 kN-m
Vu =Rut- "Put
= 243.78(2.2)(2.74) - 1267
V, =202.5kN
Depth of beam based on beam shear:
Vu =' Vc
Vu = + t .{f; b., d, where bw = 550 nun
202.5 X 1()3 = 0.85 t .J27.5 (550)d
d=495.6mm
Depth of beam based on moment:
Use = 0.
6
=
0
_
6
0.85(27.5)(0.85)(600)
p Pb 345(345 + 600)
p = 0.0219
w=pjy/fc
= 0.0219(345)/275
(J) = 0.275
fvr" = ~ !c w b d2 (1- o.59 w)
91754 X 10
6
= 0.9(27.5)(0.0275)(550) f12 (1 - 0.59 X 0.275)
d = 541 nun./
Used= 550mm
R- Mu
II- ~ b d 2
917.54 X 10
6
0.9(550)(550)
2
Ru = 6.128 MPa
= 0.85(27.5) [1- 1 2(6.128) l
p 345 0.85(27.5)
p = 0.021
A,= pbd = 0.021(550)(550)
A, = 6,353 mm2
N= 6,353
t(28)2
N = 10.32 say 11 bars
16-mm temp. bars
@280 mmo.c.
331
PROBLEM 9.11
Design a square footing to support a 500 mm x 500 mm column to carry an axial
dead load of 650 kN and an axial live load of 570 kN. Use 20 mm main
reinforcing bars withfy = 345 MPa. Assumefc = 27.5 MPa, y,. = 23.5 kN/m
3
, Ys =
18.2 kN/m
3
, depth of footing= 1.8 m.
PROBLEM 9.12
Design a rectangular column footing to carry the following column loads:
PoL= 380kN
MoL = 125 kN-m
PLL = 275kN
MLL=98kN-m
The column is 400 mm x 400 mm and is reinforced with 6-25 mm bars. The base
of footing is 1.6 m below the natural grade and the allowable soil pressure is 220
kPa. Design the footing such that the soil pressure at the base is uniform. Take
L = 1.68 and use f c = 28 MPa and fy = 414 MPa. Use 20 mm ptain bars.
PROBLEM 9.13
Design a wall footing to carry the following loads:
PoL= 180 RN/m
PLL = 145 kN/m
MDL=57kN/m
MLL=36kN/m
Wall thidness is 300mm. f, = 27.5 MPa, fy = 345 MPa, Yt =;23.5 kN/in
3
, Ys = 17.8
kN/m
3
, q. = 180 kPa. The footing is 2m below the ground: Use 20 ritin main
bars.
333
PROBLEM 9.14
Design the combined footing to support the two columns shown. The base of
footing is 1.9 m below the ground surface. Use the following data: Yconr 24
kN/m
3
, Ysoil = 18 kN/m
3
,fv = 275 MPa,f,. = 27.5 MPa. Use 25 mm diameter main
bars. All_owable soil bearing pressure, q., = 170 kPa
Column 1:
Prn = 460 kN
PLL = 380 kN
PROBLEM 9.15
Column 2:
Pot= 530kN
PLL = 475 kN
Column 1 Column 2
300 mm x 300 mm 380 mm x 380 mm
4-25 mm bars
DL = 380kN
LL = 320kN
6- 25mmbars
DL =470kN
LL =435 kN
~ ~ . ----- 4.0m - - - - ~ . ~
~ f l j ~ ~
8., ~
~ : Column 1 Column 2 : ~
Design a suitable trapezoidal-shaped footing. Use f, = 28 MPa, h = 375 MPa,
and assume q. = 135 kPa. Use 20 mm main bars and 16 mm temperature bars
with fy = 275 MPa.
PROBLEM 9.16
.
Column 1
400 mm x 400 mm
4- 25mm bars
DL=520kN
LL=410kN .
Column 2
500 mm x 500 mm
6-25mmbars
DL =690kN
LL =545kN
The edge of column ~ is at the property line. The spacing of columns is 7 m o.c ..
Use 25 mm bars for footing and 28 mm bars for strap, withfy = 345 MPa. Use 16
mm temperature bars withfy = 275 MPa. Assumefc = 28 MPa. Assume q. = 180
kPa.
CHAPTER 10- TWO-WAY SLAB
335
Chapter 10
Two-way Slab
When a rectangular reinforced-concrete slab is supported on all four sides,
reinforcement placed perpendicular to the side may be assumed effective in the
two directions. These slabs ~ e known as two-way slabs. The bending on these
slabs occurs in both directiOns. However, if a rectangular slab is supported in
all four sides but the long side is two or more times the short side, the slab will,
for all practical purposes, act as a one way slab, with' bending occurring in the
short direction.
Figure 10.1: Bending of two-way slab
The Code specifies two methods of designing two-way slabs. These are the
direct design method (Section 5.13.6) and equivalent frame method (Section 5.13.7).
However, there are other methods that can be used. These include the strip
method and moment coeffidents method (Method 2).
COLUMN AND MIDDLE STRIPS
When the design moments have been determined by either the direct design
method or equivalent frame method, the moments are distributed across each
panel. The panel is divided into column and middle strips. Column strip is a
design strip with a width on each side of a column centerline equal to 0.25 x L2
or 0.25 x Lt, whichever is less. Column strip includes beams, if any. The middle
strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips.
336
0.25 Lt or 0.25 Lz
whichever Is smaller
Middle
Sbip
0.25 L, or 0.25 Lz
whichever Is smaller
, F l g u ~ 10.2: Column and middle strips
MINIMUM SLAB THICKNESS (SECTION 5.9.5.3.2)
The minimum thickness of slabs without interior beams spanning between the
supports shall be in accordance with the provisions of Table 10.1 and shall not
be less the following values:
(a) Slabs without drop panels ........................................................ 125 mm
(b) Slabs with drop panels .......................... : ................................... 100 mm
Table "10.1: Minimum Thickness of Slabs without Interior beams
Without drop panels With drop panels
Note (2) Note (2}
Yield Stress
fy, MPa Note
ExteriOr panels
Interior
Exterior panels
Interior
(1)
panels panels
Without With edge Without With edge
edge beams edge beams
beams Note (3) beams Note(J}
275 l.J33 l.J36 LJ36 LJ36 L.J40 l.J40
415 LJJO LJ33 LJ33 l.J33 l.J36 l.J36
(1) For values d reinfortement yield stress between 275 and 415 MPa minimum thickness
shaH be obtained by linear InterpolatiOn.
(2) Drop panel Is deftned In Sections 5.13.4.7.1 and 5.13.4.7.2.
(3) Slabs with beams b!!tween cOlumns along exterior edges. The value d a for the edge
beam shall not be less than 0.8.
CHAPTER 10- TWO-WAY SLA6
337
The minimum thickness of slabs with or without beams spanning between the
supports on all sides and having a ratio of long to short span not exceeding 2
shall be
L
11
(800 + 0.73 /y)
h = ----------"---,-----
36,000+ -0.12(1 +
Eq. 10-1
but not less than
L
11
(800 + 0.73 JlJ)
It= .
36,000 +
Eq. 10-2
and need not be more than
L
11
(800 + 0.73 /y)
h =------=--
. 36,000
Eq. 10-3
The values obtained from Eq. 10- 1, Eq. 10- 2, or Eq. 10- 3 shall be modified as
required by Sec. 5.9.5.3.4 and Sec. 5.9.5.3.5 but in no case shall the thickness be
less than
(a) for am < 2.0 125 mm
(b) for a,. 2.0 .......... ................. ......... .... ..................... ............... ..... .... 90 mm
Section 5.9.5.3.4: For slabs without beams, but with drop panels extending in
each direction from centerline of support a distance not less than one-sixth the
span length in that direction measured center-to-center of supports, and
projection below the slab at least one-quarter the slab thickness beyond the
drop, thickness required by Eq. 10- 1, Eq. 10- 2, or Eq. 10- 3 may be reduced by
10%.
Section 5.9.5.3.5: At discontinuous edges, an edge beam shall be provided with
a stiffness ratio a not less than 0.80; or the minimum thickness required by Eq.
10 - 1, Eq. 10 - 2, or Eq. 10 - 3, shall be increased by at least 10 % in the panel
with a discontinuous edge.
where:
L, = length of clear span in long direction of two-way construction,
measured face-to-face of supports in slabs without beams and face-to-
face of beams or other supports in other cases.
a
111
= average value of a for all beams on edges of a panel.
338
I
a = ratio of flexural stiffness of beam section to flexural stiffness a width of
slab bounded laterally by centerline of adjacent panel (if any) in each
side of beam.
p = ratio of clear spans in long to short direction of two-way slabs.
E,,, =modulus of elasticity of beam concrete
E,, =modulus of elasticity of slab concrete
Eq. 10-4
I, = moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross section of beams as
defined in Sec. 5.13.2.4.
Section 5.13.2.4: For monolithic or fully composite construction, a beam indudes
that portion of slab on each side of the beam extending a distance equal to the
projection of the beam above or below the slab, whichever is greater, but not
greater than four times the slab thickness.
l, = moment of inertia about centroidal axis of gross section of slab
Is= Jt3..!12 times width of slab defined in notations a and

The student may find this Code procedure in solving the nummum slab
thickness very tedious, but for slabs up to 8 m in length. and with in all
four sides having almost the same size, the minimum slab thickness is usually
not governed by Eq. 10- 1.
DIRECT DESIGN METHOD (SECTION 5.13.6)
Limitations of Direct Design Method
1. There shall minimum of three continuous spans in each -direction.
2. Panels shall be rectangular with a ratio of longer to shorter span center-
to-center of supports within a panel not greater than 2.
3. Successive span lengths center-to-center of supports in each direction
shall not differ by more than one-third the longer span.
4. Columns offset a maximum of 10 percent of the span (in direction of
offset) from either axis centerlines of successive columns.
5. All loads shall due to gravity ori.ly and uniformly distributed over an
entire panel. Live load shall not exceed three times dead load.
6. For a panel with beams between supports on all sides, the relative
stiffness of beams in two perpendicular directions.
CHAPTER 10 -TWO-WAY SLAB
339
Eq. 10-5
and shall not be less than 0.2 nor greater than 5.0.
where: L1 = length of span in direction that moments are being
determined, measured center-to-center of supports.
L2 = length of span transverse to L1, measured center-to-center
of supports. See also Figure 10.2.
Moments in Slabs (Section 5.13.6.2)
The total moment that is resisted by the slab equals absolute sum of positive and
average negative factored moments in each direction shall not be less than
Eq. 10-6
where w, is the factored load in Pa or kPa.
If the transverse span of panels on either side of the centerline of supports
varies, L2 in Eq. 10- 6 shall be taken as the average of adjacent transverse spans.
When the span adjacent and parallel to an edge is being considered, the distance
from edge to panel centerline shall be substituted for L2 in Eq. 10- 6.
Clear span L, shall extend from face to face columns, capitals, brackets, or walls.
Value of L,, used in Eq. 10 - 6 shall not be less than 0.65LJ. Circular or regular
polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports with the same
area.
Negative and Positive Factored Moments (5.13.6.3)
Negative factored moments shall be located at face of rectangular supports.
Circular or regular polygon shaped supports shall be treated as square supports
with the same area.
A. In an interior span, total static moment Mo shall be distributed as
follows:
Negative factored moment ................................................. 0.65
Positive factored moment' 0.35
B. In an end span, total factored static, moment Mo shall be distributed as
given in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Distribution of total span moment in an end span
Exterior Slab with
edge beams
unres- between all
trained supports
0.75 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.65
0.63 0.57 0.52 0.50 0.35
0 0.16 0.26 0.30 0.65
Negative moment sections shall be designed to resist the larger of the two
interior negative factored moments determined for spans framing into a
common support unless an analysis is made to distribute the unbalanced
moment in accordance with stiffness of adjoining eleptents.
Edge beams or edges of slab shall be proportioned to resist in torsion their
share of exterior negative factored moments.
'
For moment transfer between slab and an edge column, column strip
nominal moment strength provided shall be used as the transfer moment
for gravity lbad.
Factored Moments in Column Strips
Column strips shall be proportioned to resist the following portions in percent
of interior negative factored moments:
Table 10.3
I:Jh
0.5 1.0 2.0
(ati;Jh) = 0 75 75 75
( a M 1 ~ ) <!: 1.0 90 75 45
Unear interpolation shall be made between values shown.
CHAPTER 10- TWO-WAY SLAB Ml
Table 10.4: Interpolated values of Table 10.3
a,L2fl,
Ll/L,
uo 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 uo Ul
0.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 75.00 71.00
0.10 76.50 76.20 75.90 75.60 75.30 75.00 74.70 74.40 74.10 73.80 73.50 73.20 72.90 72.60 72.30 72.00
0.20 ' 78.00 77.40 76.80 76.20 75.60 75.00 74.40 73.80 73.20 72.60 72.00 71.40 70.80 70.20 69.60 69.00
0.30 79.50 78.60 77.70 76.80 75.90 75.00 74.10 73.20 72.30 71.40 70.50 69.60 86.70 67.80 86.90 86.00
0.40 81.00 79.80 78.60 77.40 76.20 75.00 73.80 72.60 71.40 70.20 69.00 67.80 86.60 65.40 64.20 63.00
0.50 82.50 81.00 79.50 78.00 76.50 75.00 73.50 72.00 70.50 69.00 67.50 86.00 64.50 63.00 61.50 60.00
0.60 64.00 82.20 80.40 78.60 76.80 75.00 73.20 71.40 69.60 67.80 86.00 64.20 62.40 60.60 58.80 57.00
0.70 85.50 83.40 81.30 79.20 n.10 75.00 72.90 70.80 68.70 86.60 64.50 62.40 60.30 58.20 56.10 54.00
0.80 87.00 64.60 82.20 79.80 n.40 75.00 72.60 70.20 87.80 6540 63.00 60.60 58.20 55.80 53.40 51.00
0.90 68.50 85.80 83.10 80.40 n .10 75.00 72.30 89.60 86.90 64.20 81.50 58.80 56.10 53.40 50.70 48.00
10.00 87.00 84.00 81.00 78.00 75.00 72.00 89.00 86.00 83.00 60.00 57.00 54.00 51.00 48.00 45.00
of exterior negative factored moments:
Table 10.5
L:z/L1 0.5 1.0 2.0
(a1Lz/L1) = 0
fu = 0
100 100
'100
Bt;:: 2.5 75 75 75
(a1lz/lt) 1.0
at= o 100 100 100
Bt;:: 2.5 90 75 45
Linear interpolation shall be made between values shown,
supports consist of columns or walls extending for a distance equal to or
greater than three-quarters the spah length L2 used to compute Mo, negative
moments shall be considered to be uniformly distributed across ,L2.
of positive factored moments:
Table 10.6
L:z/L 0.5 1.0 2.0
(atlz!Lt) = 0 60 60 60
( a1L:zll1) ;;:: 1.0 90 75 45
Linear interpolations shall be made between values shown.
Table 10.7: Interpolated values of Table 10.6
u
1
LjL,
L2/ L,
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00
0.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00 60.00
0.10 63.00 62.70 62.40 62.10 61.80 61.50 61.20 60.90 60.60 60.30 60.00 59.70 59.40 59.10 58.80 58.50
0.20 66.00 65.40 64.80 64.20 63.60 63.00 62.40 61.80 61.20 60.60 60.00 59.40 58.80 58.20 57.60 57.00
0.30 69.00 68.10 67.20 66.30 65.40 64.50 63.60 62.70 61.80 60.90 60.00 59.10 58.20 57.30 56.40 55.50
0.40 72.00 70.80 69.60 68.40 67.20 66.00 64.80 63.60 62.40 61.20 60.00 58.80 57.60 56.40 55.20 54.00
0.50 75.00 73.50 72.00 70.50 69.00 67.50 66.00 64.50 63.00 61.50 60.00 58.50 57.00 55.50 54.00 52.50
0.60 78.00 76.20 74.40 72.60 70.80 69.00 6720 65.40 63.60 61.80 60.00 58.20 56.40 54.60 52.80 51.00
0.70 81.00 78.90 76.80 74.70 72.60 70.50 68.40 66.30 64.20 62.10 60.00 57.90 55.80 53.70 51.60 49.50
0.80 84.00 81.60 79.20 76.80 74.40 72.00 69.60 67.20 64.80 62.40 60.00 57.60 55.20 52.80 50.40 48.00
.0.90 87.00 84.30 81.60 78.90 76.20 73.50 70.80 68.10 65.40 62.70 60.00 57.30 54.60 51.90 49.20 46.50
~ 1 . 0 0 90.00 87.00 84.00 81.00 78.00 75.00 72.00 69.00 66.00 63.00 60.00 57.00 54.00 51.00 48.00 45.00
For slabs with beams between supports, the slab portion of column strips shall
be proportioned to resist that portion of column strip moments not resisted by
beams.
Factored Moments in Beams (Section 5.13.6.5)
Beams between supports shall be proportioned to resist 85 percent of column
strip moments if (a.1L2/L1) is equal to or greater than LO. For values of
(a.
1
L
2
/ L;) between 1.0 and zero, proportion of column strip moments resisted by
beams shall be obtained by linear interpolation between &; and zero percent.
Factored Moments in Middle Strips
That portion of negative and positive factored moments not resisted by column
strips shall be proportionately assigned to corresponding half middle strips.
Each middle strip shall be proportioned to resist the sum of the moments
assigned to its two half rriiddle strips. A middle strip adjacent to and parallel
with an edge supported by a wall shall be proportioned to resist twice the
moment assigned to the half middle strip corresponding to the first row of
interior supports.
Modification of Factored Moments
Negative and positive factored moments may be modified by 10 percent
provided the total static moment for a panel in the direction considered is not
less than that required b.y Eq. 10- 6.
CHAPTER 10- TWO-WAY SLAB 343
' '
Factored Shear in Slab System with Beams
Beams with (a.tL2/Lt) equal to or greater than 1.0 shall be proportioned to Nlilt
shear caused by factored loads on tributary areas bounded by 45 lines drawn
from the comers of the panels and the center-lines of the adjacent panels parallel
to the long sides. Beams with (a.tL2/Lt) less than 1.0 may be proportioned to
resist sh:ear obtained by linear interpolation, assuming beams carry no load at a.
=0.
rj c.s. for wide beam shear
bw-t r
I ', / I
i . / i
! .. X' / i LU2
I ', ' / I l .. , .
I ', / I
i ...... ,.., ,,' i
i ;-. . ', - i
: :
i / i
i / . i
i / i
j45" / i
i / i
............. ............ ..
Lz
I
PROBLEM 10.1
Using the NSCP Specifications, f,ietermine the minimum slab thickness for
the exterior panel shown. The slab has beam between all supports which are
poured monolithically with the slab. Use fy 414 MPa and f, 21 MPa.
Assume E, be the same for slab, beam, and column.
SmTSm
a-
Panel to be
At
designed
t A
a-
350mm
Section A-A
Section a-a
s m ~
.
350mm
1
6
-r-
i l
I
6
I
m
SOLUTION
1.
Ln (800 + 0.73 /y)
Assume h = ------=-
36,000 + 9,ooop
p = longclearspan
shortclearspan
6000-350
5000-350
p = 1.22
h = 5650(8oo + o:73 x 414)
36,000 + 9,000(1.22)
h = 133 nun say 150 nun
6f-
2. Effective flange projection of beams (Section 5.13.2.4)
a) 500 - 150 = 350 mm
b) 4h = 4(150) = 600 mm
345
3. The value of I is computed from that of a T-beam. This procedure,
however, is very tedious. From computer calculation, the author found
that for edge beam, with slab on one side only, I"" 1.4 bH
3
/12 and for
interior beams with slab on both sides, I"" 1.6 bd
3
/12, where /1 is the
beam width and d is the total depth of beam.
Moment of inertia of the beam (approximate value):
350(500)
3
For edge beam, I= 1.4 x ---'
1
'--
2
--'-
I= 5,104 xl0
6
mm4
. . 350(500)
3
For interior beams, I = 1.6 x ---'---'--
12
I = 5,833 x 106 mm4
4. Value of a
Ecb xI of beam
a = ____:;:.:,__ __ _
Ecs xI of slab
Ecb = Ers = Ec
For edge beam with 3 m slab width:
5104x10
6
an= -----=---
3000(150)3 112
a.= 6.05
_346 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
For interior beam with 5-m slab width: (2 beams)
5833x10
6
Cl.b = -....,-,---;;--
5000(150)3 /12
Cl.b = 4.15
For interior beam with 6-m slab width:
5833x10
6

6000(150)3 /12
Cl.c = 3.46 ,
a + 2ab +a
Cl.m = n
4
c
6.05 + 2( 4.15) + 3.46
4
Average, Cl.m = 4.45
5
. = length of edges
penmeter
= 2(6) + 5
2(6) + 2(5)
= 0.773
6. L" = 6000 - 350
L" =5650mm
L
11
(800 + 0.73 /y)
h= < <
36,000 + Cl. Ill - 0.12(1 + 1/13)]
5650(800 + 0.73 X 414)
36,000+ 5,000(1.22)[4.45- 0.12(1 + 1/1.22)]
h = 101 mm
but not less than:
L
11
(800 + 0.73 /y)

36,000 +
= 5650(800+ 0.73x 414)
36,000 + 9,000(1.22)
h = 133mm
but need not be more than:
Ln (800 + 0.73 /y)
h = ------"--
36,000
. _ 5650(800+0.73x414)
36,000
h=173mm

Also, h may not be less than 90 mm (for a, > 2), see Page 337
Thus, hmin = 133 mm
PROBLEM 10.2
Design the slab in Problem 10.1 assuming that the floor carries a uniform live
load of 5.7 kPa and a uniform dead load of 1.3 kPa not including its own
weight. Use 12-mm main bars.
Solution
Useh = 150mm
Floor weight = Yconc x slab thickness
= 23.5 X 0.15
Floor weight = 3.53 kPa
Total dead load= 1.3 + 3.53
Total dead load = 4.83 kPa
w,. = 1.4(4.83) + 1.7(5.7) = 16.452 kPa
Using 12 mm bars:
d = 150 - 2(12) - 20
d=124mm
Check the depth for shear:
(Sect. 5.13.6.8)
L2
0.) L; = 4.15(5/6)
0.] .!2 = 3.45 > 1
Ll
X= 2.5..;. 0.35/2- 0.124
x=2.201 m
Sm
2.5 m
r '-- - - :- - -
i i4s
I' ,' I
l! ... __ .... //_. i
! : .. .
I ,
I ', /
.... ... b
r i
I ,' ,
I / ' ,
I / ',,
I , ' ' ,
_l ..... .. ,
T: / .. I
. y' I
- - - -
-+J "---1 c.s. for wide beam shear
350
318
Taking b =1m
V,. = W
11
X Ast.aded
= 16.452(2.201)(1)
V, =36.21 kN
V,= t .{J';bd
= t .,fii (1000)(124)
V, = 94,706 N
v, = 0.85(94.706)
+ V, = 80.5 kN > V, (OK)
Momenhlong the short span (5-m interior span):
Note: This an interior span, so Code
Sect. 5.13.6.3.2 applies: (See Page 339)
Mo = (wuL2 )Ln 2
8
L, = 5-0.35 .
L, _=4.65m
L2=6m
Mo = (16.452 X 6)(4.65)
2
8
Mo = 266.8 kN-m
Negati've factored moment = -0.65(266.8)
Negative factored moment= -173.42 kN-m
Pos{tive factored moment = 0.35(266.8)
Positive factored moment = 93.38 kN-m
Distributing these moments to beam and column strips:
L2/Lt = 6/5 .
L2/Lt = 1.2
Clt = a, = 3.46 (in the direction of Lt)
at(L2/ Lt) = 4.15
From Table 10.4 the percentage of interior negative moment to be resisted
by c o ~ u m n strip is 69%(-173.42) = -119.66 kN-m.
CHAPTER 10- 'T'NOWAY SLAB
According to Section 5.13.6.5 (See 342), 85% of -119.66 -101.71 kNm wtll
be resisted by the beam, and 15% of -119.66 = -17.95 kN-m to the slab. The
remaining -(173.42 -119.66) = -53.76 is allotted to the middle strips.
Fr?m Table 10.7, the,percentage of the positive moment to be resisted by
column strip is 69%(93.38) .. 64.43 kN-m. 85% of 64.43 = 54.77 kN-m goes to
the beam and 15% of 64.43 = 9.66 kN-m goes to the slab. The remaining
93.38 - 64.43 = 28.95 is allotted, to the middle strips.
Moment along the short span (along edge beam):
According to section 5.13.6.2.4:
L2 = 6/2 + 0.35/2
L2 =3.175m
L, = 5-0.35
L, =4.65m
M., = (wuL2 )Ln 2
8
= (16.452 X 3.175)(4.65)
2
. 8
M., =141.18 kN-m
Negative factored moment = -0.65(141.18)
Negative factored moment -91.78 kN-m
Positive factored moment= 0.35(141.18)
Positive factored moment= 49.40 kN-m
For this case, Table 10.5 will be used for distribution of negative moments
13, = E,b C 350
2E,
5
1
5
E.,.= Ecs = E,
C= )x:y
350
= (t- o.6
3
350) 350
3
(500) + (
1
_
0
.
63
t5o) 150
3
(350)
500 3 350 3
C 4282 x 10' mm4
350
I = 3000(150)
3
< 12
I,= 843.75 x 106 mm4
4282x 10
6
Pt = 2(843.75 X 10
6
)
p, = 2.54
L2/L1 = 6/5 = 1.2
ex, = ex. = 6.05 (for edge' beam)
exl (L2/ LJ) = 7.26
REINFORCED CONCRETE D.ESIGN
By interpolation from Table 10.5:
1-12
Percentage = 75 - --- (75 - 45)
1-2
Percentage = 69%
Exterior Negative Moment:
Column strip= 69% x (-91.78)
Column strip = -63.33 kN-m
Beam= 85%(-63.33)
Beam = -53.83 kN-m
Slab= 15%(-63}3)
Slab = -9.5 kN-m
Middle Strip= -(91.78- 63.33)
Middle Strip = -28.45 kN;.m
Positive Moment (Percentage = 69% from Table 10.7)
Column strip =69% x (49.4)
Column strip = 34.1 kN-m
Beam= 85%(34.1)
Beam= 28.99 kN-m
Slab= 15%(34.1)
Slab= 5.12 kN-m
Middle Strip= (49.4- 34.1)
Middle Strip = 15.3 kN-m
~
"'
"'
.,;
...
'!l
'+
~
E
"' Pi
~ f l l
~ ~
~ f l l
":lEI ":lEI
If ;I
.....
... '
1!3';
't' H
Moment along the long span (6 m end span)
L2=5m
Ln =6- 0.35
Ln=5.65m
Mo = (wu L2)Ln 2
' 8
= (16.452 X 5)(5.65)
2
8
Mo = 328.24 kN-m
From Column 8 of Table 10.2:
Lz = 5 m
Factored interior negative moment = -0.7(328.24)
Factored interior negative moment = -229.77 kN-m
Factored positive moment = 0.57(328.24)
Factored positive= 187,1 k N - ~
Factored exterior negative moment= -0.16(328.24)
Factored exterior negative moment = = -52.52 kN-m
L2/Lt = 5/6
L2/Lt = 0.83
''*
strip
strip
352
/
REINFORCED CONCRETE OEfGN
a1 =ab=4.15
a1 (Lz/ L1) = 4.15(0.83)
a1(Lz/L1) = 3.44
From Table 10.4
Percentage of negative moment= 81- 2_ (81-78)
. 10
Percentage of negative moment = 80.1%
Interior Negative Moment:
Column strip= 80.1% x (-229.77)
Column strip = -184 kN-m
Beam= 85%(-184)
Beam= -156.4 kN-m
Slab= 15%(-184)
Slab = -27.6 kN-m
Middle Strip= -(229.77 -184)
Middle Strip"" -45.77 kN-m
Exterior Negative Moment: (80.1% by interpolation from T&ble 10.5)
Column strip= 80.1% x (-52.52) .
Column strip = -42 kN-m
Beam= 85%(-42)
Beam = - 37.5 kN-m
Slab= 15%(-42)
Slab = -6.3 kN-m
Middle strip = -(52.52 - 42)
Middle strip= -10.52 kN-m
Positive Moment (80.1% from Table 10.7)
Column strip= 80.1% x (187.1)
Column strip = 150 kN-m
Beam= 85%(150)
Beam= 127.5 kN-m
Slab= 15%(150)
Slab = 22.5 kN-m
Middle Strip= 187.1-150
Middle Strip = 37.1 kN-m
CHAPTER 10 -TWO-WAY SLAB
353
Note: The student must understand that the column strip exists in both
sides of the beam. Since we are to consider only the part on one side, the
value of the moment allotted to slab must be divided by 2. However, the
middle strip in no longer divided by 2 because the same moment is also
all<,?tted to it by the opposite column strip.
Ab = f (12)
2
Ab=113mm
2
1.4
Pmin = 414
Pmin = 0.00338
= 0 75 0.85(21)(0.85)(600)
Pmax . 414(600 + 414)
Pmax = 0.01626
354
E
!G
...i
1.2sm '
2.Sm 1.2Sm
According to Section 5.13.4.1, reinforcement in each direction shall not be
less than the required spacing for shrinkage and temperature bars.
Temperature bars: A,,= 0.0018(1000)(150) = 270 mm
2
; N = 2.39
Required Spacing= 1000/2.39 = 418 mm < 260
Maximum spacing of bars (Section 5.13.4.2) 2 x slab thickness = 300 mm
e
1.0 t+-HH--l
12 mm ' @ 260 11lm,
bothways bent at
1.25 m from middle
of beam
356 REINFORCEQ CONCRETE DESIGN
CHAPTER 11 -ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH)
Chapter 11
Alternate Design Method
(Working Strength)
NSCP 2001 (ClOl-01)
NOTATIONS
Ag = gross area ofsection, znm2
Av =area of shear reinforcement within a distances, mm2
A,= loaded area
357
A2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is
geometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, mm
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
d . = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement, mm
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa.
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
Jl': = square root of specified compressive strength concrete, MPa
fc
1
= average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, MPa
/s = permissible tensile stress in reinforcement, MPa
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
M = design moment
n = modular ratio of elasticity = E./ Ec
N = design axial ,load normal to cross section occurring simultaneously with
V; to be taken as positive for compression, negative for tension, and to
include effects of tension due to creep and shrinkage
s = spacing of shear reinforcement in direction parallel to longitudinal
reinforcement, mm
v = design shear stress
Vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete, MPa
V" =permissible horizontal shear stress, .MPa
V = design shear force at section
a = angle between inclined stirrupsand longitudinal axis of member
~ c =ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area
p
11
= ratio of tension reinforcement = As/ bw d
cp = strength reduction factor
358 . REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
424.2 SCOPE
424.2.1 Non-prestressed reinforced concrete members shall be permitted to be
designed using service loads (without load factors) and permissible service load
stresses in accordance with provisions of Section 424.
424.2.2 For design of members not covered by Section 424, appropriate
provisions of this code shall apply.
424.2.3 All applicable provisions of this code for nonprestressed concrete, except
Section 408.5, shall apply to members designed by the Alternate Design Method.
424 .. 2.4 Flexural members shall meet requirements for deflection control in
Section 409.6, and requirements of Sections 410.5 through 410.8 of this code .
.
424.3 GENERAL
424.3.1 Load factors and strength reduction factors ~ shall be taken as unity for
membe;rs designed by the Alternate Design Method.
424.3.2 It shall be permitted to proportion members for 75 percent of capacities
required by other parts of Section 424 when considering wind or earthquake
forces combined with other loads, provided the resulting section is not less than
that required for the combination of dead and live load.
424.3.3 When dead load reduces effects of other loads, members shall be
designed for 85 percent of dead load in combination with the other loads.
1
424.4 PERMISSIBLE SERVICE LOAD STRESSES
424.4.1 Stresses in' concrete shall not exceed the following:
1. Flexure:
e Extreme fiber stress in compression .. 0.45 f.-
2. Shear:
e Beams and one-way slabs and footings :
Shear carried by concrete, l'.- ................. ....................................... 0.38 .J7':
Maximumshear carried by concrete
plus shear reinforcement, Vc ............................................... : .......... 0.38 .J7':
e Joists:
Shear c1.1rried by concrete, v.- ......................................... ............... 0.09 .J7':
CHAPTER 11 - ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH)
359
e Two-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete, v .. .. .. ....................... .
but not g r e ~ t e r than t ..jf;
2. Bearing on loaded area ............... ... .............. ..... : .......... ... ............................. 0.3 f,
424.4.2 Tensile stress in reinforcement shall not exceed the following:
1. Gmde 275 reinforcement ................................................................ .. ..... 140 MPa
2. Grade 415reinforcement or greater and
welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) ............................................. _ .. 170 MPa
3. For flexural reinforcement, 10 mm or less in diameter, in
one-way slabs of not more than 4 m span ................................................ 0.50fv
but not greater than 200 MPa
424.5 DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
424.5.1 Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required in Section
412 of this Chapter.
424.5.2 In satisfying requirements of Section 412;12.3, M11 shall be taken as
computed moment capacity assuming all positive moment tension
reinforcement at the section to be stressed to the permissible tensile stress f. and
Vu shall be taken as unfactored shear force at the section.
424.6 FLEXURE
For investigation of stresses at service loads, straight-line theory (for flexure)
shall be used with the following assumptions:
424.6.1 Strains vary linearly as the distance from the neutral axis, except for
deep flexural members with overall depth-span ratios greater than 2/5 for
continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of strain
shall be considered.
424.6.2 Stress-strain relationship of concrete is a straight line under service loads
within permissible service load stresses.
424.6.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete resists no tension.
424.6.4 It shall be permitted to take the modular ratio, n = Es/ E,. as the nearest
whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for deflections, value
of 11 for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal
weight concrete of the same stret'lgth.
424.6 5 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of
2E,f E, shall be used to transform compression reinforcement for stress
computations. stress in such reinforcement- shall not exceed
permissible tensile stress.
424.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE
Combined flexure and axial load capacity of compression members shall
.be taken as 40% of that computed in accordance with provisions in Section 410
of this Chapter.
_424.7.2 effects shall be included according to requirements of
Sections 410.10 through 410.13. In Equations (410-10) and (410-19) the term P,
shall be replaced by 2.5 times the design axial load, and the factor 0.75 shall be
taken equal to 1.0.
424.7.3-Walls shall be designed in accordance with 414 of this Chapter
with flexure and axial load capacities taken as 40 percent of that computed
using Section 414. In Equation (414-1), $shall be taken equal to 1.0.
424.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
424.8.1 Design shear stress v shall be computed by
v
v=--
bw d
Eq. 11-1
'
where Vis design shear force at section considered.
424.8.2 When the reaction, in direction of applied shear, introduces compression
into the end regions of a member, sections located less than a distance d from
face of support shall be permitted to be designed for the same shear as that
computed.at a distance d.
424.8.3 Whenever applicable, effects of torsion, in accordance with provisions of
Section 411 of this Chapter, shall be added. Shear and torsional moment
11
strengths provided by concrete and limiting maximum strengths for tor1lon
shall be taken as 55 percent of the values given in Section 411.
424.8.4 SHEAR STRESS CARRIED BY CONCRETE
424.8".4.1 For members subject to shear and flexure only, shear stress carried
by concrete P, shall not exceed 0.09 .fj'; unless a more detailed calculation is
made in accordance with Section 424.7.4.4.
424.8.4.2 For members subject to axial compression, shear stress carried by
concrete Pr, shall not exceed 0.09 .fj'; unless a more detailed calculation is
made in accordance with 424.7.4.5.
424.8.4.3 For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement
shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more detailed calculation is
made using
Vc = 0.09(1 + 0.6N I Ag} .fj'; Eq. 11-2
where N is negative for tension. Quantity N I Ag shall be expressed in MPa.
424.8.4.4 For members subject to shear and flexure only, it shall be permitted
to compute v .. by
v, = 0.85 .,j7'; + 0.9 p,.. Vdl M Eq. 11-3
but Vc shall not exceed 0. 14 .,[f; . Quantity Vdl M shall not be taken greater
than 1.0, where M is design moment occurring simultaneously with V at
section considered.
424.8.4.5 For members subject to axial compression, it shall be permitted to
compute Vc by .
v, = 0.09(1 + 0.09N I A g) ffc Eq. 11-4
Quantity N I Ag shall be expressed in MPa.
424.8.4.6 Shear stresses carried by concrete v, apply to normal weight concrete.
When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, one of the following
modifications shall apply:
1. When fit is specified and concrete is proportioned in accordance with
Section 405.3,fir/6.7 shall be substituted for .jl'; but the value of fi,j 6.7
shall not exceed .jl'; .
2. When fa is not specified, the value of ff: shall be multiplied by 0.75 for
"all-lightweight" concrete and by 0.85 for "sand-lightweight" concrete.
Linear interpolation shall be permitted when partial sand replacement is
used,
In determining shear stress carried by concrete v.., whenever
applicable, effects of axial tension due to creep and shrinkage in restrained
members shall be included and it shall be permitted to include effects of
inclined flexural compression in variable-depth members.
424.8.5 SHEAR STRESS CARRIED BY SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
424.8.5.1 Types of shear reinforcement
Shear reinforcement shall consist of one of the
1. Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member;
2. Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to axis of member
making an angle of 45 degrees or more with longitudinal tension
reinforcement;
3. Longitudinal reinforcement with bent portion making an angle of 30
degrees or more with longitudinal tension reinforcement;
4. Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement;
5. Spirals.
424.8.5.2 Design yield strength of shear reinforcement shall not exceed 415
MPa.
424.8.5.3 Stirrups and other bars or wires used as shear reinforcement shall
extend to a distance d from extreme compression fiber and shall be anchored
at both ends according, to Section 412.14 of this Chapter to' develop design
yield strength of reinforcement.
CHAPTER 11 -ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH) 363
424.8.5.4 SPACING LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
424.8.5.4.1 Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular to axis of
member shall not exceed d/2, nor 600 mm.
421.8.5.4.2 Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement shall be so
spaced that every 45-degree line, extending toward the reaction from mid-
depth of member (d/2) to longitudinal tension reinforcement, shall be
crossed by at least one line of shear reinforcement.
424.8.5.4.3 When (v - v,) exceeds . t ,[1'; maximum spacing given in
Sections 424.7.5.4.1 and 424.7.5.4.2 shall be reduced by one-half.
424.8.5.5 MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
424.8.5.5.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all
reinforced concrete flexural members where design shear stress v is greater
than one-half the permissible shear stress v, carried by concrete, except:
1. Slabs and footings;
2. Concrete joist construc.tion defined by Section 408.12 of this Chapter;
3. Beam with total depth .not greater than 250 mm, 2.5 times thickness of
flange, or one-half the width of web, whichever is greatest.
424.8.5.5.2 Minimum shear reinforcement requirements of Section
424.8.5.5.1 shall be permitted to be waived if shown by test that required
ultimate flexural and shear strength can be developed when shear
reinforcement is omitted.
424.8.5.5.3 Where shear reinforcement is required by Section 424.8.5.5.1 or
by analysis, minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be computed by
Eq. 11-5
where bw and s are in rnm.
424.8.5.6 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
424.8.5.6.1 Where design shear stress v exceeds shear stress carried by
concrete Vc, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with
Sections 424.8.5.6.2 through 424.8.5.6.8 ..
364
424.8.5.6.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis of member is
used:
Eg. 11-6
424.8.5.6.3 When inclined stirrups are used as shear reinforcement,
Eg.2-1
424.8.5.6.4 When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single
group of parallel bus, all bent up at the same distance from the support,
Eg. 2-2
where (v- Vr) shall not exceed t..JJ: .
424.8.5.6.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a ~ e r i e s of parallel bent-
up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at different distances from the
support, required area shall be computed by Eq. 2- 1 .
424.8.5.6.6 Only the center three-quarters of the inclined portion of any
longitudinal bent bar shall be considered effective for shear reinforcement.
424.8.5.6.7 When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to
reinforce the same portion of a member, required area shall be computed
as the sum of the various types separately. In such computations, Vc shall
be included only once.
424.8.5.6.8 Value of (v -v,) shall not exceed J..[j';.
424.8.6 SHEAR FRICTION
Where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane, such as
an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an
interface between two concretes cast at different times, shear-friction provisions
of Section 411.8 of this Chapter shall be permitted to be applied, with limiting
maximum stress for shear taken as 55 percent of that given in Section 411.8.5.
CHAPTER 11 -ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH) 365
Permissible stress in shear-friction reinforcement shall be that given in Section
424.4.2.
424.8.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS
424.8.7.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated
loads or reactions is governed by the more severe of two conditions:
424.8.7.1.1 Beam action for slab or footing, with a critical section extending
in a plane across the entire width and located at a distance d from face of
concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
shall be designed in accordance with Sections 424.8.1 through 424.8.5.
424.8.7.1.2 Two-way action for slab or footing, with a critical section
perpendicular to plane of slab and located so that . its perimeter is a
minimum, but need not approach closer than d/2 to perimeter of
concentrated load, or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing
shall be designed in accordance with Sections 424.8.7.2 and 424.8.7.3.
424.8.7.2 Design shear stress v shall be computed by
Eq.2-3
where V and b., shall be taken at the critical section defined in Section
424.8.7.1.2.
424.8.7.3 Design shear stress v shall not exceed v, given by Eq. 2- 4 unless
shear reinforcement is provided
Eq.2-4
but Vc shall not exceed t .[1: . Pc is the ratio of l o ~ g side to short side of
concentrated load or reaction area. When lightweight aggregate concrete is
used, the modifications of Section 424.8.4.6 shall apply.
424.8.7.4 If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in
accordance with Section 411.13.3 of this Chapter, Vc shall not exceed -fz.{f;
and v shall not exceed 0.25 ..fj'; .
366
424.8.7.5 If shear reinforcement consisting of steel 1- or channel-shaped
sections (shearheads) is provided in accordance with Section 411.13.4 of this
Chapter, von the critical section defined in Section 424.8.7.1.2 shall not exceed
0.3 !J': and v on the critical section defined in Section 411.13.4.7 shall not
exceed t !J':. In Equations (411-39} and, (411-40), design shear force V shall
be multiplied by 2 and substituted for V,.
424.8.8 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR OTHER MEMBERS
For design of deep flexural members, brackets and corbels, and walls, the
special provisions of Section 411 of this Chapter shall be used, with shear
strengths provided by concrete and limiting maximum strengths for shear taken
. as 55 percent of the values given in Section 411 . ln Section 411.11.6, the design
a.cial load shall be multiplied by 1.2 if compression and 2.0 if tension, and
substituted for N,.
424.8.9 COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS
For design of composite c ~ n c r e t e flexural members, permissible horizontal shear
stress v
11
shall not exceed 55 percent of the horizontal shear strengths given in
Section 417.6.2 of this Chapter.
CHAPTER 11 -ALTERNATE,OESJGN METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH)
DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE
d
b
kd
N.A. :
'
'
'
'
n As
. .
, __ ---------- __ ,
TE'ir--c..,. ....
_j_
T
jd
To solve for c, take moment of area about N.A.
Moment of area above N.A. = Moment of area below N.A.
(b)(c)(c/2) = (n A,)(d- c)
b cz = 2 11 A, d - 2 n A, c
b cz + 2 11 As c - 2 n A, d = 0

c = ----'--'-----'-------
2(b)
- 2nA
5
+
2
+ 8nA
5
bd
c = __ ...:...___;_ ____ ;___
2b
jd = d- tkd
j=l- tk
. [M = C xjd]
M = lf2({c,)(kd)(b) X jd
M = lf2/c j k bd
2
[M= Txjd]
M= A,fsjd
317
fJE.. + fJE.
Eq. 2-5
Eq. 2-6
Eq. 2-7
Eq. 2-8
368
BALANCED DESIGN
kd
d
:;:::;:;:;:::::: .::::::::::;.;:::;:::::::;:::;1;::::::
'
' '
---- ---------- -
T
From the stain diagram (balanced condition)
kd d
- --=
lc IE, lc IE, +Is IE,
k = lc IE, x ~ c
lc IE, + Is I Es E,
k= lc
lc + ls(E, IEs)
But E.IEc = n
Ec/Es = 1ln
k= lc =
jd
nl,
fc + fs In n lc + Is
Eq. 2-9
CHAPTER 11 -ALTERNATE METHOD (WORKING STRENGTH)
PROBLEM 11 - 1
A reinforced concrete beam having a width of 300 mm and an effective
depth of 520 nun is reinforced for tension only with 5-28 mm bars. Concrete
strength.fs = 128 MPa, [ c = 27 MPa, fc = 0.45 [on= 9. Use working strength
design. Determine the following:
a) The balance moment capacity of the beam.
b) If the tension steel is 5-28 mm bars, determine the moment capacity of
the beam.
SOLUTION
fi = 0.45(27) = 12.15 MPa
Part a:
For balanced condition:
k;,. __ 1-::--

II f c
1
128
1+---
9(12.15)
k = 0.4607
j = 1- k/3
j = 0.8464
M=%fcjkbd2
= 1/2(12.15)(0.8464)(0.4607)(300)(520)2
= 192.16 x 10
6
N-mm
M = 192.16 kN-m
Part b:
300mm
T
300 mm
E
E N.A.
As = f (28)
2
X 5
As = 3078.8 mm
2
n As = 27,709 mm2
:;;::
Lfl
1
'
'
: 520- c
nA, = 27,709 .1.

I-- - - --- --- -- _ I
370
[l:ay = 0]
[c = kd]
300(c)(c/2) = 27709(520- c)
150 c
2
+ 27709 c- 14,408,680 = 0
c = 231.04mm
231.04 = k(520)
k = 0.444
j = 1 - k/3 = 0.852
j = 85.2%
In terms of concrete, the resisting moment is:
M = V2Jcj k b d
2
= %(12.15)(0.852)(0.444)(300)(520)2
= 186.42 x 10
6
N-mm
M = 186.42 kN-m
In terms of steel:
M = A,fsj d
= 3078.8(128)(0.852)(520)
= 174.6 x 10
6
N-mm
M = 174.6 KN-m
Thus, the moment capacity is 174.6 KN-m
PROBLEM 11 - 2 (CE NOVEMBER 1998)
In a reinforced concrete beam, b = 300 mm, d = 500 mm, As= 1500 mm
2
, 11 = 8.
The beam is subjected to a bending moment of 70 kN-m. Use working
strength design. Determine the following:
a) The maximum stress in concrete.
b) The maximum stress in steel.
SOLUTION
Taking moment of area about N.A.
12000(500- kd)- 300(kd)(kdj2) ~ 0
(kd)2 + 80(kd) - 40000 = 0
kd = 164 mm
k = 164/500
k = 0.328
j = 1- k/3
j = 0.891
[M =- lf2 j k{r b d2]
70 X 106 ='
1
/2(0.891)(0.328)({c)(300)(500)2
fi = 6.39 MPa
[M =As f. X jd]
70 X 106 =' 1500 j. (0.891)(500)
j. = 104.75 MPa
PROBLEM 11 - 3
b = 300
500
500- kd
. : ':::!:
nA. = 8(1500)
nA. = 12,000 mm
2
371
.. ,
A reinforced concrete tee-beam has the dimensions shown in the Figure. A
moment of 112 kN-m acts on the section. It is required that the neutral axis
is to be at section X-X. Use Es/ E, = 10. Determine a) the required steel, b) the
stress in concrete and c) the stress in steel.
E
E
~
"'
100 mm
600mm
X
225 mm
372
SOLUTION
w = }'cone x Area of cross-section
w = 23.5[0.6(0.15) + 0.225(0.5 + 0.1)] = 5.29 kN/m
600mm
~
8
1/')
lOOmm 225mm
a) Part a
Taking moment of area about N.A.:
10 As (500) = 600(150)(150/2)
As=1350mm
2
b) Part b
[M = C(600)]
b) Parte
112 X 106 = [2/c (150)(600)](600)
/c = 4.148 MPa
[T=q .
As/s =
1
12/c 150 (600)
1350 f.= 1/2 (4.148)(150)(600)
f. = 138.27 MPa
Another Solution:
With N.A. along a-a, kd = 150 mm
k(650) = 150
k =0.231
j=1-k/3
= 1-0.231/3
j= 0.923
fc
N.A.
E
E

373
[M = %fcj k bd2]
112 X 10
6
= lf2 /r (0.923)(0.231 )(600)(650)2
fi = 4.144 MPa
[M =As.fsj d]
. 112 X 106 = 1350 Is (0.923)(650)
/s = 138.28 MPa .
PROBLEM 11 - 4
The T-beam shown in the Figure is reinforced with 1,613 sq. mm. of steel.
Assume n = 12, /c :S 4,14 MPa, .fs :S 124 MPa. Determine the following:
a) The distance of the neutral axis from the top of the flange.
b) The moment of inertia about N.A. of the transformed section.
c) The moment capacity of the section.
750mm
400 mm
SOLUTION
750mm
100
___ }
SOOmm
N.A.
; ' ' :I:::
n As= 19356
Taking moment of area about N.A.
750(100)(50 + x) + 400(x)(x/2) = 19356(500- x)
3750000 + 75000 X+ 200 X
2
= 9678000-19356 X
x2 + 471.78 x- 29640 = 0

;(2;. /<(t

,db (](V)
+-( )(_Jfb){!
=:: 3SW( (idb-
'!5D60 X- 37SV d7fb
. I
f (x-tm/'(J7r)
7 ..mz; K- 7ftl (Jff4
+ 3U {"' = 7S-PI..f,
- i I I (Q f 'J I 6'b -\ 10
374
x=56.14mm
y = 100 +X
y = 156.14 mm/
I= 750(100)3 + (750)(100)(50 + 56.14)2 + 400(56.14)3
12 3
= 4744.4 x 106 mm4
I = 0.00474 m4
+ 19356(500- 56.14)2
In terms of permissible concrete stress:
[fr = M ~ ]
I
4
.
14
= M(156.14)
4744.4x10
6
M = 125.8 x 10
6
N-mm
M = 125.8 kN-m
In terms of permissible steel stress:
[ fs = Me]
n I
124 _ M(500- 56.14)
12 - 4744.4 X 10
6
M = 110.45 x 106 N-mm
M = 110.45 kN-m
Thus, the maximum moment the T -beam can carry is 110-.45 kN-m
.
ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 375

Problem 2.23: As= 1054mm2
Problem 2.24: b=250mm
d=435mm
As =3280mm2
Problem 2.25: As=5549mm2
Problem 2.26: Mu=36lkN-m
Problem 2.27: M,.=3WkN-m
Problem 2.28: M, ... 355kN-m
11::
Problem 3.13: As= 3900mm2
Problem 3.14: As = 7,865 mm2
Problem 3.15: M,.=420kN"m
Problem 3.16: Mu=900kN-m
Problem 3.17: As "" 4,373 mm2
A's7905 mm
2
Problem 3.18: As= 5,971 mm
2
A's = 1,925 mm2
Problem 3.19: M,.=634kN-m
Problem 3.20: Mu = 1,139 kN-m
376
ii;
ANSWERS TO SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
Problem 4.8: 5 "" 60 mm
Problem 4.9: 5 = 95 mm
Problem 4.10: a) stirrup is not needed
b) 5 = 255 mm
c) s = 120mm
d) section is inadequate
Problem 4.11: One set of spacing:
Problem 5.9:
Problem 5.10:
Problem 5.11:
Problem 5.12:
Problem 5.13:
Problem 5.14:
. .
,., __ ft "' .. ~
Problem 6.10:
Problem 6.11:
Problem 6.12:
Problem 6.13:
Problem 6.14:
}>roblem 6.15:
1 @ 40mm, 12@ 80mm,
5@ 100mm, 4@ 150 mm
and 2@300mm
ldb = 652mm
ldb .. 621 mm
ldb = 364 inm
ldb=414 mm
Ld1147mm
Ld=2894mm
P,.= 2,510kN
Column size: 415 mm x 415 mm
6-28mm bars
Tie spacing: 415 mm
Column size: 355 mm x 355 mm
10 - 28 mm bars
Tie spacing: 355 mm
P,. .. 3,790kN
Column diameter: 490 mm
7- 28mm bars
Spiral pitch: 53 mm
Column diameter: 435 mm
15 - 25 mm bars
Spiral pitch: 75 mm
-.......
' ' . ' .
Problem 7.11: P, =4,320kN
Problem 7.13: P,= 1,520kN
Problem 7.14: P,=2,350kN
Problem 7.15: eb=403 mm
Pbn = 1720kN
Problem 7.17: P, = 2,820 kN
Problem 7.18: P, = 890 kN
Pbn = 1490 kN (eb 367 mm)
P r o b l ~ m 7.19: P, = 2,100 kN
Problem 7.20: 8 - 28 mm bars
Problem 8.7: Me = 751 kN-m
Problem 8.8: Yes; P, = 1200 kN
The following are one of the answers of each problem:
Problem 9.11: Size of footing: 2.8 m x 2.8 m
d=350mm
Reinforcement: 14-20 mm both ways
Problem 9.12: Footing size: 2m x 3.9 m
d=420mm
Reinforcement:
Along long side: 10 - 20 mm
Along short side: 13 - 20 mm
9 across center band & 2 in each outer bands
Problem 9.13: Footing size: 1.5 m x 2.4 m
d=370mm
Center of column 340 mm from center of footing
(measured along the length)
Bars along length: 10- 20 mm
Bars along wiath: 11 - 20 mm
377
378
Problem 9.14: Footing width= 3.5 m
d=325mm
Main bars (along width): 20 mm@ 120 mm o.c.
Problem 9.15: B = 2.68m
L = 5.21 m
d=460mm
Longitudinal Bars:
Face of column 1: 13- 25 nun (top bars, entire width)
In between columns: 26 - 25 mm (top bars, entire length)
Face of column 2: 13 - 25 mm (top bars, entire length)
Face of column 2: 13 - 25 mm (bottom bars, L = 2m)
Transverse Bars:
Column 1:3-25 mm within 645 mm (bottom bars)
Column 2:4- 25 mm within 745 mm (bottom bars)
Problem 9.16: a= 2.02m
b= 3.93 m
d=435mm
Longitudinal bars (top bars):
Face of Column 1: 12- 20 mm
Face of column 2: 20- 20 mm
Middle of footing: 24 - 20 mm
GLOSSARY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TERMS
.Glossary of
Civil Engineering Terms
const- Constntttion and engineering terms
[l11id - Fluid mechanics
gen - General engineering terms
soil - Geotechnical
water- Water supply, wastewater, sewerage, hydrology, and other related topics
A
A A 5 H T 0 (const) -American Association of State Highway mid Transportation Officials
AS T M (const) -American Society for Testing and Materials
A W G (const)- American Wire Gage
Abnormal Failure (const)- Artificially induced malfunction/ failure of a component
Abrasion (const) - Wear or removal of the surface of a solid material as a result of relative
movement of other solid bodies in contact with it.
Abrasion resistance (const) - Ability of a construction element to resist mechruucal abrasion
such as foot traffic and wind blown particles which tend to progressively remove
materials from exposed surfaces such as roofing the membranes
Absolute Pressure (gen) - Gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure
Absolute Pressure Transducer (gen) - A transducer that has an internal reference chamber
sealed at or close to 0 psia (full vacuum) and normally provides increasing output voltage
for increases in pressure
Absorpotion (soU) - The taking in or soaking up of one substance into the body of another by
molecular or chemical action (as tree roots absorb dissolved nutrients in the soil) .
Absorption Capacity (soil) - The amount of liquid which a solid material can absorb. Sand, as
an example, can hold approximately one-third of its volume in water, or three cubic feet of
dry sand can contain one cubic foot of water. A denser soil, such as clay, can hold much
less water and thus has a lower absorption capacity.
Absorption Rate (soil) -The speed at which a measured amount of solid material can absorb a
measured amount of liquid. Under pressure, water can infiltrate a given volume of gravel
very rapidly. The water will penetrate (or be absorbed by) sand more slowly and will take
even longer to saturate the same amount of clay.
Acceleration (gen) -The first derivative of velocity with respect to time. Units expressed in "g"
Accelerometer (gen) - A transducer which converts mechaiLical motion into an electrical signal
that is proportional to the acceleration value of the motion; it measures acceleration or
gravitational force capable of imparting acceleration
Accuracy (gen)- The combined error of nonlinearity, repeatability, and hysteresis expressed as
a pen;ent of full scale output
G-2
Accuracy vs. Precision (gen) - If the actual value is 5.321 and you say that it is 5.30, then you are
precise to 3 places but inaccurate by .021; If a value is represented as a bullseye on a target,
a group of guesses or measurements represented by closely grouped points have a high
degree of precision. If that group is near the center, it is highly accurate as well. On a
bullseye, think of accuracy as how close to the center your arrow hits, and your
measurement of precision as how closely you can gr.oup your shots
Acid (gen)- A substance that tends to lose a proton. 0 A substance that dissolves in water with
the formation of hydrogen ions. 3) A substance containing hydrogen which may be
replaced by metals to form salts. 4) A substance that is corrosive.
Acid Rain (water) -Precipitation which has been rendered (made) acidic by a i ~ b o m e pollutants.
Acid Regression Stage (water) - A time period when the production of volatile acids is reduced
during anaerobic digestion. During this stage of digestion ammonia compounds form and
cause the pH to increase.
Acidic (water) - The condition of water or soil which contains a sufficient amount of acid
substances to lower the pH below 7.0.
Acidified (water)- The addition of an acid (usually nitric or sulfuric) to a sample to lower the
pH below 2.0. The purpose of acidification is to "fix" a sample so it won't change until it is
analyzed.
. Acidity (water) -The capacity of water or wastewater to neutralize bases. Acidity is expressed
in milligrams per liter of equivalent calcium carbonate. Acidity is not the same as pH
because water does not have to be strongly acidic (low pH) to have a high acidity. Acidity
is a measure of how much base must be added to a liquid to raise the pH to 8.2.
Acrylic resin (const) - One of a group of thermoplastic resins formed by polymerization of
esters or amides of acrylic acid; used in concrete or masonry"construction as a bonding
agent or surface sealer.
Activated Carbon (water) - Adsorptive particles or granules of carbon usually obtained by
heating carbon (such as wood) . These particles or granules have a high capacity to
selectively remove certain trace and soluble materials from water.
Activated Sludge (water) - Sludge particles produced in raw or settled wastewater (primary
effluent) by the growth of organisms (including zoogleal bacteria) in aeration tanks in the
presence of dissolved oxygen. The term "activated" comes from the fact that the particles
are teeming with bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Activated sludge is different from primary
sludge in that the sludge particles contain many living organisms which can feed on the
incoming wastewater.
Activated Sludge Process (water)- A biological wastewater treatment process which speeds up
the decomposition of wastes in the wastewater being treated. Activated sludge is added to
wastewater and the mixture (mixed liquor) is aerated and agitated. After some time in the
aeration tank, the activated sludge is allowed to settle out by sedimentation and is
disposed of (wasted) or reused (returned to the aeration tank) as needed. The remaining
wastewater then undergoes more treatment.
Adhesion (gen) -The force that resists the separation of two bodies in contact.
Admixture.(const)- A material,. other than aggregate, cementitious material or water, added in
small quantities to the mix in order to produce some (desired) modifications, either to the
properties of the mix or of the hardened product.
G-3
Admixture (const) - Material other than water, aggregate, or hydraulic cement, used as in
ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its
properties.
Adsorbate (water)- T h ~ material being removed by the adsorption process.
Adsorbent (water) - The material (activated carbon) that is responsible for removing the
uhdesirable substance in the adsorption process.
Adsorption (water) -The gathering of a gas, liquid, or dissolved substance on the surface or
interface zone of another material.
Advanced Waste Treatment (water) - Any process of water renovation that upgrades treated
wastewater to meet specific reuse requirements. May include general cleanup of water or
removal of specific parts of wastes insufficiently removed by conventional treatment
processes. Typical processes include chemical treatment and pressure filtration. Also
called TERTIARY TREATMENT.
Aeration (water) - The process of adding air to water. Air can be added to water by either
passing air through water or passing water through air. In wastewater treatment, air is
added to freshen wastewater and to keep solids in suspension. With mixtures of
wastewater and activated sludge, adding air provides mixing and oxygen for the
microorganisms treating the wastewater.
Aeration Liquor (water) - Mixed liquor. The contents of the aeration tank including living
organisms and material carried into the tank by either untreated wastewater or primary
effluent.
Aeration Tank (water) -The tank where raw or settled wastewater is mixed with return sludge
and aerated. The same as aeration bay, aerator, or reactor.
Aerobes (water) - Bacteria that must have molecular (dissolved) oxygen (DO) to survive.
Aerobes are aerobic bacteria.
Aerobic (water) - A condition in which atmospheric or dissolved molecular oxygen is present
in the aquatic (water) environment.
Aerobic Bacteria (water) - Bacteria which will live and reproduce only m an environment
containing oxygen which is available for their respiration (breathmg), namely atmospheric
oxygen or oxygen dissolved in water. Oxygen combined chemically, such as in water
molecules (H20), cannot be used for respiration by aerobic bacteria.
Aerobic Decomposition (water) - The decay or breaking down of organic material in the
presence of "free" or dissolved oxygen.
Aerobic Digestion (water) - The breakdown of wastes by microorganisms in the presence of
dissolved oxygen. This digestion process may be used to treat only waste activated
sludge, or trickling filter sludge and primary (raw) sludge, or waste sludge from activated
sludge treatment plants designed without primary settling. The sludge to be treated is
placed in a large aerated tank where aer6bic microorganisms decompose the organic
matter in the sludge. This is an extension of the activated sludge process.
Aerobic Process (water)- A waste treatrrient process conducted under aerobic (in the presence
of "free" or dissolved oxygen) conditions.
Age Tank (water) - A tank used to store a known concentration of chemical solution for feed to
a chemical feeder. Also called a DAY TANK
Agglomeration (water) -The growing or coming together of small scattered particles into larger
floes or particles which settle rapidly. Also see FLOC.
G-4
Aggregate (const) - Granular materials, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, and iron blast-
furnace slag, used with a cementing medium to form a hydraulic cement concrete or
mortar.
Aggregate lightweight (const)- Aggregate with a dry, loose weight Qf 1100 kg/ m3 or less.
Agronomic Rates (water) - Sludge application rates which provide the amount of nitrogen
needed by the crop or vegetation grown on the land while minimizing the amount that
passes below the root zone.
Air Binding (water) -The clogging of a filter, pipe or pump due to the presence of air released
from water. Air entering the filter media is harmful to both the filtration and backwash
processes. Air can prevent the passage of water during the filtration process and can cause
the loss of filter media during the backwash process.
Air Gap (water) - An open vertical drop, or vertical empty space, that separates a drinking
(potable) water supply to be protected from another water system in a water treatinent
plant or other location. This open gap prevents the contamination of drinking water by
backsiphonage or backflow because there is no way raw water or any other water can
reach the drinking water.
Air Lift (water) - A special type of pump. This device consists of a vertio:al riser pipe submerged
in the wastewater or sludge to be pumped. Compressed air is injected into a tail piece at
the bottom of the pipe. Fine air bubbles mix with the wastewater or sludge to form a
mixture lighter than the surrounding water which causes the mixture to rise in the
discharge pipe to the outlet. An airlift pump works like the center stand in a percolator
coffee_pot.
Air Padding (water) - Pumping dry air (dew point -40F) into a container to assist with the
withdrawal of a liquid or to force a liquified gas such as chlorine. out of a container.
Air Relief (water) - A type of valve used to allow air caught in high spots in pipes to escape.
Air Stripping (water) - A treatinent process used to remove dissolved gases and volatile
substances from water. Large volumes of air are bubbled through the water being treated
to remove (strip out) the dissolved gases and volatile substances.
Air Test (water) -A method of inspecting a sewer pipe for leaks. Inflatable or similar plugs are
ph1ced in the line and the space between these plugs is pressurized with air. A drop in
pressure indicates the line or run being tested has leaks.
Algae (water}- Microscopic plants which contain chlorophyll and live floating or suspended in
water. They also may be attached to structures, rocks or other submerged surfaces. Excess
algal growths can impart tastes and odors to potable water. Algae produce oxygen during
sunlight hours and use. oxygen during the night hours. Their biological activities
appreciably affect the pH, alkalinity, and dissolved oxygen of the water.
Algal Bloom (water) - Sudden, massive growths of microscopic and macroscopic plant life,
such as green or bluegreen algae, which develop in lakes and reservoirs.
Algicide (water) - Any substance or chemical specifically formulated to kill or control algae.
Aliphatic Hydroxy Acids (water)- Organic acids with carbon atoms arranged in branched or
unbranched open chains rather than in rings.
Alkali (watet) - Any of certain soluble salts, principally of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and
calcium, that have the property of combining with acids to form neutral salts and may be
used in chemical water. treatinent processes.
I
G 5
Alkaline (water) - The condition of water or soil which contains a sufficient amount of alkali
substances to raise the pH above 7.0.
Alkalinity (water) - The capacity of water to neutralize acids. This capacity is caused by the
water's content of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide, and occasionally borate, silicate, and
phosphate. Alkalinity is expressed in milligrams per liter of equivalent calcium carbonate.
Alkalinity is not the same as pH because water does not have to be strongly basic (high
pH) to have a high alkalinity. Alkalinity is a measure of how much acid must be added to
a liquid to lower the pH to 4.5.
Alluvial (water) - Relating to mud and/ or sand deposited by flowing water. Alluvial deposits
may occur after a heavy rainstorm.
Alluvial Deposit (water)- Sediment (clay, silt, sand, gravel) deposited in place by the action of
running water.
Altitude Valve (water) - A valve that automatically shuts off the flow into an elevated tank
when the water level in the tank reaches a predetermined level. The valve automatically
opens when the pressure in the distribution system drops below the pressure in the tank.
Aluminum (gen) - symbol AI, most abundant metallic element in the earth's crust. The atomic
number of aluminum is B; the atomic weight is 26.9815. Aluminum is a lightweight,
silvery metal. In contact with air, aluminum rapidly becomes covered with a tough,
transparent layer of aluminum oxide that resists corrosion. Aluminum is neverfound as
alone but commonly occurs as aluminum silicate or as a silicate of aluminum mixed with
other metals. Expensive to refine, these silicates are not useful ores. Bauxite, an impure
hydrated aluminum oxide, is the commercial source of aluminum and its compounds. A
low-cost technique dating from the 1880s is still the major method of production.
Aluminum weighs less than one-thin\ as much as steel. Its high strength-to-weight ratio
makes aluminum useful in many applications
Ambient (water)- Surrounding. Ambient or surrounding atmosphere.
Ambient Con1pensation (canst) - The design of an inshument such that changes in ambient
temperature do not affect the of the instrument
Ambient C<'llditions (gen) -Conditions around a transducer (pressure, temperature, etc.)
Ambient Temperature (water) - Temperature of the surrounding air (or other medium). For
example, temperature of the room where a gas chlorinator is installed.
(water)- Bacteria that do not need molecular (dissolved) oxygen (DO) to survive.
Anaerobic (water) - A condition in whicl1 ahnosphcric or dissolved molecular oxygen is NOT
present in the aquatic (water) environment.
AnaProbic Bacteria (water) - Bacteria that live and reproduce in an environment containing no
"free" or dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their oxygen supply by . breaking
down chemical compounds which contain oxygen, such as sulfate (5042-).
Anaerobic Decomposition (water) - The decay or breaking down of organic material in an
environment containing no "free" or dissolved oxygen.
Anaerobic Digester (water) - A wastewater solids treatment device in which the solids and
water (about 5 percent solids, 95 percent water) are placed in a large tank where bacteria
decompose the solids in the absence of dissolved oxygen.
Anaerobic Digestion (water) - Wastewater solids and water (about 5% solids, 95% water) are--
placed in a large tank where bacteria decompose the solids in. the absence of dissolved
oxygen. At least two general groups of bacteria act in balance: (1) SAPROPHYTIC bacteria
G-6
break down complex solids to volatile acids, the most common of which are acetic and
propionic acids; and (2) METHANE FERMENTERS break down the acids to methane,
carbon dioxide, and water.
Anaerobic Selector (water) - Anaerobic refers to the practical absence of dissolved and
chemically bound oxygen. Selector refers to a reactor or basin and environmental
conditions (food, lack of DO) intended to favor the growtP of certain organisms over
others. Also see SELECTOR.
Anchor (const) - Device providing a fixing to a solid surface
Anchorage (const) - In post-tensioning, a device used to anchor tendon to concrete member, in
pretensioning, a device used to anchor tendon during hardening of concrete.
Anemometer (gen) - Instrument for measuring and/ or indicating the velocity of air flow
Angle of Repose (gen) - The angle between a horizontal line and the slope or surface of
unsupported material such as gravel, sand, or loose S<?il. Also called the "natural slope."
Angle Post (const) - Railing support at landings or other breaks in the stairs. If an angle post
projects beyond the bottom of the strings, the ornamental detail formed at the bottom of
the post is called the drop.
Anion (water) - A negatively charged ion in an electrolyte soh1tion, attracted to the anode
under the influence of a difference in electrical potential. Chloride ion (Cl-) is an anion.
Anionic Polymer (water) - A polymer having negatively charged groups of ions; often used as a
filter aid and for dewatering sludges.
Anoxic (water) - Oxygen deficient or lacking sufficient oxygen.
Anoxic Denitrification (water) - A biological nitrogen removal prooess in which nitrate nitrogen
is converted by microorganisms to nitrogen gas in the absence of dissolved oxygen.
Appurtenance (water) - Machinery, appliances, structures and other parts of the main structure
necessary to allow it to operate as intended, but not considered part of the main structure.
Aqueous (water)- Something made up of, similar to, or containing water; watery.
Aquifer (water) - A natural underground layer of porous, water-bearing materials (sand,
gravel) usually capable of yielding a large amount or supply of water.
Architectural Design (const) - Development of the conceptual aspects of the design, usually
undertaken by ail architect
Architectural Terra Cotta (const)- (See Ceramic Veneer)
Artesian (water) - Pertaining to groundwater, a well, or underground basin where the water is
under a pressure greater than atmospheric and will rise above the level of its upper
confiniitg surface if given an opportunity to do so.
Artificial Groundwater Table (water) - A groundwater table that is changed by artificial means.
Examples of activities that artificially raise the level of a groundwater table include
agricultural irrigation, dams and excessive sewer line exfiltration. A groundwater table
can be artificially lowered by sewer line infiltration, water wells, and similar drainage
methods.
Ashlar MasonrY (const) - Masonry composed of rectangular units, usually larger in size than
brick and properly bonded, having sawed, dressed, or squared beds. It is laid in mortar.
Asphalt (const) - Black petroleum residue, which can be anywhere from solid to semisolid at
room temperature. When heated to the temperature of boiling water, it becomes pourable.
G-7
It is used in roofing materials, surfacing roads, in lining the walls of water-retaining
structures such as reservoirs and swimming pools, and in manufacturing floor tiles.
Asphalt should not be confused with tar, a similar looking substance made from coal or
wood and incompatible with petroleum derivates
Aspirate (water)- Use of a hydraulic device (aspirator or eductor) to create a negative pressure
(srn:tion) by forcing a liquid through a restriction, such as a Venturi. An aspirator (the
hydraulic device) may be used in the laboratory in place of a vacuum pump; sometimes
used instead of a sump pump.
Attached Growth Processes (water) - Wastewater tr,eatment processes in which the
microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes are attached to the media in the reactor.
The wastes being treated flow over the media. Trickling filters and rotating biological
contactors are attached growth reactors. These reactors can be used for BOD removal,
nitrification and denitrification.
Autotrophic (water) - Describes organisms (plants and some bacteria) that use inorganic
materials for energy and growth.
Average Demand (wate1)- The total demand for water during a period of time divided by the
number of days in that time period. This is also called the average daily demand.
Axial Load (const)- Load applied along or parallel to and concentric with the primary axis
B
B 0 D (water) - Biochemical Oxygen Demand. The rate at which organisms use the oxygen in
water while stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. In
decomposition, organic matter serves as food for the bacteria and energy results from its
oxidation. BOD measurements are used as a measure of the organic strength of wastes in
water.
B 0 D 5 (water) - BODS refers to the five day biochemical oxygen demand. The total amount of
oxygen used by microorganisms decomposing organic matter increases each day until the
ultimate BOD is reached, usually in 50 to 70 days. BOD usually refers to the five-day BOD
or BODS.
B T U (gen)- British thermal units; the quantity of thermal energy required to raise one pound
of water at its maximum density, 1 degree F. One BTU is equivalent to .293 watt hours, or
252 calories. One kilowatt hour is equivalent to 3412 BTU
Back Pressure (water) - A pressure that can cause water to backflow into the water supply
when a user's water system is at a higher pressure than the public water system.
Backfill (soil) - Material used to fill in a trench or excavation. D The act of filling a trench or
excavation, usually after a pipe or some type of structure has been placed in the trench or
excavation.
Backfill Compaction (soil) - Tamping, rolling or otherwise mechanically compressing material
used as backfill for a trench or excavation. Backfill is compressed to increase its density so
that it will support the weight of machinery or other loads after the material is in place in
the excavation. D Compaction of a backfill material can be expressed as a percentage of
the maximum compactability, density or load capacity of the material being used.
GB
Backflow (water) - A reverse flow condition, created by a difference in water pressures, which
causes water to flow back into the distribution pipes of a potable water supply from any
source or sources other than an intended source. Also see BACKSIPHONAGE.
Backflusing (water) - A procedure used to wash settled waste matter off upstream structures to
prevent odors from developing after a main line stoppage has been cleared.
Backsiphonage (water) - A form of backflow caused by a negative or below atmospheric
pressure within a water system. Also see BACKFLOW.
Backwashing (water) -The process of reversing the flow of water back tlvough the filter media
to remove the entrapped solids. '
Backwater Gate (water) - A gate installed at the end of a drain or outlet pipe to prevent the
' backward flow of water or wastewater. Generally used on storm sewer outlets into
streams to prevent backward flow during times of flood or high tide. Also called a TIDE

Bacteria (water) - Bacteria are living organisms, microscopic in size, which usually consist of a
single cell. Most bacteria use organic matter for their food and produce waste products as
a result of their life processes.
Baffle (water) - A flat board or plate, deflector, guide or similar device constructed or placed in
flowing water or slurry systems to cause more uniform flow velocities, to absorb energy,
and to divert, guide, or agitate liquids (water, chemical solutions, slurry).
Baffle (water) - A flat board oi plate, deflector, guide or similar device constructed or placed in
flowing water, wastewater, or slurry systems to cause more uniform flow velocities, to
absorb energy, and to divert, guide, or agitate liquids (water, chemical solutions, slurry).
Ballirig (water) - A method of hydraulically cleaning a sewer or. storm drain by using the
pressure of a water head to a high cleansing velocity of water around the ball. In
:normal operation, the ball is restrained lly a cable while water washes past the ball at high
velocity. Special sewer cleaning balls have an outside tread that causes them to spin or
rotate, resulting in a "scrubbing" action of the flowing water along the pipe wall.
Baluster (const)- Vertical member supporting the railing.
Balustrade (const) -A railing composed of balusters capped by a handrail.
Batch Process (water) - A treatment process in which a tank or reactor is filled, the water is
treated-or a chemical solution is prepared, and the tank is emptied. The tank may then be
filled. and the process repeated.
Bearing (const) - The linear or a real dimension over which a higher component transmits load
to a lower component
Bearing Wall (const) -A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.
Bedding (const) - A layer, usually of concrete or mortar, for providing continuous support to
such items as bricks, slabs, pipes. 0 The prepared base or bottom of a trench or
excavation on which a pipe or other underground structure is supported.
Bell (water) - In pipe fitting, the enlarged female end of a pipe into which the male end fits.
Also called a HUB.
Bellmouth (water) - An expanding, rounded entrance to a pipe or orifice.
Biodegradable (water) - Organic matter that can be broken down by bacteria to more stable
forms which will not create a nuisance or give off foul odors is considered biodegradable.
Biodegration (water) -The breakdown of organic matter by bacteria to more stable forms which
will not create a nuisance or give off foul odors.
Bioflocculation (water) - The clumping together of fine, dispersed organic particles by the
action of certain bacteria and algae. This results in faster and more complete settling of the
organic solids in wastewater.
Biological Growth (water) -The activity and growth of any and all living organisms.
Biological Process (water) - A waste treatment process by which bacteria and other
microorganisms break down complex organic materials into simple, nontoxic, more stable
substances.
Biomass (water) - A mass or clump of organic material consisting of living organisms feeding
on the wastes in wastewater, dead organisms and other debris. Also see ZOOGLEAL
FILM.
Biosolids (water) - A primarily organic solid product, produced by wastewater treatment
processes, that can be beneficially recycled. The word biosolids is replacing the word
sludge.
Biosurvey (water) - A survey of the types and numbers of organisms naturally present in the
receiving waters upstream and downstream from plant effluents. Comparisons are made
between the aquatic organisms upstream and those organisms downstream of the
discharge.
Bleeding (const)- The separation of water from an unhardened mix. P: The process of diffusion
of a soluble colored substance from, into, and through a paint or varnish coating from
beneath, thus producing an undesirable staining or discoloration. Used similarly to refer
to the transfer of soluble material from bitumen impregnated roofing materials, in lime-
rich water, causing staining of soffits of concrete slab roofs
Blind Stop (const) - A thin sheet of wood machined to fit the exterior vertical edge of the pulley
stile or jamb and keep the sash in place.
Blister (const) - A local separation of a surface layer causing a raised area on the surface with a
cavity below, usually happening in flat roofs
Bond (const)- Adherence between materials such as bricks/mortar, or plies of felt, or between
felts and other elements of roof systems, which use bitumen or other materials as the
cementing agent
Bonded tendon (const) - Prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or
through grouting.
Bonder (const) - (See Header)
Brick (const) - A rectangular masonry building unit, not less than 75% solid, made from burned
clay, shale, or a mixture of these materials.
Buildability (const) - The extent to which the design of a building facilitates ease of
construction, subject to the overall requirements for the building.
Building Control (const) - (on site) Responsibility of government or government agency or
designated professional, who by periodic checking ensures that work on site is in
accordance with approved construction plans and regulations.
Building Services Design - Design. of the building services elements within a construction.
Normally specialist building services engineers will be responsible for this work on large
projects. On smaller projects may fall within the responsibility of the architect.
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Buttress (const) -A bonded masonry column built as an integral part of the wall and decreasing
in thickness from bottom to top, although never thinner than the wall. It is used to provide
lateral stability to the wall.
c
C Factor (water) - A factor or value used to indicate the smoothness of the interior of a pipe.
The higher the C Factor, the smoother the pipe, the greater the carrying capacity, and the
smaller the friction or energy losses from water flowing in the pipe. To calculate the C
Factor, measure the flow, pipe diameter, distance between two pressure gages, and the
friction or energy loss of the water between the gages.
C 0 D (water) - Chemical Oxygen Demand. A measure of the oxygen-consuming capacity of
organic matter present in wastewater. COD is expressed as the amount of oxygen
consumed from a chemical oxidant in mg/L during a specific test. ResUlts are not
necessarily related to the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) because the chemical
oxidant may react with substances that bacteria do not stabilize.
C S 0 (water) - Combined Sewer Overflow. Wastewater that flows out of a sewer (or lift
station) as a result of flows exceeding the hydraulic capacity of the sewer. CSOs usually
occur during periods of heavy precipitation or high levels of runoff from snow melt or
other runoff sources.
Caisson (water) - A structure or chamber which is usually sunk or lowered by digging from the
inside. Used to gain access to the bottom of a stream or other body of water.
Calcium Carbonate Equilibrium (water) - A water is considered stable when it is just saturated
with calcium carbonate. In this condition the water will neither dissolve nor deposit
calcium carbonate. Thus, in this water the calcium carbonate is in equilibrium with the
hydrogen ion concentration.
Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (water) - An expression of the concentration of specified
constituents in water in terms of their equivalent value to calcium carbonate. For example,
the hardness in water which is caused by calcium, magnesium and other ions is usually
described as calcium carbonate equivalent. Alkalinity test results are usually reported as
mg/L CaC03 equivalents. To convert chloride to CaC03 equivalents, multiply the
concentration of chloride ions in mg/L by 1.41, and fur sulfate, multiply by 1.04.
Calibration (gen) - A procedure which checks or adjusts an instrument's accuracy by
comparison with a standard or reference.
Calorie (water) - The amount 0f heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water
one degree Celsius.
Capillarity (fluid) - Absorption of a liquid due to surface tension _ "rising damp" in walls is
caused by capillary rise of the water in small pores of the walling materials
Capillary Action (water) - The movement of water through very small spaces due to molecular
forces.
Capillary Effect (water) -Also called "wicking e.ffect." The ability of a liquid to rise above an
established level to saturate a porous solid.
Capillary Forces (water) - The molecular forces which cause the movement of water through
very small spaces.
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Capillary Fringe (water) - The porous m a ~ r i a l just above the water table which may hold water
by capillarity (a property of surface tension that draws water upward) in the smaller void
spaces.
Carbonaceous Stage (water) - A stage of decomposition that occurs in biological treatment
processes when aerobic bacteria, using dissolved oxygen, change carbon compounds to
carbon dioxide. Sometimes referred to as "first stage BOD" because the microorganisms
attack organic or . carbon compounds first and nitrogen compounds later. Also see
NITRIFICATION STAGE.
Carbonation (gen)- The.transformation of the free alkali and alkali-earth hydroxides existent in
the cement matrix into carbonates, due to a reaction with carbon dioxide available l.n the
atmosphere.
Carcinogen (water) - Any substance which tends to produce cancer in an organism
Qrriage (canst) - Rough timber supporting the steps of wood stairs.
Catalyst (water) - A substance that changes the speed or yield of a chemical reaction without
being consumed or chemically changed by the chemical reaction.
Catalyze (water) -To act as a catalyst. Or, to speed up a chemical reaction.
Catch Basin (water) - A chamber or well used with storm or combined sewers as a means of
removing grit which might otherwise enter and be deposited in sewers. Also see STORM
WATER INLET and CURB INLET.
Cathode (water) - The negative pole or electrode of an electrolytic cell or system. The cathode
attracts positively charged particles or ions (cations).
Cathodic Protection (water) - An electrical system for prevention of rust, corrosion,. and pitting
of metal surfaces which are in contact with water or soil. A low voltage current is made to
flow through a liquid (water) or a soil in contact with the metal in such a manner that the
external electromotive force renders the metal structure cathodic. This concentrates
corrosion on auxiliary anodic parts which are deliberately allowed to corrode instead of
letting the structure corrode.
Cation (water) - A positively charged ion in an electrolyte solutioh, attracted to the cathode
under the influence of a difference in electrical potential Sodium ion (Na+) is a cation.
Cation Exchange Capacity (water) - The ability of a soil or other solid to exchange cations
(positive ions such as calcium, Ca2+) with a liquid.
Cationic Polymer (water) - A polymer having positively charged groups of ions; often used as a
coagulant aid.
Caulk (water) - To stop up and make watertight the joints of a pipe by filling the joints with a
waterproof compound or material.
Caulking (water) - A waterproof compound or material used to fill a pipe joint. 0 The act of
using a waterproof compound or material to fill a pipe joint.
Cavitation (water) - The formation and collapse of a gas pocket or bubble on the blade of an
impeller or the gate of a valve. The collapse of this gas pocket or bubble drives water into
the impeller or gate with a terrific force that can cause pitting on the impeller or gate
surface. Cavitation is accompanied by loud noises that sound like someone is pounding
on the impeller or gate with a hammer.
Cavity .Wall (canst) - (See Hallow Wall)
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Cell Test (const) - Cells of 500 feet length are constructed for vanous combinations of
bituminous, concrete and aggregate. They repre5ent a wide range of pavement types with
varying combinations of surface, base, subbase, drainage and compaction
Cementation (water) A spontaneous electrochemical process that involves the reduction of a
more electropositive (noble) species, for .example, copper, silver, mercury, or cadmillill,. by
electronegative (sacrificial) metals such as iron, zinc, or aluminum. This process is used to
purify spent electrolytic solutions and for the treatment of waste'Xaters, leachates, and
sludges bearing heavy metals. Also called ELECTROLYTIC RECOVERY. 0 The process
of heating two substances that are placed in contact with each other for the purpose of
bringing about some change in one of them such as changing iron to steel by surrounding
it with charcoal and then heating it.
Cementation Tank (water) - A tank in which metal ions are precipitated onto scrap aluminum,
steel or other metals. The collected metal can be sent to a smelter for recovery. This
process does not require electric current.
Centrcilized Waste Treatment (CWT) Facility (water) - A facility designed to properly handle
treatment of specific hazardous wastes from industries with similar waste streams. The
wastewaters containlng the hazardous substances are transported to the facility for proper
storage, treatment and disposal. D i f f e r e n ~ facilities treat different types of 'hazardous
wastes.
Centrate (water) - The water leaving a centrifuge after most of the solids have been removed.
Centrifugal Pump (water) - A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft that is
enclosed in a casing, and having an inlet and discharge connection. As the rotating
impeller whirls the liquid around, centrifugal force builds up enough pressure to (orce the
'water through the discharge outlet.
Centrifuge (water) - A mechanical device that uses centrifugal or rotational forces to separate
solids from liquids.
Ceramic Veneer (const) - Hard-burned, non-load-bearing, clay building units, glazed or
unglazed, plain or ornamental.
Cesspool (water) - A lined or partially lined excavatiOn or pit for dumping raw household
wastewater for natural decomposition and percolation into the soil.
Chain of Custody (water) - A record of each person involved in the handling and possession of
a sample from the person who collected the sample to the person who analyzed the
sample in the laboratory and to the person who witnessed disposal of the sample.
Charge Chemistry (water) -. A branch of chemistry in which the destabilization and
neutralization reactions occur between stable negatively charged and stable positively
charged particles.
Chase (const)- A continuous recess in a wall to receive pipes, ducts, and conduits.
Check Valve (water)- A special valve with a hinged disc or flap that opens in the direction of
normal flow and is forced shut when flows attempt to go in the reverse or opposite
direction of normal flows.
Chemical Grouting (water) - Sealing leaks in a.-pipeline or manhole structure by injecting a
chemical grout. In pipelines, the chemicals are injected through a device called a "packer."
In operation, the packer is located at the leak point with the use of a television camera.
Inflatable boots at either end of the packer isolate the leak point and the grouting
G 13
chemicals are then forced into the leak under pressure. After allowing time for the srout
to set, the packer is deflated and moved to the next location.
Chemical Process (water) - A treatment process involving the addition of chemicals to achieve a
desired level of treatment Any given process solution in metal finishing is also called a
"chemical process."
Chloramination (water) - The application of chlorine and ammonia to water to form
chloramines for the purpose of disinfection.
Chloramines (water) - Compounds formed by the reaction of hypochlorous acid (or aqueeus
chlorine) with ammonia.
Chlorination (water) - The application of chlorine to water, generally for the purpose of
disinfection, but frequently for accomplishing other biological or chemical results (aiding
coagulation and controlling tastes and odors).
Chlorinator (water) - A metering device which is used to add chlorine to water.
Chlorine Demand (water) - Chlorine demand is the difference between the amount qf chlorine
added to water and the amount of residual chlorine remaining a given contact time.
Chlorine demand may change with dosage, time, temperature, pH, and nature and
amount of the impurities in the water.
Chlorophenoxy (water) - A class of herbiddes that may be found in domestic water supplies
and cause adverse health effects. Two widely used chlorophenoxy herbicides are 2,4D
(2,4Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) and 2,4,5TP (2,4,5Trichlorophenoxy propionic add
(silvex)).
Chlororganic (water) - Organic compounds combined with chlorine. These compounds
generally originate from, or are associated with, life processes such as those of algae in
water.
Christy Box (water) - A box placed over the connection between the pipe liner and the house
sewer to hold the mortar around the cleanout wye and riser in place.
Chromium (water) - A hard, brittle metallic element often used in- metal alloys and as a
corrosion-resistant surface coating for metal parts. Chromium is an especially toxic metal,
with hexavalent chromium being appreciably more toxic than _ trivalent chromium.
Inadequate or improper handling and disposal of chromium may create serious
environmental hazards. Also see CHROME PLATE, HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM and
TRIVALENT CHROMIUM.
Ciliates (water) - A class of protozoans distinguished by short hairs on all or part of their
bodies.
Circle of Influence (water) - The circular outer edge of a depression produced in the water table
by the pumping of water from a well. Also see CONE OF INFLUENCE and CONE OF
DEPRESSION.
Circuit Breaker (water) - A safety device in an electric circuit that automatically shuts off the
circuit when it becomes overloaded. The device can be manually reset.
Cistern (water) -A small covered) or a storage fadlity used to store water for a
home or farm. Often used to store rainwater.
Cladding (const) - The external covering to the frame or structural walls of a building or
structure. The veneer is non- load-bearing, and as such it is designed to carry only its own
weight (dry and/or wet), and a limited number of loads such as wind and seism. In
G 14
relationship with the structure it encloses, it can be either fully bonded or separated by an
air barrier
Clarification (water) - Any process or combination of processes the main purpose of which is to
. reduce the concentration of suspended matter, in a liquid.
Clarifier (water) - A large circular or rectangular tank or basin in which water is held for a
period of time during which the heayier suspended solids settle to the bottom Clarifiers
are also called settling basins and sedimentation basins.
Cleanout (water) - An opening (usually covered or capped} in a wastewater collection system
used for inserting tools, rods or snakes while cleaning a pipeline or clearing a stoppage.
Cleanout, Two-way (water) - A cleanout designed for rodding or working a snake into a pipe
in either direction. Two-way cleanouts are often used in building lateral pipes at or near a
property line.
Clear Well (water) - A reservoir for the storage of filtered water of sufficient capacity to prevent
the need to vary the filtration rate with variations in demand. Also used to provide
chlorine contact time for disinfection.
Client (const) - The persOn or legal entity who contracts wit!:} an individual or organization
under a construction contract and pays for the works .
. Coagulant (water) - A chemical that causes very fine particles to clump (floc) together into
larger particles. This makes it easier to separate the solids from the liquids by settling,
skimming, draining or filtering.
Coagulant Aid (water) - Any chemical or substance used to assist or modify coagulation.
Coagulate (water) - The use of chemicals that cause very fine particles to clump (floc) together
into larger particles. 'fhil! makes it easier to separate the solids from the liquids by settling,
Coagulation (water) - The clumping together of very fine particles into larger particles (floc)
caused by the use of chemicals (coagulants). The chemicals neutralize the electrical
charges of the fine particles, allowing them to come closer and form larger clumps. This
clumping together makes it easier to separate the solids from the water by settling,
Cohesive (water) -Tending to stick together.
Coliform (water) - A group of bacteria found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals
(including humans) and also in plants, soil, air and water. Fecal coliforms are a specific
class of bacteria which only inhabit the intestines of warm-blooded animals. The presence
of coliform bacteria is an indication that the water is polluted and may contain pathogenic
(disease-causing) organisms.
Collar Joints (const) -A vertical joint betWeen wythes or a wythe and backup.
Collection Main (water) - A collection pipe to which building laterals are connected.
Collection System (water) - A network of pipes, manholes, cleanouts, traps, siphons, lift
stations and other strUctures used to collect all wastewater and wastewater-carried wastes
of an area and transport them to a treatment plant or disposal system. The collection
system 4ncludes land, wastewater lines and appurtenances, pumping stations and general
property.
Colloids (Water)- Very small, finely divided solids (particles that do not dissolve) that remain
dispersed in a liquid for a long time due to their small size and electrical charge. When
most of the particles in water have a negative electrical charge, they tend to repel each
GLOSSARY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING' TERMS
a
other. This repulsion prevents the particles from clumping together, becomin& hiiWir,
and settling out.
Colorimetric (water) - A means ofmeasuring unknown chemical conCentratioN
in water by measuring a sample's color intensity. The specific color of the 1Amplt,
developed by addition of chemical reagents, is measured with a photoelectric colol'imettr
or is compared with ''color standards" using, or corresponding with, known
concentrations of the chemical.
Column (const) - A compression member with width not exceeding four times the thickneA,
and with height more than three times the least lateral dimension.
Column (const) - Member with a ratio of height-to-least-lateral dimension of 3 or greater used
primarily to support axial compressive load.
Combined Available Chlorine (water)- The concentration of chlorine which is combined with
ammonia (NH3) as chloramine or as other chloro derivatives, yet is still available to
oxidize organic matter. .
Combined Available Residual Chlorine (water) -The concentration of residual which
is combined with ammonia (NH3) and/or organic nitrogen in water as a chloramine (or
other chloro derivative) yet is still available to oxidize organic matter and use its
bactericidal properties.
Combined Residual Chlorination (water) - The application of chlorine to water or wastewater
to produce a combined available chlorine residual. The residual may consist of chlorine
compounds formed by the reaction of chlorine with natural or added ammonia (NH3) or
with certain organic nitrogen compounds.
Combined Residual Chlorine (water) - The application of chlorine to water to produce
combined available chlorine residual. This residual can be made up of monochloramines,
dichloramines, and nitrogen trichloride.
Combined Sewer (water)- A sewer designed to carry both sanitary wastewaters and storm or
surface water runoff.
Combined System (water) - A sewer designed to carry both sanitary wastewaters and s,torm or
surface water runoff.
Combined Wastewater (water) - A mixture of storm or surface runoff and other wastewater
such as domestic or industrial wastewater.
Combustible Uquid (water) - A liquid whose flashpoint is at or above lOO"F (38"C). Flammable
liquids present a greater fire or explosion hazard than combustible liquids. Also see
FLAMMABLE LIQUID. .
Commercial Contribution (water) - Uquid and liquid<arried wastes dumped by commercial
establishments into the wastewater collection system. Used in this context, commercial
contributions are distinct . from domestic and industrial sources of'. wastewater
contributions. Examples of high-yield commercial sources are laundries, restaurants and
hotels.
Comminution (water) - Shredding. A mechanical treatment process which cuts large pieces of
wastes into smaller pieces so they won't plug pipes or damage equipment.
COMMINUTION and SHREDDING usually mean the same thing.
Comminutor (water) - A device used to reduce the size of the solid chunks in wastewater by
shredding (comminuting). The shredding action is like many scissors cutting or chopping
to shreds all the large influent solids material in the wastewater.
G -16
Commodity-Demand Method (water) A cost allocation method used by water utilities to
determine water rates for the various water user groups. This method considers the
commodity costs (water, chemicals, power, amount of water use), demand costs
(treatment, storage, distribution), customer costs (meter maintenance and reading, billing,
collection, accounting) and fire protection costs.
Common Services (const) Common services are those services provided by the management
contractor to each works contractor on an identical basis .. They include; for example,
hoisting, welfare facilities and temporary roads.
Compaction (water) Tamping or rolling of a material to achieve a surface or density that is
able to support predicted loads.
Compaction Test (water) Any method of determining the weight a compacted material is able
to support without damage or displacement. Usually stated in pounds per square foot.
Compatible Pollutants (water) Those pollutants that are normally removed by the POTW
treatment system. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (55), and
ammonia are considered compatible pollutants.
Competitive Tender (const) -See Traditional Contracting.
Complete Treatment (water) A method of treating water which consists of the addition of
coagulant chemicals, flash mixing, coagulation-flocculation, sedimentation and filtration.
Also called CONVENTIONAL FILTRATION.
Composite concrete flexural members (const) Concrete flexural members of precast and/ or
. cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so interconnected
that all elements respond to loads as a unit.
Compound (water) A' pure substance composed of two or more elements whose composition
is constant. For example, table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is a compound.
Concentration Polarization (water) A buildup of retained particles on the membrane surface
due to dewaterptg of the feed closest to the membrane. The thickness of the concentration
polarization layer is controlled by the flow velocity across the membrane. 0 Used in
corrosion studies to indicate a depletion of ions near an electrode. 3) The basis for
chemical analysis by a polarograph.
Concentric Manhole C:one (water) - Cone tapers uniformly from barrel to manhole cover.
Concrete (const) - Mixture of Portland cement or any other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate, and water, wi.th or without admixtures.
Concrete Block (const) - A machine-formed masonry building unit composed of portland
cement, aggregates, and water.
Concrete, specified compressive strength of, (fc) (const) - Compressive strength of concrete
used in designed and evaluated in accordance with provisions of Sec .. 504, expressed in
mega pascals (MPa). Whenever the quantity f c is under a radical sign, square root of
numerical value only is intended, and result has units of megapascals (MPa).
Concrete, structural lightweight (const) Concrete containing lightweight aggregate and has an
air-dry unit weight is determined by " Test Method fur Unit Weight of Structural
U g h t w ~ i g h t Concrete" (PNS/ASTM C 567), not exceeding 1900 kg/m'.
Condensation (const) - Precipitation of liquid from its vapor resulting from lowering of the
temperature under constant pressure, . especi8.lly the deposition of water from w ~ moist
air on to a relatively cold surface.
G- 17
Conductance (water) - A rapid method of estimating the dissolved solids content of a water
supply. The measurement indicates the capacity of a sample of water to carry an electric
current, which is related to the concentration of ionized substances in the water. Also
called SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE.
Conductivity (water)- A measure of the ability of a solution (water) to carry an electric current.
ConduGtor (water) - A substance, body, device or wire that readily conducts or carries electric
current. 0 A pipe which carries a liquid load from one point to another point. In a
wastewater collection system, a conductor is often a large pipe witl;l no service
connections. Also called a CONDUIT, interceptor (see INTERCEPTING SEWER) or
INTERCONNECTOR. 3) In plumbing, a line conducting water from the roof to the storm
drain or other means of disposal. Also called a DOWNSPOUT. 4) In eleCtricity, a
substance, body, device or wire that readily conducts or carries electric current:
Conduit (water) - Any artificial or natural duct, either open or closed, for carrying fluids from
one point to another. An electrical conduit carries electricity.
Cone of Depression (water) - The depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in the water
table by the pumping of water from a well. Also called the CONE OF INFLUENCE. Also
see CIRCLE OF INFLUENCE.
Cone of Influence (water) - The depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in the. water
table by the pumping of water from a well. Also called the CONE OF DEPRESSION. Also
see CIRCLE OF INFLUENCE.
Coning (water) - Development of a cone-shaped flow of liquid, like a whirlpool, through
sludge. This can occur in a sludge hopper during sludge withdrawal when the sludge
becomes too thick. Part of the s l u d g ~ remains in place while liquid rather than sludge
flows out of the hopper. Also called coring.
Conservative Pollutant (water) - A pollutant found in wastewater that is not changed while
passing through the treatment processes in a conventional wastewater treatment plant.
This type of pollutant may be removed by the treatment processes and retained in the
plant's sludges or it may leave in the plant effluent. Heavy metals such as cadmium and
lead are conservative pollutants.
Consortia (const) - A consortium . is the grouping together of three or more organizations,
generally of differing skills, with the .objective of carrying out a specific project.
Constructability (const) - A system for achieving optimum integration of construction
knowledge in the construction process and balancing the various project and
environmental constraints to achieve maximizatiq_n__of project goals and construction
perfortnance. (Complementary to buildability or substitutive of it?)
Construction Activity (const) - The process of creating a project or part of a project by the
employment of construction resources.
Construction Contract (const) - An agreement entered into for the construction, repair,
renovation or restoration of abuilding or civil engineering work.
Construction CostS (const)- All costs that arise from .the resources used in the construction of a
construction project excluding the costs of the land.
Construction Design (const) - Development of the conceptual design into the more detailed
design (working drawings), undertaken by an architect, construction engineer,
architectural technician, professional builder, etc. -
Construction Firm (const)- See Contractor.
G 18
CoNtruction Industry (const) - All parties in the industry ~ g a g e d in designing, executing and
maintaining buildings including those supplying materials.
Construction Management (const) -The overall management of the processes required to bring
the site operations of a project to a satisfactory conclusion, typically carried out either by a
private consultant or an employee of the project client. Is a management form of contract
synonymous with management contracting except that works contractors are appointed
as direct contractors to the client, rather than as subcontractors to the contract manager.
Construction Management Contract (canst) -This contract is similar to a Management Contract
except that the client is the employer in each works construction contract.
Construction Manager (const) - The perSon or firm responsible for the execution of a
construction project
Construction Materials (const) - All materials, elements and components used for the
construction of projects that are incorporated in the final constructed product.
Construction Method (const) - The mode of carrying out a construction process to arrive at a
finished element, operation or product.
.
Construction Process (const) -The designing and construction of a project from the conception
of the project in a client's mind to its completion for commissioning and use.
Consultancy Service (const) - In relation to construction materials, processes ~ d the survey
and assessment of the condition of built constructions.
Consultants (const) - The client's advisers on design, c;ost and other matters. Such advisers
might include project managers.
Contact Stabilization (water).- Contact stabilization is a modification of the conventional
activated sludge process. In contact stabilization, two aeration 'lks are used. One tank is
for separate reaeration of the return sludge for at least four hours before it is permitted to
flow into the other aeration tank to be mixed with the primary effluent requiring
treatment. The process may also occur in one long tank.
Contamination (water) - The introduction into water of microorganisms, chemicals, toxic
substances, wastes, or wastewater in a concentration that makes the water unfit for its
next intended use.
Continuous Process (water) - A treatment process in which water is treated continuously in a
tank or. reactor. The water being treated continuously flows into the tank at one end, is
treated as it flows thro1,1gh the tank, and flows out the opposite end as treated water.
Continuous Sample (water) - A flow of water from a particular place in a plant to the location
where samples are collected for testing. This continuous stream may be used to obtain
grab or composite samples. Frequently, several taps (faucets) will flow continuously in the
laboratory to provide test samples from various places in a water treatment plant.
Contract Administration Management (const) - Process by which a formal contractfor design
or construction services is. administered including the issuing of instructions, change
control procedures, payment and the measuring and reviewing of progress.
Contract Manager (canst) -. A manager appointed by a contractor to be responsible for
managing a number of site contracts.
Contractor (const) - A person or organization which, as a party to a contract, is responsible for
the organization, management, and execution of that construction comprised in the
contract with the employer.
GLOSSARY OF CML ENGINEERING mMS
Contribution (water) - Waters, wastewaters or liquid-carried wutet entering a wut.water
collection system.
Control Loop (water) The path through the control system between the sensor, which
measures a process variable, and the controller, whidt controls or adjusts the proceu
variable.
Control- System (water) - An instrumentation system which senses and controls its own
operation on a dose, continuous basis in what is called propOrtional (or modulating)
control.
Conventional Filtration (water) - A method of treating water which consists of the addition of
coagulant chemicals, flash mixing, coagulation-flocculatiOn, sedimentation and filtration.
Also called COMPLETE TREATMENT. Also see DIRECT FILTRATION and INUNB
FILTRATION.
Conventional Pollutants (water) - Those pollutants which are found in domestic,
commercial or industrial wastes such as suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand,
pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms, adverse pH levels, and oil and grease.
Conventional Treatment (water) -The preliminary treatment, sedimentation, flotation, trickling
filter, rotating biological contactor, activated sludge and chlorination wastewater
treatment processes.
Coping (const) - A cap or finish on top of a wall, pier, chimney, or pilaster to prevent
penetration of water to mason:y wall.
Corbel (const) -Successive course masonry projecting from the face of a wall to increase its
thickness or to form a shelf or ledge.
Corporation Stop (water) - A water service shutoff valve located at a street water main. This
valve cannot be operated from the ground surface because it is buried and there is no
valve box. Also called a corporation cock.
Corrosion (const) Deterioration of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its
environment (BS 3660). Occasionally used, incorrectly, to apply to non-metallic materials,
eg. concrete
Corrosion (water) - The graqual decomposition or destruction of a material by chemical action,
often due to an electrochemical Corrosion may be caused by (1) stray. ctirrent
electrolysis, (2) galvanic corrosion caused by dissimilar metals, 01 (3) differential
concentration cells. Corrosion starts at the surface of a material and moves inward. .
Corrosion Inhibitors (water) -Substances that slow the rate of corrosion.
Corrosive Gases (water) - In water, dissolved oxygen reacts readily with metals at the anode of
a corrosion cell, accelerating the rate of corrosion until a film of oxidation products such as
rust forms. At the cathode where hydrogen gas may form a coating on the cathode and
slow the corrosion rate, oxygen reacts rapidly with hydrogen gas forming water, and
again increases the rate of corrosion.
Corrosive Material (water) A which through its chemical action is destructively
injurious to body tissues or other materials.
Corrosivity (water) - An indication of the corrosiveness of a water. The corrosiveness of a water
is ,described by the water's pH, alkalinity, hardness, temperature, total dissolved aolids,
dissolved oxygen cOncentration. and the Langelier Index.
Cost control (const) The process of controlling th.e cost of a project within a predetermined
sum throughout its various stages from inception to completion.
G- 20
Coulomb (water) - A measurement of the amount of electri'al charge carried by an electric
current of one ampere in one second. One coulomb equals about 6.25 x 1018 electrons
(6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons).
Counterceurrent Rinsing (water) - A rinsing procedure in which rinse water flows from tank to
tank in a direction that is opposite to movement of parts being rinsed from tank to tank.
Coupling (water) - A threaded sleeve used to connect two pipes. 0 A device used to connect
two adjacent parts, such as a pipe coupling, hose coupling or drive coupling.
Coupon (water) - A steel specimen inserted into water to measure the corrosiveness of water.
The rate of corrosion is measured as the loss of weight of the coupon (in milligrams) per
surface area (in square decimeters) exposed to the water per day. 10 decimeters= 1 meter
100 centimeters.
Course (const) - A continuous horizontal layer of masonry units bonded together.
Crack (const) - Linear . discontinuity produced by fracture. Elongated narrow opening.
Synonyms can include: break, split, fracture, fissure, separation, cleavage, in various
applications
Cradle to Grave (water) - A term used to describe a hazardous waste manifest system used by
regulatory agencies to track a hazardous waste from the point of generation to the hauler
and then to the disposal site.
Crazing (const) - Network of surface cracks. Used generally to describe surface cracking of
concrete surfaces and paint film. Also used specifically to describe the fine network
cracking of ceramic glazes by, for example, differential thermal expansion between glaze
and tile body, or moisture expansion of the body
Creep (const) -Slow deformation of a stressed material at temperatures which may be Within or
above the normal working range of the material
Cross Braces (water) - Shoring members placed across a trench to hold other horizontal and
vertical shoring members in place.
Cross Connection (water) - A connection between a drinking (potable) water system and an
unapproved water supply. For example, if you have a pump moving nonpotable water
and hook into the drinking water system to supply water for the pump seal, a cross ,
connection or 11\iXing between the two water systems can occur. This mixing may lead to
contamination of the drinking water.
Cryptosporidium (water) - A waterborne intestinal parasite that causes a disease called
cryptosporidiosis (CRIP-toe-spo-rid-ee-0-sis) in infected humans. Symptoms of the
disease include diarrhea, cramps, and weight loss. Cryptosporidium contamination is
found in most surface waters and some groundwaters. Commonly referred to as "crypto.''
Curb inlet (water) - A chamber or well built at the curbline of a street to admit gutter flow to
the storm water drainage system. Also see STORM WATER INLET and CATCH BASIN.
Curb Stop (water) - A water service shutoff valve located in a water service pipe near the curb
and betWeen the water main and the building. This valve is usually operated by a wrench
or valve key and is used to start or stop flows in the water service line to a building. Also
called a curb cock.
Curie A measure of radioactivity. One Curie of radioactivity is equivalent to 3.7 x 1010
or 37,000,000,000 nuclear disintegrations per second.
Current (water) - A movement or flow ofelectricity; Water flowing in a pipe is measured in
gallons per second past a certain point, not by the number of water molecules going past a
G 21
point. Electric current is measured by the number of coulombs per second flowin& pMt 1
certain point in a conductor. A coulomb iS equal to about 6.25 x 1018 electroN
(6,250,000,000,000,000,000 . electrons). A flow of one coulomb per second is called one
ampere, the unit of the rate of flow of current.
Curtain Wall (const)- Anon-load-bearing exterior wall.
Curvature friction (const) - Friction resulting from bends or curves in the speCified prestressing
tendon profile.
Curvilinear (water) - In the shape of a curved line.
Cyanide (water) -The cyanide ion (CN-) consiSts of carbon (C) arid nitrogen (N). Cyanide is
commonly found in metal plating wastewaters because most metal cyanides are soluble
and plating occurs readily from cyanide solutions. The cyanide ion is extremely toxic and
must be removed from metal wastes before discharge to the environment. Treatment of
wastes containing cyanide under acidic conditions may produce extremely toxic gases
which must never come in contact with people or animals.
Cycle (water) - A complete alternation of voltage and/or current in an alternating current
(A. C) circuit.
D
D 0 (water) - Abbreviation of DiSsolved Oxygen. DO is the molecular (atmospheric) oxygen
dissolved in water or wastewater.
D P D (water) - A method of measuring the chlorine residual in water. The residual may be
determined by either titrating or comparing a developed color with color standards. DPD
stands for N, Ndiethylpphenylenediamine.
Dado (const) -A rectangular groove cut across the grain of a frame member.
Dalton (water) - A unit of mass designated as one-sixteenth the mass of oxygen16, the lightest
and most abundant iSotope of oxygen. The dalton iS equivalent to one mass unit.
Dampness (const) - Condition of being slightly wet: usually not so wet that liquid water is
evident, eg. wetness caused by condensation on a porous substrate or water transmitted
up a porous wall by capillarity
Datum Une (water) - A line from which heights and depths are calculated or measured. Also
called a datum plane or a datum level.
Day Tank (water) - A tank used to store a chemical solution of known concentration for feed to
a chemical feeder. A day tank usually stores sufficient chemical solution to properly treat
the water being treated for at least one day. Also called an AGE TANK.
DCP (Dyruimic Cone Penetrometer) (const) - Instrument used to measure the strength of soil
and granular materials used in roadway construction
Dead End (water) - The end of a water main which iS not connected to other parts of the
distribution system by means of a connecting loop of pipe.
Deadend Manhole (water) - A manhole located at the upstream end of a sewer and having no
inlet pipe. Also called a TERMINAL MANHOLE.
G 22
Debris (water) - Any material in wastewater found floating, suspended, settled or moving
along the bottom of a sewer. This material may cause stoppages by getting hung up on
roots or settling out in a sewer. Debris includes grit, Raper, plastic, rubber, silt, and all
materials except liquids.
Decant (water) -To draw off the upper layer of liquid (water) after the heavier material (a solid
or another liquid) has settled.
Decomposition (const) - The separation of a material into elements or parts
Defect (const) - The non-conformity of the result of a test with the specification for a
characteristic (ISO 2071). In Building Pathology, used sometimes almost as a synonym of
'fault' or 'failure', but preferred meaiung is to indicate only a deviation from some
(perceived) standard which may, but will not necessarily result in a failure
Deformed reinforcement (canst) - Deformed reinforcing bars, bar mats, deformed wire, welded
plain wire fabric, and welded deformed wire fabric.
Delamination (const) - The breakdown ofa material by separation of the layers of which it is
composed
De;ign &t Build (canst) - Design &t Build or Design &t Construction is a form of construction
procurement whereby the contractor who constructs the works, also undertakes all of, or a
proportion of, the de-sign of the works under one contract.
Design &t Construct (const) - See Design &t Build.
Design &t Manage (const) - Ah extension to management contracting in which a design
responsibility is included as well as construction .
. Deterioration (const) -A reduction in ability to perform up to the anticipated standard
Development length (const) - Length of embedded reinforcementrequired to develop the
design strength of reinforcement
Deviation (gen) - Divt!tgence of the value of a quantity from a standard or reference value.
Used generally to indicate a divergence from what was originally intended.
Dipstick (canst) - The dipstick is an instrument used to calculate the elevation profile of the
road.
Drip Cap (const) - A molding placed on top of the head casing of a window frame to direct
water away from it.
Durability (const) - The quality of maintaining satisfactory aesthetic, economic, and functional
performance for the useful life of the structure
Dynamic Sensors (canst)- traffi!= triggered sensors
GLOS.SARY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TERMS
G- 23
E
E G L (water) - ENERGY GRADE LINE
Earth Shift (soil) - The movement or dislocation of underground soil or structure. Earth shift is
usually caused by external forces such as surface loads, slides, stresses or nearby
construction, water movements or seismic forces.
Easement (water) - Legal right to use the property of others for a specific purpose. For example,
a utility company may have a five-foot easement along the property line of a home. This
gives the utility the legal right to install and maintain a sewer line within the easement.
Eccentric Manhole Cone (water) - Cone tapers non-uniformly from barrel to manhole cover
with one side usually vertical.
Economic Control (const) - Ensuring project costs are kept within budget and measuring
ongoing progress of work in order to facilitate payment of contractors and sub-
contractors.
Eductor (water) - A hydraulic device used to create a negative pressure (suction) by forcing a
liquid through a restriction, such as a Venturi. An eductor or aspirator (the hydraulic
device) may be. used in the laboratory in place of a vacuum pump. As an injector, it is used
to produce vacuum for chlorinators. Sometimes used instead of a suction pump.
Effective depth of section (d) (const) - Distance measured from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement.'
'
Effective prestress (const) - Stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have
occurred, excluding effects of dead load and super imposed load.
Effective Range (water) - That portion of the design range (usually from 10 to 90+ percent) in
which an instrument has acceptable accuracy. Also see RANGE and SPAN.
Effective Size (ES) (water) - The diameter of the particles in a granular sample (filter media) for
which 10 percent of the total grains are smaller and 90 percent larger on a weight basis.
Effective .size is obtained by passing granular material through sieves with varying
dimensions of mesh and weighing the material retained by each sieve. The effective size is
also approximately the average size of the grains.
Effective Soil Depth (water) - The depth of soil in the leach field trench that provides a
satisfactory percolation area for the septic tank effluent.
Efflorescence (const) - White salts brought to the surface of porous building materials by water
movement (BS 4049)
Efflorescence (water) - The powder or crust formed on a substance when moisture is given off
upon exposure to the atmosphere.
Effluent (water) - Water or other liquid - raw (untreated), partially or completely treated -
flowing FROM a reservoir, basin, treatment process, or treatment plant.
Effluent Limits (water) - Pollutant limitations developed by a POTW for industrial plants
discharging to the POTW system. At a minimum, all industrial facilities are. required to
comply with federal prohibited discharge standards. The industries covered by federal
categorical standards must also comply with the appropriate discharge limitations. The
POTW may also establish local limits more stringent than or in addition to the federal
standards for some or all of its industrial users.
Ejector (water) - A device used to disperse a chemical solution into water being treated.
G- 21
Elbow (water) - A pipe fitting that connects two pipes at an angle. The angle is usually 90
degrees Wlless another angle is stated. Also called an "ell."
Electrochemical Corrosion (water) - The decomposition of a material by: (1) stray current
electrolysis, (2) galvanic corrosion caused by dissimilar metals, and (3) galvanic corrosion
caused by differential electrolysis.
Electrodialysis (water) - The selective separation of dissolved solids on the basis of electrical
charge, by diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane across which an electrical
potential is imposed.
Electrolyte (water) - A substance which dissociates (separates) into two or more ions when it is
dissolved in water.
Element (gen) - A substance which cannot be separated into its constituent parts and still retain
its chemical identity. For example, sodium (Na) is an element.
Elevation (gen) -The height to which something is elevated, such as the. height above sea level.
Elutriation (water) - The washing of digested sludge with either fresh water, plant effluent or
other wastewater. The objective is to remove (wash out) fine particulates and/ or the
alkalinity in sludge. This process reduces the demand for conditioning chemicals and
improves settling or filtering characteristics of the solids.
_,,I
Embedded Strain Gauge (const) - A sensor that measures static and horizontal strains in
concrete and asphalt layers by means of five different models placed in various locations
and orientations.
Embedment length (const) - Length of embedded reinforcement provided beyond a critical
section.
Employer (const) -Sec Client or Owner
Empty Bed Contact Time (water)- The time required for the liquid in a carbon adsorption bed
to pass through the carbon column assuming that all liquid passes through at the same
velocity.lt is equal to the volume of the empty bed divided by the flow rate.
Emulsion (water)- A liquid mixture of two or more liquid substances not normaiJy dissolved in
one another; one liquid is held in suspension inthe other.
Endrin (water) - A pesticide toxic to freshwater and marine aquatic life that produces adverse
health effects iii domestic water supplies.
Energy Design (const) - Work associated with energy systems within an overall social context,
including supply systems and the development of alternative energy sources.
ENERGY GRADE LINE (EGL) (water) - A line that represents the elevation of energy head (in
feet) of water flowing in a pipe, conduit or channel. The line is drawn above the hydraulic
grade line (gradient) a distance equal to the velocity head (V2/2g) of the water flowing at
each section or point along the pipe or channel. Also see HYDRAULIC GRADE Ll NE.
Enteric (water) - Of intestinal origin, especiaiJy applied to wastes or bacteria.
Entrain (water) - To trap bubbles in water either mechanically through turbulence or
chemicaiJy through a reaction.
Enzymes (water) -Organic substances (produced by living organisms) which cause or speed up
chemical reactions. Organic catalysts and/ or biochemical catalysts.
Epidemic (water) -A disease that occurs in a large number of people in a locality at the same
time and spreads from person to person.
G- 25
Epilimnion (water) - The upper layer of water in a thermally stratified lake or reservoir. This
layer consists of the warmest water and has a fairly uniform (constant) temperature. The
layer is readily mixed by wind action.
Equalizing Basin (water) - A holding basin in which variations in flow and composition of a
liquid are averaged. Such basins are used to provide a flow of reasonably uniform volume
andcomposition to a treatment unit. Also called a balancing reservoir.
Equilibrium, Calcium Carbonate (water) - A water is considered stable when it is just saturated
with calcium carbonate. In this condition the water will neither dissolve nor deposit
calcium carbonate. Thus, in this water the calcium is in equilibrium with the
hydrogen ion concentration.
Equipment/plant (const) - All mechanical plant and machines used as a means of production
on a construction site
Ester (water)- A compound formed by the reaction between an acid and an alcohol with the
elimination of a molecule of water.
Estimated Flow (water) - A rough guess of the amount of flow in a collection system. When
greater accuracy is needed, flow could be computed using average or typical flow
quantities. Even greater accuracy would result from metering or otherwise measuring the
actual flow.
Estimating (const) -The task of estimating the likely cost of construction works either on behalf
of clients or on behalf of contractors bidding for work.
Estuaries (water) - Bodies of water which are located at the lower end of a river and are subject
to tidal fluctuations.
Eutrophic (water) - Reservoirs and lakes which are rich in nutrients and very productive in
terms of aquatic animal and plant life.
Eutrophication (water)- The increase in the nutrient levels of a lake or other body of water; this
usually causes an increase in the growth of aquatic animal and plant life.
Evaporation (water)- The by which water or other liquid becomes a gas (water vapor
or ammonia vapor).
Evapotranspiration (water) - TI1e process by which water vapor passes into the atmosphere
from living plants. Also called TRANSPIRATION. 0 The total water removed from an
area by transpiration (plants) and by evaporation from soil, snow and water surfaces.
Exfiltration (const) - Leakage out of a material or structure
Exfiltration (water) -Liquid wastes and liquid-carried wastes which unintentionally leak out of
a sewer pipe system and into the environment.
Extrados The upper outside curve of a sewer pipe or conduit.
G- 26
- GLOSSARY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TEAMS
F
F/M Ratio (water)- Food to microorganism ratio. A measure of food providedto bacteria in an
aeration tank.
Faced Wall (const) - A wall in which the masonry facing and backing are of different materials
and son bonded as to exert a cominon reaction under load.
Fadlities Management (const) - Management of the organization in operating and maintaining
a completed project.
Facultative (water) - Facultative bacteria can use either dissolved molecular oxygen or oxygen
obtained from food materials such assulfate or nitrate ions. In other words, facultative
bacteria can live under aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
Facultative Pond (water)- The most common type of pond in current use.The upper portion
(supernatant) is aerobic, while the bottom layeris anaerobic. Algae supply most of the
oxygen to the supernatant.
4
Failure (const) - The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function. See
defect &: fault
Fast Tracking (const) - Fast tracking is a means of reducing project time by the overlapping of
design and construction. Each trade's work commences as its plans and specifications are
completed.
Fatigue (const) - The weakening of a material caused by repeated or alternating loads; may be
used in conjunction with either static or dynamic loading
Fault (const) - Any defect which impairs normal operation; 2) discontinuity where
seismic events start. See failure &: defect
Fault (soil) - A fracture in the earth's crust .that leaves land on one side of the crack out of
alignment with the other side. Faults are generally a result of earth shifts and earthquakes.
Feasibility Study (const) - An initial study of a project, or method of operation, in outline form
to determine the physical and economic feasibility.
Feeboard; (water) - !he vertical distance from the normal water surface to the top of the
confhung wall. 0 The vertical distance from the sand surface to the underside of a trough
in a sartd filter. This distance is also called AV AlLABLE EXPANSION.
Feedwater (water) - The water that is fed to a treatment process; the water that is going to be
treated.
Filamentous Organisms (water) - Organisms that grow in a thread or filamentous form.
Common types are Thiothrix and Actinomycetes.A common cause of sludge bulking in
the activated sludge process.
Filter Aid (water) - A chemical (usually a polymer) added to water to help remove fine
colloidal suspended solids.
Final design (const) - The fully detailed project as constructed; the design on which the
drawings for construction are based.
Finished Wafer (water) - Water that has passed through a water treatment plant; all the
treatment processes are completed or "finished." This water is ready to be delivered to
consumers. Also cal1ed J;'RODUCT WATER.
GLOIIAAV OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TERMS
G- 27
Fire Point (water) - The lowest temperature of a liquid at which a mixture of air and vapor from
the liquid will continue to bum.
Fissure (const) -A crack or split
Fixed Price Contract (const) - A fixed price contract may be a lump sum contract or a
measurement contract based on fixed prices for units of specific work.
(water) - Microorganisms that move by the action of tail-like projections.
Flap Gate (water) - A hinged gate that is at the top of a pipe or channel to allow flow
in only one direction. Flow in. ,the wrong direction closes the gate. Also see CHECK
VALVE and TIDE GATE.
Flash Point (water) -The minimum temperature of a liquid at which the liquid gives off a vapor
in sufficient concentration to ignite when tested under specific conditions.
Flight (const) - A series of steps extending from floor to floor, or from a floor to an intermediate
landing or platform. Landings are used where turns are necessary or to break up long
climbs.
Flights (water) - Scraper boards, made from redwood or other rotresistant woods or plastic,
used to collect and move settled sludge or floating scum.
Float (Control) (water) - A device used to measure the elevation of the surface of water. The
float rests on the surface of the water and rises or falls with it. The elevation of the water
surface is measured by a rod, chain, rope or tape attached to the float.
Float Line (water) - A length of rope or heavy twine attached to a float, plastic jug or parachute
to be carried by the flow in a sewer from one manhole to the next. This is called "stringing
the line" and is used for pulling through winch cables, such as for bucket machine work or
closed circuit television work.
Float System (water) - A method of operating a water storage facility. Daily flow into the
facility is approximately equal to the average daily demand for water. When consumer
demands for water are low, the storage facility will be filling. During periods of high
demand, the facility will be emptying.
Floc (water) - Clumps of bacteria and particulate impurities that have come together and
formed a cluster. Found in flocculation tanks and settling or sedimentation basins.
Flocculation (water) - The gathering together of fine particles after coagulation to form larger
particles by a process of gentle mixing.
Flotation (water) - The stress or forces on a pipeline or manhole structure located below a
water table which tend to lift or float the pipeline or manhole structure. 0 The process of
raising suspended matter to the surface of the liquid in a tank where it forms a scum layer
that can be removed by skimming. The suspended matter is raised by aeration, the
evolution of gas, the use of chemicals, electrolysis, heat or bacterial decomposition.
Flotsam (water) -Material floating or drifting about on the surface of a body of water.
Flow (water) -The continuous movement of a liquid from one place to another.
Flow Equalization System (water) - A device or tank designed to hold back or store a portion of
peak flows for release during low flow periods."
Flow isolation (water)- A procedure used to measure inflow and infiltration (1/1). A section of
sewer is blocked off or isolated and the flow from the section is measured.
Flow Line (water) - The top of the wetted line, the water surface or the hydraulic grade line of
water flowing in an open channel or partially full conduit. 0 The lowest point of the
G- 28
channel inside a pipe or manhole. See INVERT. NOTE: (2) is an improper definition,
althpugh used by some contractors .
. Fluidized (water) - A mass. of solid particles that is made to flow like a liquid by injection of
1
water or gas is said to. have been fluidized. In water treatment, a bed of filter media is
fluidized by backwashing water through the filter.
Flume (water) - An open conduit of wood, masonry, metal, or plastic constructed on a grade
and sometimes elevated. Sometimes called an "aqueduct" or "channel."
Fluoridation (water) - The addition of a chemical to increase the concentration of fluoride ions
in drinking water to a predetermined optimum limit to reduce the incidence (number) of
dental caries (tooth decay) in children. Defluoridation is the removal of excess fluoride in
drinking water to prevent the mottling (brown stains )of teeth.
Flusher Branch (water) - A line built specifically to allow the introduction oflarge quantities of
water to the collection system so the line scan be "flushed out" with water. Also installed
to provide access for equipment to clear stoppages in a sewer.
Fl4.!!hing (water) - A method used to clean water distribution lines. Hydrants are opened and
water with a high velocity flows through the pipes, removes deposits from the pipes, and.
flows out the hydrants.
Flux (water) - A flowing or flow.
Foot Valve (water)- A special type of check valve located at the bottom end of the suction pipe
on a pump. This valve opens when the pump operates to allow water to enter the suction
pipe but closes when the pump shuts off to prevent water from flowing out of the suction
pipe.
Force Main (water) -A pipe that carries wastewater under pressure the discharge side of a
pump to a point of gravity flow downstream.
Fracture (const) - To make or become discontinuous otherwise than by cutting. Usually of
relatively brittle materials
Free Available Chlorine (water)- The amount of chlorine available in water. This chlorine may
be in the form of dissolved gas (Cl2), hypochlorous acid (HCX3), or hypochlorite ion (Ocl-
), but does not include chlorine combined with an amine (ammonia or nitrogen)or other
organic compound.
Free Chlorine (water) - Free chlorlhe is chlorine (CI2)in a liquid or gaseous form. Free chlorine
combines with water to form hypochlorous (HOCI) and hydrochloric (HCl) acids. In
wastewater free chlorine usually combines with an amine (ammonia or nitrogen)or other
organic comp<}unds to form combined chlorine compounds.
Free Oxygen (water) - Molecular oxygen available for respiration by organisms. Molecular
oxygen is the oxygen molecule, 02.that is not combined with another element to form a
compound.
Free Residual Chlorination (water) - The application of chlorine to water to produce a free
available chlorine residual equal to at least 80 percent of the total residual chlorine (sum of
free and combined available chlorine residual).
Friability - The ability of a soil or substance to crumble under moderate or light
pressure . .
Friction Loss (water) -The head lost by water flowing in a stream or conduit as the result of the
disturbances set up by. the contact .between the moving water and its containing conduit
and by intermolecular friction.
G 29
Fungi (water) - Mushrooms, molds, mildews, rusts, and smuts that are small non-chlorophyll
bearing plants lacking roots, stems and leaves. They occur in natural waters and grow best
in the absence of light. Their decomposition may cause objectionable tastes and odors in
water.
Fungus (const) - A plant growth obtaining its nutrition by breakdown of organic matter,
usually associated with the presence of dampness, eg. in timber. The plants iue
characterized by the absence of chlorophyll.
FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer) (const) - Instrument that determines the structural
condition of each pavement layer.
G
Gage (water) - A device for checking or measuring a particular dimension of something, using
specific standardized units. For example, a gage might measure the elevation of a water
surface, the velocity of flowing water, the pressure of water, the amount or intensity of
precipitation, and the depth of snowfall. Gages also are used to determine the location or
position of equipment during installation and after operation.
Gage Pressure (water) - The pressure within a closed container or pipe as measured with a
gage. Ih contrast, absolute pressure is the sum of atmospheric pressure (14.7 lbs/sq in)
PLUS pressure within a vessel (as measured with a gage). Most pressure gages read in
"gage pressure" or psig (pounds per square inch gage pressure).
Galvanize (water) - To coat a metal (especially iron or steel) with zinc. Galvanization is the
process of coating a metal with zinc.
Garnet (water) -A group of hard, reddish, glassy, mineral sands made up of silicates of base
metals (calciUin. magnesium, iron and manganese). Garnet has a higher density than sand.
Gas (Sewer) (water) - (See SEWER ~ A S )
Gasification (water) - The conversion of soluble and suspended organic materials into gas
during aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. In clarifiers the resulting gas bubbles can
become attached to the settled sludge and cause large clumps of sludge to rise and float on
the water surface. In anaerobic sludge digesters, this gas is collected for fuel or disposed of
using a waste gas burner.
Gate (water) - A movable watertight barrier for the control of a liquid in a waferway.
Gauge Pipe (water) - A number that defines the thickness of the sheet used to make steel pipe.
The larger the number, the thinner the pipe wall.
Geology- The science that deals with the origin, history and structures of the earth, as recorded
in the rocks, together with the forces and processes now operating to modify rocks.
Germicide (water) (water) - A substance formulated to kill germs or microorganisms. The
germicidal properties of chlorine make it an effective disinfectant.
Giardia (water) - A waterborne intestinal parasite that causes a disease called giardiasis
(GEEareDIEuhsis) in infected humans. Symptoms of the disease include diarrhea, cramps,
and weight loss. Giardia contamination . is found in most surface waters and some
groundwaters.
Giardiasis (water) - Intestinal disease caused by an infestation of Giardia flagellates.
GPCD (water) -Initials standing for "Gallons Per Capita Per Day."
G- 30
GLOSSARY OF CIVIl ENGINEERING TERMS
GPO (water) -Initials standing for "Gallons Per Day."
GPM (water)- initials for "Gallons Per Minute."
GPY (water)- Initials standing for "Gallons Per Year."
Grab Sample (water)- A single sample of water collected at a particular time and place which
represents the composition of the water only at that time and place.
Grade (water) - The elevation of the invert (or bottom) of a pipeline, canal, culvert, or similar
conduit. 0 The." inclination or slope of a pipeline, conduit, stream channeL or natural
ground surface; usually expressed in terms of the ratio or percentage of number of units of
vertical rise or fall per unit of horizontal distance. A 0.5 percent grade would be a drop of
one half fC?Ot per hundred feet of pipe.
Grade Ring (water) - A precast concrete ring 4 to 12 inches high which is placed on top of a
manhole cone to raise the manhole cover frame flush with the surface grade. Sometimes
called a "spacer."
Gradient - The upward or downward slope of a pipeline.
Granular (const) - Any substance that appears to consist of separate granules or grains.
Examples are sand and gravel.
Gravimetric - A means of measuring unknown concentrations of water quality indicators in a
sample by WEIGHING a precipitate or residue of the sample.
Gravity Flow (water) - Water or wastewater flowing from a higher elevation to a lower
elevation due to the force of gravity. The water does not flow due to energy provided by a
pump. Wherever possible, wastewater collection systems are designed to use the force of
gravity to convey waste liquids and solids.
Grease Trap (water) - A receptacle designed to collect and retain grease and fatty substances
usually found in kitchens or from similar wastes. It is installed _in the drainage system
between the kitchen or other point of production of the waste and the building
wastewater collection line. Commonly used to control grease from restaurants.
Greensand (water) - A mineral (glauconite) material that looks like ordinary filter sand except
that it is green in color. Greensand is a natural ion exchange material which is capable of
softening water. Greensand which has been treated with potassium permanganate
(KMn04) is called manganese greensand; this product is used to remove iron, manganese
and hydrogen sulfide from ground waters.
Grinder Pump - A small submersible centrifugal pump with an impeller designed to
serve as a pump with grinder elements which. grind solids into small pieces that pass
through the pump impellers.
Grit (water) - The heavy material present in wastewater, such as sand, coffee grounds,
eggshells, and cinders.
Grit Catcher (water) -A chamber usually placed at the upper end of a depressed collection line
or at other points on combined or storm water collection lines where wear from grit is
possible. The chamber is sized and shaped to reduce the velocity of flow through it and
thus permit the settling out of grit. Also called a ;'sand catcher." See GRIT CHAMBER and
SAND TRAP.
Grit Chamber (water) - A detention chamber or an enlargement of a collection line designed to
reduce the velocity of flow of the liquid to permit the separation of mineral solids from
organic solids by differential sedimentation.
G 31
Grit Channel (water) - An enlargement in a collection line where grit can easily settle out of the
flow. 0 The waterway of a grit chamber.
Grit Tank (water)- A structure located at the inlet to a treatment plant for the accumulation and
removal of grit.
Grit Trap (water) - A permanent structure built into a manhole (or other convenient location in
a collection system) for the accumulation and easy removal of grit.
Groundwater (water) - Subsurface water in the saturation wne from which wells and springs
are fed. In a strict sense the term applies only to water below the water table. Also called
"phreatic water" and "plerotic water."
Groundwater Depth (water) - The distance of the groundwater table below the surface at any
selected location.
Groundwater Elevation (water) - The elevation of the groundwater table above mean sea level
at any selected location.
Groundwater Table (water) - The .average depth or elevation of the groundwater over a
selected area.
Grout {const) - A substance in a paste or liquid form which solidifies after placement or
treatment. Used to fill spaces, holes or voids in oilier materials.
Grout (const) -Extremely fluid mixture of sand and gravel;
Grouted Masonry (const) - Masonry in which the interior joints are filled by pouring grout into
them as the work progresses.
Gunite (const) - A mixture of sand and cement applied prieumatically that forms a high-
density, resistant concrete.
H
Hairline Crack (water) - A stress crack in a pipe; the crack looks like a piece of hair.
Hallow Masonry Unit (const) - Masonry .with net cross-seetional area in any plane parallel to
the bearing surface less than 75% of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the same
plane.
Hallow Wall (const) - A wall of masonry so arranged as to provide an air space within the wall
between the inner and outer wythes. A cavity wall is built of masonry units or plain
concrete, or a combination of these materials, arranged to provide an air space within the
wall, which may be filled with insulation, and in which inner and outer wythes are tied
together with metal ties.
Hand Rod - A sewer rod that can be inserted manually (by hand) into a sewer to clear a
stoppage or to prevent a stoppage from developing.
Handhole Trap (water) - A device made of pipe fittings used to prevent sewer gases escaping
from the branch or lateral sewer from entering a building sewer.
Hard Water (water) - Water having a high concentration of calcium and magnesium ions. A
water may be considered hard if it has a hardness greater than the typical hardness of
water from the region Some textbooks define hard water as water with a hardness of
more than 100 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
.
G- 32
Hardness, Water (water) - A characteristic of water caused mainly by the salts of calcium and
magnesium, such as bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, chloride and nitrate. Excessive
hardness in water is undeSirable because it causes the formation of soap curds, increased
use of soap, deposition of scale in boilers, damage in some industrial processes, and
sometimes causes objectionable tastes in drinking water.
Head (water) - The vertical distance (in feet) equal to the pressure (in psi) at a specific point.
The pressure head is equal to the pressure in psi times 2.31 ft/ psi.
Head Loss (water) -The head, pressure or energy (they are the same) lost by water flowing in a
pipe or channel as a result of turbulence caused by the velocity of the flowing water and
the roughness of the pipe, channel walls, or restrictions caused by fittings. Water flowing
in a pipe loses head, pressure or energy as a result of friction losses. The head loss through
a filter is due to friction losses caused by material building up on the surface or in the top
part of a filter. Also see FRICTION LOSSES.
Header (Bonder) (const) - A brick or other masonry unit laid flat across a wall with end surface
exposed, to bind to wythes.
Header (water) - A large pipe to which a series of smaller pipes are connected. Also called a
MANIFOLD.
Headroom (const) - Minimum dear height from a tread to overhead construction, such as the
ceiling of the next floor, ductwork, or piping.
Headworks (water) - The facilities where wastewater enters a wastewater treatment plant. The
headworks may consist of bar screens, comminutors, a wet well and pumps.
Health and Safety Control (const) - Work on site concerned with checking the fulfilltnent of
health and safety project provisions.
Health and Safety Management (const) - Work concerned with e ~ u r i n g the fulfillment of
health and safety requirements related to both general and local legislation during the
design and construction stages.
Health and Safety Planning (const) - Work taking into account health and safety aspects in the
conception stages (i.e. briefing, designing, construction detailing, estimating, etc.) and
planning health and safety aspects of the project.
Hepatitis (water) - Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver usually caused by an acute viral
infection. Yellow jaundice is one symptom of hepatitis.
Herbicide (water) - A compound, usually a manmade organic chemical, used to kill or control
plant growth.
Heterotrophic (water) - Describes organisms that use organic matter for energy and growth.
Animals, fungi and most bacteria are heterotrophs.
High-line Jumpers (water) - Pipes or hoses connected to fire hydrants and laid on top of the
ground to provide emergency water service for an isolated portion of a distribution
system.
High-velocity Oeaner (water) - A machine designed to remove grease and debris from the
smaller diameter sewer pipes with high-velocity jets of water. Also called a "jet cleaner,"
"jet rodder," "hydraulic cleaner, "high-pressure cleaner," or "hydro jet."
Honeycombing (canst)- usually used to refer to a defective condition in concrete. The concrete
contains interconnecting large voids due to loss or lack of mortar
Horizontal Clip Gauge - Sensc;lr that measures the width of concrete joint openings.
GLOSSARY QF,CIVIL ENGINEERING TERMS
G- 33
Hose Bib (water) - Faucet. A location in a water line where a hose is connected.
Hot Tap (water) - Tapping into a sewer line Wlder pressure, such as a force main or a small-
diameter sewer Wlder pressure.
Hub (water) - In pipe fitting, the enlarged female end of a pipe into which the male end fits.
Also called a BELL
Humus Sludge (water) - The sloughed particles of biomass from trickling filter media that are
removed from the water being treated in secondary clarifiers.
Hydrated Ume (water) - Umestone that has been "burned" and treated with water Wlder
controlled conditions Wltil the calcium oxide portion has been converted to calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Hydrated lime is quicklime combined with water. CaO + H20 ->
Ca(OH)2. Also called slaked lime. Also see QUICKLIME.
Hydraulic Block (water) - The movement of water in such a way that the flow of water from
one direction blocks or hinders the flow of water from another direction.
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) (water) - The surface or profile of water flowing in an open
channel or a pipe flowing partially full. If a pipe is Wlder pressure, the hydraulic grade
line is at the level water would rise to in a small vertical tube connected to the pipe. Also
see ENERGY GRADE LINE.
Hydraulic Gradient (water) - The slope of the hydraulic grade line. This is the slope of the
water surface in an open channel, the slope of the water surface of the grom1dwater table,
or the slope of the water pressure for pipes Wlder pressure.
Hydraulic Jump (water) - The sudden and usually turbulent abrupt rise in water surface in an
open channel when water flowing at high velocity is suddenly retarded to a slow velocity.
Hydraulic Loading (water) - Hydraulic loading refers to the flows (MGD or cu m/ day) to a
treatment plant or treatment process. Detention times, surface loadings and weir overflow
rates are directly influenced by flows.
Hydrogeologist (water) - A person who studies and works With grom1dwater.
Hydrologic Cycle (water) - The process of evaporation of water into the air and its return to
earth by precipitation (rain or snow). This process also includes transpiration from plants,
groWldwater movement, and runoff into rivers, streams and the ocean. Also called the
WATER CYCLE.
Hydrology (water) - The applied science concerned with the waters of the earth in all their
states - their occurrence, distribution, and circulation through the Wlending hydrologic
cycle of precipitation, consequent rWloff, stream flow, infiltration, and storage, eventual
evaporation, and reprecipitation. Hydrology is concerned with the physical, chemical, and
physiological reactions of water with the rest of the earth and its relation to the life of the
earth.
Hydrolysis (water) - A cherriical reaction in which a compound is converted into another
compoWld by taking up water. 0 Usually a chemical degradation of organic matter.
Hydrophilic (water) - Having a strong affinity (hking) for water. The opposite of
HYDROPHOBIC.
Hydrophobic (water) - Having a strong aversion (dislike) for water. The opposite of
HYDROPHILIC.
Hydropneumatic (water) - A water system, usually small, in which a water pump is
automatically controlled (started and stopped) by the air pressure in a compressed air
tank.
G- 31
Hydrostatic Pressure (water) - The pressure at a specific elevation exerted by a body of water
at rest, or 0 In the case of groundwater, the pressure at a specific elevation due to the
weight of water at higher levels in the same zone of saturation.
Hydrostatic System (water) - In a hydrostatic sludge removal system, the surface of the water
in the clarifier is higher than the surface of the water in the sludge well or hopper. This
d,ifference in pressure head forces sludge from the bottom of the clarifier to flow through
pipes to the sludge well or hopper.
Hydroxide Precipitation (water) - A method of removing common metals from wastestreams
by the precipitation process. The pH of the metal waste is increased to an optimum level
for hydroxide metal precipitates to form for the wastes 'being treated. The metal
precipitates are settled out of the wastestream in clarifiers and are removed from the
bottom of the clarifiers as metal sludges.
Hygroscopic (water) - Absorbing or attracting moisture from the air.
Hypochlorination (water) - The application of hypochlorite compounds to water for the
purpose. of disinfection .
.
Hypochlorinators (water) - Chl()rine pumps, chemical feed pumps or devices used to d.ispense
chlorine solutions made from hypochlorites such as bleach (sod.ium hypochlorite) or
calcium hypochlorite into the water being treated.
H.ypochlorite (water) - Chemical compounds containing available chlorine; used for
disinfection They are available as liquids (bleach) or solids (powder, granules, and
pellets) in barrels, drums, and cans. Salts of hypochlorous acid.
Hypolimnion (water) - The lowest layer in a thermally stratified lake or reservoir. This layer
consists ofcolder
1
more dense water, has a constant temperature and no mixing occurs.
. .
I
Imhoff Cone (water) - A clear, cone-shaped container marked with graduations. The cone is
used to measure the volume of settleable solids in a specific volume (usually one liter) of
water.
Immiscible (water) - Not capable of being mixed.
Impeller (water) - A rotating set of vanes in a pump or compressor designed to pump or move
water or air.
Impeller Pump (water) -Any pump in which the water is moved by the continuous application
of power to a rotating set of varies from some rotating mechanical source.
Impermeable (water) - Not easily penetrated. The property of a material or soil that does not
allow, or allows only with great difficulty, the movement or passage of water.
Imported Backfill (const) ~ Material used for backfilling a trench or excavation which was not
the original material removed during excavation. This is a common practice where tests
on the original material show it to have poor compactability or load capacity. Also called
BORROW BACKFILL.
Impurity (water) - A hazardous substance which is unintentionally present with another
substance or mixture. (Definition from California Labor Code, Division 5, Chapter 2.5.)
Inceneration (water) -The conversion of dewatered wastewater solids by combustion (burning)
to ash, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
G- 35
Indole (water) - An organic compound (CSH7N) containing nitrogen which has an ammonia
odor.
Industrial Wastewater (water}- Liquid wastes originating from industrial processing. Because
industries have peculiar liquid waste characteristics r.equiring special consideration, these
sources are usually handled and treated separately before being discharged to a
wastewater collection system.
Infiltrated Debris . (water) - Sand, silt, gravel and rocks carried or washed into a collection
system by infiltration water flows.
Infiltration (const) -Leakage into a material or structure; water ingress
Infiltration (water) - The seepage of groundwater into a sewer system, including service
connections. Seepage frequently occurs through defective or cracked pipes, pipe joints,
connections or manhole walls.
Infiltration Head (water) - The distance from a point of infiltration leaking into a collection
system to the water table elevation. This is the pressure of the water being forced through
the leak in the collection system.
Infiltration/inflow (water) - The total quantity of water from both infiltration and inflow
without distinguishing the source. Abbreviated I & I or 1/I.
Inflatable Pipe Stopper (water) - An inflatable ball or bag used to form a plug to stop flows in a
sewer pipe.
Inflow (water) - Water discharged into a sewer system and service connections from sources
other than regular connections. This includes flow from yard drains, foundation drains
and around manhole covers. Inflow differs from infiltration in that it is a direct discharge
into the sewer rather than a leak in the sewer itself.
Influent (water) - Water or other liquid - raw (untreated) or partially treated - flowing INTO a
reservoir, basin, treatment process, or treatment plant.
Injector Water (water) - Service water in which chlorine is added (injected) to form a chlorine
solution.
Inlet (water) - A surface connection to a drain pipe. 0 A chamber for collecting storm water
with no well below the outlet pipe for colle<;ting grit. Often connected to a CATCH BASIN
or a "basin manhole" ("cleanout manhole") with a grit chamber.
In-line Filtration (water) - The addition of chemical coagulants directly to the filter inlet pipe.
The chemicals are mixed by the flowing water. Flocculation and sedimentation facilities
are eliminated. This pretreatment method is commonly used in pressure filter
installations. Also see CONVENTIONAL FILTRATION and DIRECT FILTRATION.
Inoculate (water) -To introduce a seed culture into a system
Inorganic (water) - Material such as sand, salt, iron, calcium salts and other mineral materials.
Inorganic substances are of mineral origin, whereas organic substances are usually of
animal or plant origin Also see ORGANIC.
Inorganic Waste (water)- Waste material such as sand, salt, iron, calcium, and other .mineral
materials which are only slightly affected by the action of organisms. Inorganic wastes are
chemical substances of mineral origin; whereas organic wastes are chemical substances of
an animal or plant origin.
Input Horsepower (water)- The total power used in operating a pump and motor.
Insecticide (water) - Any substance or chemical formulated to kill or control insects.
G- 36
Insertion Puller (water) - A device used to pull long segments of flexible pipe material into a
sewer line when slip lining to rehabilitate a deteriorated sewer.
lnsituform (water) - A method of installing a new pipe within an old pipe without excavation.
The process involves the use of a polyesterfiber felt tube, lined on one side with
polyurethane and fully impregnated with a liquid thermal setting resin.
Insoluble (water) -Something that cannot be dissolved.
Integrity (const) - In Building Pathology: soundness, with no part or element deficient in
performance
Intercepting Sewer (water) - A sewer that receives flow from a number of other large sewers or
outlets and .conducts the waters to a point for treatment or disposal. Often called an
"interceptor."
Interceptor (water) - A septic tank or other holding tank which serves as a temporary
wastewater storage reservoir for a Septic Tank Effluent Pump (STEP) system. See SEPTIC
TANK.
Iaterconnector (water) - A sewer installed to connect two separate sewers. If one sewer
becomes blocked,. wastewater can back up and flow through the inter-connector to the
other sewer.
Interface (water) - The common boundar; layer between two substances such as water and a
solid (metal); or between two fluids such as water and a gas (air); or between a liquid
(water) and another liquid (oil).
Internal Flow (water) - Non-sanitary or industrial wastewaters generated inside of a domestic,
commercial or industrial facility and being discharged into the sewer system. Examples
are cooling tower waters, basement sump pump discharge waters, continuous flow
drinking fountains, and defective or leaking plumbing fixtures.
Internal Friction (water) -Friction within a fluid (water) due to cohesive forces.
Interstice (water) - A very small open space in a rock or granular material. Also called a PORE,
VOID, or void space. Also see VOID.
Interstitial (const) - Occurring within the thickness of some material element. usually used in
the context of 'interstitial condensation' which means condensation which occurs within
the thickness oi a building element or within its component materials
Intrados (water) -The upper inside curve or surface of a sewer pipe or conduit.
Inversion (water) - An Insituform process in which the Insitutube or liner is turned inside out
(inverted) during the installation of the liner.
Invert (water) -The lowest point of the channel inside a pipe, conduit, or canal.
Inverted Siphon (water) - A pressure pipeline used to carry wastewater flowing in a gravity
collection system under a depression such as a valley or roadway or under a structure
such as a building. Also called a "depressed sewer."
Ion (water)- An electrically charged atom, radical (such as S042-), or molecule formed by the
loss or gain of one or more electrons.
Ion Exchatlge (water) - A water treatment process involving the reversible interchange
(switching) of ions between the water being treated and the solid resin. Undesirable ions
in the water are switched with acceptable ions on the resin.
G- 37
Ion Exchange Resins (water)- Insoluble polymers, used m water treatment, that are capable of
exchanging (switching or giving) acceptable cations or anions to the water being treated
for less desirable ions.
Ionic Concentr.ation (water) - The concentration of any ion in solution, usually expressed in
moles per liter.
Ionization (water)- The splitting or dissociation (separation) of molecules into negatively and
positively charged ions. 0 The process of adding electrons to, or removing electrons from,
atoms or molecules, thereby creating ions. High temperatures, electrical and
nuclear radiation can cause ionization.
J, K, L
Jacking force (const) - In prestressed concrete, temporary force exerted by device that
introduces tension into prestressing tendons.
Jamb (const) -Part of a frame that surrounds and contacts the window or door it supports.
Jar Test (water) - A laboratory procedure that simulates a water treatment plant's
coagulation/flocculation units with differing chemical doses and also energy of rapid mix,
energy of slow mix, and settling time. The purpose of this procedure is to ESTIMATE the
minimum or ideal coagulant dose required to achieve certain water quality goals. Samples
of water to be treated are commonly placed in six jars. Various amounts of chemicals are
added to each jar, stirred and the settling of solids is observed. The dose of chemicals that
provides satisfactory settling, removal of turbidity and/ or color is the dose used to treat
the water being taken into the plant at that time. When evaluating the results of a jar test,
the operator should also consider the floc quality in the flocculation area and the floc
loading on the filter.
Jetsam (water)- Debris entering a collection system which is heavier than water. Also see GRIT.
Joint (construction -, expansion -, control -) (const) - Position where two or more building
materials, components or assemblies are put together, fixed or united, with or without the
use of extra jointing products
Joint (water) - A connection between two lengths of pipe, made either with or without the use
of another part.
Joule (phy) - A measure of energy, work or quantity of heat. One joule is the work done when
the point of application of a force of one newton is displaced a distance of one meter in the
direction of the force. Approximately equal to 0.7375 ft-lbs.
Key Manhole (water) - In collection system evaluation, a key manhole is one from which
reliable or specific data can be obtained.
Kinetic Energy (water) - Energy possessed by a moving body of matter, such as water, as a
result of its motion.
Kite (water) - A device for hydraulically cleaning sewer lines. Resembling an airport wind sock
and constructed of canvas type material, the kite increases the velocity of a flow at its
outlet to wash d!!bris ahead of it. Also called a PARACHUTE.
Laminar (water) - Laminar flow is smooth or viscous flow; not turbulent flow.
G- 38
Lamp Hole (water) - A small yerhcal pipe or shaft extending from the surface of the to
a sewer. A light (cr larripj may be lowered down the pipe for the purpose of inspecting the
sewer. Rarely constructed today.
Lamping (water) - Using reflected sunlight or a powerful light beam to inspect;{ sewer between
two adjacent manholes. The light is directed down the pipe from one manhole. If it can be
seen from the next manhole, it indicates that the line is open and straight.
Langelier Index (L.I.) (water) - An index reflecting the equilibrium pH of a water with respect
to calcium and alkalinity. This index is used in stabilizing water to control both corrosion
and the deposition of scale. Langelier Index = pH - pHs, where: pH = actual pH of the
water, and pHs= pH at which water having the same alkalinity and calcium content is
just saturated with calcium carbonate.
Lateral Break (water) - A break in a lateral pipe somewhere between the sewer,main and the
building connection.
Lateral Cleanout (water) - A capped opening in a building lateral, usually located on the
property line, through which the pipelines can be cleaned.
I..3teral Sewer (water) - A sewer that discharges into a branch or other sewer and has no other
common sewer tributary to it. Sometimes called a "street sewer" because it collects
wastewater from individual homes.
Laundering Weir (water) -Sedimentation basin overflow weir. A plate with V-notches along
the top to ensure a flow rate and avoid short circuiting.
Launders (water) - Sedimentation basin and filter discharge channels consisting of overflow
weir plates (in sedimentation basins) and conveying troughs.
Level Control (water)- A float device (or pressure switch) which senses changes in a measured
variable and opens or closes a switch in response to that change. In its simplest form, this
control might be a floating ball connected mechanically to a switch or valve such as is
used to stop water flow into a toilet when the tank is full .
Lift (water) -Vertical distance water is lifted from upstream water surface up to downstream
water surface (which is at a higher elevation).
Lift Station (water) - A wastewater pumping station that lifts the wastewater to a higher
elevation when continuing the sewer at reasonable slopes would involve excessive depths
of trench. Also, an installation of pumps that raise wastewater from areas too low to drain
into available sewers. These stations may be equipped with air-operated ejectors or
centrifugal pumps. Sometimes called a PUMP STATION, but this term is usually reserved
for a similar type of facility that is discharging into a long FORCE MAIN, while a lift
station has a discharge _line or force main only up to the downstream gravity sewer.
Throughout this manual when we refer to lift stations, we intend to include pump
stations.
Limit state (const)- State at which performance criteria are just met
Lindane (water) - A pesticide that causes adverse health effects in domestic water supplies and
also is toxic to and marine aquatic life.
Lipophilic (water) - Having a strong affinity for fats. Compounds that dissolve in fats, oils and
greases.
Liquefaction (water) - The conversion of large solid particles of sludge into very fine particles
which either dissolve or remain suspended in wastewater.
GLOSSARY OF CIVIL E N G I N E E ~ I N G TERMS
G- 39
Liquid Vehicle (water) - Water in a collection system that is used to carry waste solids. The
standard toilet provides around seven gallons of water per flush as a vehicle to carry
wastes through the pipe system.
Liquor (water) - Water, wastewater, or any combination; commonly used to mean the liquid
portion when other wastes are also present.
Littorai .Zone (water) - That portion of a body of fresh water extending from the shoreline
lakeward to the limit of occupancy of rooted plants. 0 The strip of land along the
shoreline between the high and low water levels.
Load, dead (const) - Dead weight supported by a member, as defined by NSLP of which this
chapter/code forms a part (without load factors).
Load, factored (const) - Load multiplied by appropriate by appropriate load factors, used to
proportion members by the strength design method of this chapter.
Local Authority, Environment and Control of Construction Plans (const) -The fulfillment of
statutory requirements regarding construction standards, safety and . approval of
construction projects and their effett on the environment.
Loss (const)- Consequences of a defect or failure, expressed in terms of costs, injuries, loss of
life, etc.
Lqwer Flamable Limit (LFL) (water) - The lowest concentration of a gas or vapor (percent by
volume in air) that bums if an ignition source is present.
Lump Sum Contract (const)- With a lump sum contract, the contractor agrees to perform the
work for one fixed price, regardless of the ultimate cost.
Lump Sum Tender (const)- A tender at a fixed price to which a contractor undertakes to carry
out all the work specified on the drawings and in the contract documents.
Lysimeter (water) - A device containing a mass of soil and designed to permit the measurement
of water draining through the soil.
M
M or Molar (water) - A molar solution consists of one gram molecular weight of a compound
dissolved in enough water to make one liter of solution. A gram molecular weight is the
molecular weight of a compound in grams. For example, the molecular weight of sulfuric
add (H2S04) is 98. A one M solution of sulfuric acid would consist of 98 grams of H2S04
dissolved in enough distilled water to make one liter of solution.
Macronutrient (water) - A chemical element of which relatively large quantities are essential for
the growth of an organism.
Macroscopic Organisms (water) - Organisms big enough to be seen by the eye without the aid
of a microscope.
Mail Line (water) - Branch or lateral sewers that collect wastewater from building sewers and
service lines.
Main Sewer (water) - A sewer line that receives wastewater from many tributary branches and
sewer lines and serves as an outlet for a large territory or is used to feed an intercepting
sewer.
G- 40
Maintenance (const)- Combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it
to, an acceptable condition. J'
Maintenance Management (const)- Preparing ongoing programs for the planned maintenance
of constructions and managing the implementation of these works.
Maintenance Projects (const) - Ongoing repair and maintenance of existing constructions
increasingly being incorporated within the broader activity of facilities management.
Management (const)- Effective utilization and co-ordination of resources such as capital, plant,
materials, and labor to achieve defined objectives with maximum efficiency.
Management Contract (const) - This is a contract in which management is regarded as a
separate discipline and responsibility from that of construction. Construction (works)
contractors contract with a management contractor, who is there-fore their client or
employer.
Management Contracting (const)- Is the method of carrying out a construction project whereby
a contractor is appointed at the pre-construction stage and paid on a fee basis, to manage
and deliver the project. The fee comprises a percentage for profit and fixed overheads. All
construction work is carried out by the sub-contractors, selected and appointed in
consultation with the client and his professional advisers.
Management Contractor (const) - The ~ n a n a g e m e n t contractor is appointed by the client to
work alongside the design and cost consultants, providing a construction management
service on a number of professional bases. The management contractor does not
undertake either design or direct construction work. The design requirements are met by
letting each element of the construction to specialist sub-contractor.
Management Fee (const)- An agreed sum for management services.
Management Information (const)- Information for management deci;ion-making.
Management of Construction (const) - Embraces all those job functions necessary to plan,
control and co-ordinate the design, execution and long term care of construction projects.
Management Style (const) - Approach adopted by managers in exerCismg authority,
encouraging participation in decision-making, motivating staff, delegating authority,
communication information and maintaining control.
Management Technique (const) - A means used by managers, to define and assist with the
solution of a problem.
Manager (const) - A person responsible for directing and running an organization or project.
Manhole (water) - An opening in a sewer provided for the purpose of permitting operators or
equipment to enter or leave a sewer. Sometimes called an "access hole" or a "maintenance
hole."
Manhole Bedding (water) - The prepared and compacted base on which a manhole is
constructed.
Manhole Depth (water) - The measurement from the top of the manhole opening to the invert
or lowest point of the trough at the bottom of the manhole.
Manhole Vents (water)- One or a series of one-inch diameter holes through a manhole lid for
purposes of venting dangerous gases found in sewers.
Manifold (water) -A large pipe to which a series of smaller pipes are connected. Also called a
HEADER.
G- 41
Manometer (water)- An instrument for measuring pressure. Usually, a manometer is a glass
tube filled with a liquid that is used to measure the difference in pressure across a flow
measuring device such as an orifice or a Venturi meter. The instrument used to measure
blood pressure is a type of manometer.
Masonry (const) - A built-up construction or combination of masonry units, such as day brick,
concrete block, or stone, bonded together with mortar or other cementitious material.
Masonry (const) - The science, art, craft and trade of building in natural or artificial stone. The
term is often extended to work in brick and tile. Ancient examples of immense. irregular
blocks of stone, laid together without mortar, have been found throughout Europe,
Americas, Africa, and Asia. The ancient Greeks and Romans developed masonry
techniques that are still used today. Rubble masonry uses irregular and coarsely jointed
quarried or field stone. Ashlar masonry contains carefully worked stones set with fine,
close joints. Either kind of masonry may be laid with or without mortar
Materials management (const)- The creation of conditions to bring about the optimum use of
all materials available for the construction of a project to ensure availability at the right
time and control of inventory.
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) (water) - An expression of the average time that a
microorganism will spend in the activated sludge process. MCRT, days= Total Suspended
Solids in Activated Sludge Process, lbs/Total Suspended Solids Removed From Process,
lbs/day
Mechanical Aeration (water) -The use of machinery to mix air and water so that oxygen can be
absorbed into the water. Some examples are: paddle wheels, mixers, or rotating brushes to
agitate the surface of an aeration tank; pumps to create fountains; and pumps to discharge
water down a series of steps forming falls or cascades.
Media (water) - The material in a trickling filter on which slime accumulates and organisms
grow. As settled wastewater trickles over the media, organisms in the slime remove
certain types of wastes thereby partially treating the wastewater. Also the material in a
rotating biological contactor or in a gravity or pressure filter.
Meniscus (water) - The curved surface of a column of liquid (water, oil; mercury) in a small
tube. When the liquid wets the sides of the container (as with water), the curve forms a
valley. When the confining sides are not wetted (as with mercury), the curve forms a hill
or upward bulge.
Mesh (water) - One of the openings or spaces in a screen or woven fabric. The value of the
mesh is usually given as the number of openings per inch. This value does not consider
the diameter of the. wire or fabric; therefore, the mesh number does not always have a
definite relationship to the size of the hole.
Mesophilic Bacteria (water) - Medium temperature bacteria. A group of bacteria that grow and
thrive in a moderate temperature range between 68F (20q and 113F (4sq. The
optimum temperature range for these bacteria in anaerobic digestion is ssF (30"C) to
1ooF (38q.
Mesotrophic (water) - Reservoirs and lakes which contain moderate quantities of nutrients and
are moderately productive in terms of
Metabolism (water) - The biochemical processes in which food is used and wastes are formed
by living organisms. 0 All biochemical reactions involved in cell formation and growth. 2:
All of the processes or chemical changes in an organism or a single cell by which food is
built up (anabolism) into living protoplasm and by which protoplasm is broken down
(catabolism) into simpler compounds with the exchange of energy.
G -42
Metalimnion (water) - The middle layer. in a ~ ~ r m a l l y stratified lake or reservoir. In this layer
there is a rapid decrease in temperature with depth. Also called the THERMOCLINE.
Method Statement (const) - A statement of the construction methods and resources to be
employed in executing construction work. The statement is normally closely linked to the
tender program.
Methoxychlor (water) - A pesticide which causes adverse health effects in domestic water
supplies and is also toxic to freshwater and marine aquatic life. The chemical name for
methoxychlor is 2,2bis (pmethoxyphenol)l,l,ltrichloroethane.
Methyl Orange Alkalinity (water) - A measure of the total alkalinity in a water sample. The
alkalinity is measured by the amount of standard sulfuric acid required to lower the pH of
the water to a pH level of 4.5, as indicated by the change in color of methyl orange from
orange to pink. Methyl orange alkalinity is expressed as milligrams per liter equivalent
calcium carbonate.
MG (water)- Initials for "Million Gallons."
M_GD (water)- Initials for "Million Gallons Per Day."
MGY (water)- Initials for "Million Gallons Per Year."
Microbial Growth (water) - The activity and growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, algae,
diatoms, plankton and fungi.
Micron (gen) - J.lm, Micrometer or Micron. A unit of length. One millionth of a meter or one
thousandth of a millimeter. One micron equals 0.00004 of an inch . .
Micronutrient (water) - A trace element or an organic compound which is essential in tiny
amounts for the growth of an organism.
Microorganisms (water) - Uving organisms that can be seen individ'ually only with the aid of a
microscope. D Very small organisms that can be seen only through a microscope. Some
microorganisms use the wastes in wastewater for food and thus remove or alter much of
the undesirable matter.
Microscreen (water) - A device with a fabric straining media with openings usually between 20
and 60 microns. The fabric is wrapped around the outside of a rotating drum. Wastewater
enters the open end of the drum and flows out through the rotating screen cloth. At the
highest point oJ the drum, the collected solids are backwashed by high-pressure water jets
into a trough located within the drum.
Mil (gen) - A unit of length equal to 0.001 of an inch. The diameter of wires and tubing is
measured in mils, as is the thickness of plastic sheeting.
Mildew (const) -Mold whenever it occurs on fabrics, leather, etc.
Millimicron (gen) - A unit of length equal to 10-3J.1 (one thousandth of a micron), 10-6
millimeters, or l0-9meters; correctly called a nanometer, nm.
Mineral (water) - Any substance that is neither animal nor plant. Minerals include sand, salt,
iron, calciWll. and nutrients.
Miscible (water) " Capable of being mixed. A liquid, solid, or gas that can be completely
dissolved in water.
Mixed Uquor (water) - When the activated sludge in an aeration tank is mixed with primary
effluent or the raw wastewater and return sludge, this mixture is then referred to as mixed
liquor as long as it is in the aeration tank. Mixed liquor also may refer to the contents of
mixed aerobic or anaerobic digesters.
G- 43
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) (water) - Suspended solids in the mixed liquor of an
aeration tank.
Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS) (water)- The organic or volatile suspended
solids in the mixed liquor of an aeration tank. This volatile portion is used as a measure or
indication of the microorganisms present.
MLSS (water) - Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, mg/L. Suspended solids in the mixed liquor
of an aeration tank.
MLVSS (water) - Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids, mg/L. The organic or volatile
suspended solids in the mixed liquor of an aeration tank. This volatile portion is used as a
measure or indication of the microorganisms present.
Modulus of elastidty (const) - Ratio of ~ o r m a l stress to corresponding strain for tensile or
compressive stresses below proportional limit of material.
Mold (const) - Woolly or powdery fungal growth that forms on the surface of materials in
damp, stagnant atmospheres
Monomictic (water) - Lakes and reservoirs which are relatively deep, do not freeze over during
the winter months, and undergo a single stratification and mixing cycle during the year.
These lakes and reservoirs usually become destratified during the mixing cycle, usually in
the fall of the year.
Mortar (const) - A plastic mixture cementitious materials, fine aggregates, and water. 0
Mixture of lime and/ or cement with sand and water, used either as a binding material for
bricks and stone or as a plaster
Motile (water) - Capable of self-propelled movement. A term that is sometimes used to
distinguish between certain types of organisms found in water.
MPN (water) - MPN is the Most Probable Number of coliform group organisms per unit
volume of sample water. Expressed as a density or population oforganisms per 100 mL of
sample water.
Mudballs (water) - Material that is approximately round in shape and varies from peasized up
to two or more inches in diameter. This material forms in filters and gradUiilly increases in
size when not removed by the backwashing process.
Multi-stage Pump (water) - A pump that has more than one impeller. A single stage pump has
one impeller.
Muntin (const) - A short light bar.
Mutagenic (water) - Any substance which tends to cause mutations or gene changes prior to
conception.
G -41
N
Nappe (water) - The sheet or curtain of water flowing over a weir or dam. When the water
freely flows over any structure, it has a well defined upper and lower water surface.
Negotiated Contract (const) - In a negotiated contract the client selects, at the outset, one main
contractor with whom to negotiate. In essence the arrangement is the same as that for a
two-stage tender.
Net Wastewater Contribution (water) - In a wastewater collection system, the net wastewater
contribution consists of the liquid wastes and liquid carried wastes transported by the
pipelines or received by the pipelines. This value would be the only wastewater found in a
collection system if all sources of infiltration, inflow and exfiltration were eliminated.
Net Wastewater Flow (water) - The actual wastewater flow from a collection system that
reaches a wastewater treatment plant. The net wastewater flow includes the net
wastewater contribution, infiltration and inflow and does not include losses through
exfiltration.
Neutralization (water)- Addition of an add or alkali (base) to a liquid to cause the pH of the
liquid to move toward a neutral pH of 7.0.
Newel Post (const) -Post at which the railing terminates at each floor level.
Nitrification (water) - An aerobic process in which bacteria reduce the ammonia and organic
nitrogen in water into nitrite and then nitrate.
Nitrification Stage (water) - A stage of decomposition that occurs in biological treatment
processes when aerobic bacteria, using dissolved oxygen, change nitrogen compounds
(ammonia and organic nitrogen) into oxidized nitrogen (usually nitrate). The second-stage
BOD is sometimes referred to as the "nitrification stage" (first-stage BOD is called the
"carbonaceous stage").
Nitrifying Bacteria (water) - Bacteria that change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in
wastewater into oxidized nitrogen (usually nitrate).
Nitrogenous (water) - A term used to describe chemical compounds (usually organic)
containing n i t r ~ g e n in combined forms. Proteins and nitrate are nitrogenous compowtds.
NOM (Natural Organic Matter) (water) - Hwnic substances composed of hwnic and fulvic
adds that come from decayed vegetation.
Nonbearing Wall (const) - A wall that supports no vertical load other than its own weight.
Nonbiodegradable (water) - Substances that cannot readily be broken down by bacteria to
simpler forms.
Noncompatible Pollutants (water) - Those pollutants which are normally NOT removed by the
POTW treatment system. These pollutants may be a toxic waste and may pass through the
POTW untreated or interfere with the treatment system. Examples of non-compatible
pollutants include heavy metals such as copper, ckel, lead, and zinc; organics such as
methylene chloride, l,l,ltrichloroethylene, methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, and gasoline; or
sludges containing toxic organics or metals.
Nonpoint SOurce (water) - A runoff or discharge from a field or similar source. A point source
refers to a discharge that comes out the end of a pipe.
Nonpotable (water) Water that may contain objectionable pollution, contamination, minerals,
or infective agents and is considered unsafe and/ or unpalatable for drinking.
G -45
Nonvolatile Matter (water) - Material such as sand, salt, iron, calcitun_ and other mineral
materials which are only slightly affected by the actions of organiSms and are not l<>st on
ignition of the dry solids at ssoc. Volatile materials are chemical substances usually of
animal or plant origin. Also see INORGANIC WASTE and VOLATILE MATIER or
VOLATILE SOUDS.
Nosing(const)- Projection of a tread beyond the riser below.
Novation (const) - A hybrid variation of design & build procurement where the client appoints
a designer (architect) to develop a concept design and passes on that designer to the
contractor.
Nutrient (water) - Any substance that is assimilated (taken in) by organisms and promotes
growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nutrients which promote the growth of algae. There
are other essential and trace elements which are also considered nutrients.
Nutrient Cycle (water) - The transformation or change of a nutrient from one form to another
1fntil the nutrient has returned to the original form, thus completing the cycle. The cycle
may take place under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions.
0
0 R P (water) .,. Oxidation Reduction Potential. The electrical potential required to transfer
electrons from one compound or element (the oxidant) to another compound or element
(the reductant); used as a qualitative measure of the state of oxidation in water treatment
systems. ORP is measured in millivolts, with negative values indicating a tendency to
reduce compounds or elements and positive values indicating a tendency to oxidize
compounds or elements.
Obligate Aerobes (water) - Bacteria that must have atmospheric or dissolved molecular oxygen
to live and reproduce.
Olfactometer (water) - A device used to measure odors in the field by diluting odors with
odorfree air.
Olfactory Fatigue (water) - A condition in. which a person's nose, after exposure to certain
odors, is no longer able to detect the odor.
Oligotrophic (water) - Reservoirs and lakes which are nutrient poor and contain little aquatic
plant or animal life.

Open Standpipe Pipe (water) - That has been plllfed vertically into the ground to measure the
water table level. ,
Open Tender (const) -A tender received a result for tender.
Organic (water) - Substances that come from ani'mal or plant sources. Organic substances
always contain carbon. (Inorganic materials chemical substances of mineral origin.)
Also see INORGANIC.
Organic Waste (water) - Waste material which com mainly from animal or plant sources.
Organic wastes generally can be consumed by cteria and other small organisms.
Inorganic wastes are chemical substances of mineral "gin.
Organism (water) - Any form of animal or plant life. Also
Orifice (water) - An opening (hole) in a plate, wall, or p tition. An orifice flange or plate
placed in a pipe consists of a slot or a calibrated ular hole smaller than the pipe
G- 46
diameter. The difference in pressure in the pipe above and at the orifice may be used to
determine the flow in the pipe.
Orthotolidine (water)- Orthotolidine is a colorimetric indicator of chlorine residual. If chlorine
is present, a yellow-colored compound is produced. This reagent is no longer approved
for chemical analysis to determine chlorine residual.
Osmosis (water) -The passage of a liquid from a weak solution to a more concentrated solution
across a semi-permeable membrane. The membrane allows the passage of the water
(solvent) but not the dissolved solids (solutes). This process tends to equalize the
conditions on either side of the membrane.
Outfall (water) - The point, location or structure where wastewater or drainage discharges
from a sewer, drain, or other conduit. 0 The conduit leading to the final disposal point or
area.
Outfall Sewer (water) - A sewer that receives wastewater from a collection system or from a
wastewater treatment plant and carries it to a point of ultimate or final discharge in the
environment. See OUTFALL.
Outlet (water) - Downstream opening or discharge end of a pipe, culvert, or canal.
Overall Effidency, Pump (water) - The combined effidency of a pump and motor together.
Also called the WIRETOWATER EFFICIENCY. .
Overdraft (water) -The pumping of water from a groundwater basin or aquifer in excess of the
supply flowing into the basin. This pumping results in a depletion or "rniniilg" of the
groundwater in the basin.
Overflow Manhole. (water) - A manhole which fills and allows raw wastewater to flow out onto
the street or ground.
Overturn (water) - The almost spontaneous mixing of all layers of water in a reservoir or lake
when the water temperature becomes similar from top to bottom. This may occur in the
fall/winter when the surface waters cool to the same temperature as the bottom waters
and also in the spring when the surface waters warm after the ice melts.
Owner (const) -See Client or Employer
Oxidation (water) - qxidation is the addition of oxygen, removal of hydrogen, or the removal .
of electrons from an element or compound. 'n the environment, organic matter is oxidized
to more stable substances. The opposite of
Oxidation Ditch (water) - The oxidation is a modified form of the activated sludge
process. The ditch consists of two placed side by side and connected at the ends
to produce one continuoqs loop of wasyewater flow and a brush rotator assembly placed
across the channel to provide aeration d circulation.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) (wa er) - The electrical potential required to transfer
electrons from one compound or ele ent (the oxidant) to another compound or element
(the reductant); used as a qualitativ measure of the state of oxidation in water treatment
systems. ORP is measured in .: olts, with negative values indicating a tendency to
reduce compounds or elements d positive values indicating a tendency to oxidize
compounds or elements.
Oxidized Organics (water) - Organi materials that have been, broken down in a biological
process. Examples of these mat rials are carbohydrates and proteins that are broken down
to simple sugars.
OLOSIAAY OF CML ENGINEERING TERMS
G- 47
Oxidizing Agent (water) - Any substance, such as oxygen (02) or chlorine (Cl2), that will
readily add (take on) electrons. The opposite is a REDUCING AGEN;f.
Oxygen Defidency (water) - An atmosphere containing oxygen at a concentration of less than
19.5 percent by volume.
Oxygen Enrichment (water) - An atmosphere containing oxygen at a concentration/of more
than 23.5 percent by volume.
Ozonation (water) - The application of ozone to water for disinfection or for taste and odor
control.
p
Palatable (water)- Water a: ,desirable temperature that is free from objectionable tastes, odors,
colors, and turbidity. Pie sing to the senses.
Parachute (water) - A device used to catch wastewater flow to pull a float line between
manholes. See FLOAT LI
Parasitic Bacteria (water)- Paras1 c bacteria are those bacteria which normally live off another
living organism, known as "host."
Parghall Flume (water) - A device used to measure the flow in an open charmel. The flume
narrows to a throat of fixed di ensions and then expands again. The rate of flow can be
calculated by measuring the di erence in head (pressure) before and at the throat of the
flume.
Particulate (water) - A very small so d suspended in water which can vary widely in size,
shape, density, and electrical cha e. Colloidal and dispersed particulates are artifidally
gathered together by the processes f coagulation and flocculation.
Partition (const) - An interior wall one sto or less in height.
Parts Per Million (PPM) (water) - Parts pe million parts, a measurement of concentration on a
weight or volume basis. This term is ivalent to milligrains per liter (mg/L) which is the
preferred term.
Party Wall (const) - A wall on an interior I line used or adapted for joint service for two
buildings.
Pathogenic Organisins (water) - Organisms, i luding bacteria, viruses or cysts, capable of
causing diseases (giardiasis, cryptosporidio s, typhoid, cholera, dysentery) in a host (such
as a person). There are many types of org nisins which do NOT cause disease. These
orgar!isms are called nonpathogenic.
Pathogens (water) - Pathogenic or o anisms.
Pave Tech Van Vehicle (const) -With three cameras at record video images of the pavement
surface, pavement profile, rutting and faul . Performance (Fr.: Performance). A
quantitative expression of behavior related to use.
Peaking Factor (water) - Ratio of a maximum flow to e average flow, such as maximum
hourly flow or maximum daily flow to the average, y flow.
Pedestal (const)- Upright compression member with a ra of unsupported height to average
least lateral dimensions of less than 3.
G -48
Percolating Water (water)- Water that passes through soil or rocks under the force of gravity.
Percolation (water) - The slow passage of water through a filter medium; or, the gradual
penetration of soil and rocks by water.
Periphyton (water) - Microscopic plants and animals that are firmly attached to solid surfaces
. under water such as rocks, logs, pilings and other strUctures.
Permeability (soil) - The property of a material or soil that permits considerable movement of
water through it when it is saturated.
~
Permeate (water) - To penetrate and pass through, as water penetrates and passes through soil
and other porous materials. 0 The liquid (demineralized water) produced from the
reverse osmosis process that contains a WW concentration of dissolved solids.
Pet Cock (water)- A small valve or faucet used to drain a cylinder or fitting.
pH (water) - pH is an expression of the intensity of the basic or acidic condition of a liquid.
Mathematically, pH is the logarithm (base 10) of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
activity. The pH may range from 0 to 14, where 0 is most acidic, 14 most basic, and 7
neutral. Natural waters usually have a pH between 6.5 and -.5.
I
pH Test Paper (water) - A strip of paper which is treated with ~ v e r a l dyes that change color at
narrow and different pH ranges. To determine the pH a solution, place a drop of the
solution on the test paper. Then compare the color that velops with the colors on a chart
which relates color to pH Also see LITMUS PAPER.
Phen.ol (water) - An organic compound that is a derivative
Phenolic Compounds (water) -Organic compounds that a derivatives of benzene.
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (water)- The alkalinity in a ter sample.measured by the amount
of standard acid required to lower the pH to a lev of 8.3, as indicated by the change in
color of phenolphthalein from pink to clear. Phe olphthalein alkalinity is expressed as
milligrams per liter of equivalent calcium carbona e.
Photosynthesis (water) - A process in which organis , with the aid of chlorophyll (green plant
enzyme), convert carbon dioxide and inorg substances into oxygen and additional
plant material, using sunlight for energy. All en plants grow by this process.
Physical Wastewater Process (water) - Physical w te treatment processes include use of racks,
screens, comminutors, clarifiers (sedimenta n and flotation) and filtration. Chemical or
biological reactions are important trea nt processes, but NOT part of a physical
treatment process.
Phytoplankton (water) - Small, usually micr scopic plants (such as algae), found in lakes,
reservoirs, and other bodies of water.
Pico (gen) - A prefix used in the metric sy em and other scientific systems of measurement
which means 10-12 or 0.000000000 00
Picocurie (water) - A measure of radioac ity. One pico Curie of radioactivity is equivalent to
0.037 nuclear disintegrations per sec d.
Pier (const) - An isolated column of sonry. A bearing wall not bonded at the sides into
associated masonry is considered pier when its horizontal dimension measured at right
angles tO the thickness does not ceed four times its thickness.
Piezo Accelerometer Sensor (const) That measures the vertical acceleration of concrete slabs
under dynamic lbadings. The suiting data, when integrated twice, yields deflections
G- 49
Piezometer (water) - An instrument used to measure the pressure head in a pipe, tank, or soil.
It usually consists. of a small pipe or tube connected or tapped into the side or wall of ~
pipe or tank and connected to a manometer pressure gage, water or mercury column, or
other device for indicating pressure head.
Pilaster (const) - A bonded or keyed column of masonry built as a part of a wall and of uniform
thickness throughout its height. It serves as a vertical beam, column, or both.
Pipe Liner (water) - A plastic liner pulled or pushed into a pipe to eliminate excessive
infiltration or exfiltration. Other solutions to the problem of infiltration/ exfiltration are
the use of cement grouting or replacement of damaged pipe.
Pitot Tube (water) - An instrument used to measure fluid (liquid or air) velocity by means of
the differential pressure between the tip (dynamic) and side (static) openings.
Plain concrete (canst) -Concrete that does not conform to definition of reinforced concrete.
Plain reinforcement (canst) - Reinforcement that does not conform to definition of deformed
reinforcement.
Plankton (water) - 1. Small, usually microscopic, plants (phytoplankton) and animals
(zooplankton) in aquatic systems.
Planning (const) - The process of establishing the sequence and relationship of a series of
operations prior to construction work commencing,
Pollutant (water)- Any substance which causes an impairment (reduction) of water quality to a
degree that has an adverse effect on any beneficial use of the water.
Pollution (water) - The impairment (reduction) of water quality by agricultural, domestic, or
industrial wastes (including thermal and radioactive wastes) to a degree that has an
adverse effect on any beneficial use of water.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (water) - A class of organic compounds that cause adverse health
effects in domestic water supplies.
Polymer (water) - A long chain molecule formed by the union 9f many monomers (molecules
of lower molecular weight). Polymers are used with other chemical coagulants to aid in
binding small suspended particles to larger chemical floes for their removal from water.
Ponding (water) - A condition occurring on trickling filters when the hollow spaces (voids)
become plugged to the extent that water passage through the filter is inadequate. Ponding
may be the result of excessive slime growths, trash, or media breakdown.
Porcupine (water) - A sewer cleaning tool the same diameter as the pipe being cleaned. The
tool is a steel cylinder having solid ends with eyes cast in them to which a cable can be
attached and pulled by a winch. Many short pieces of cable or bristles protrude from the
cylinder to form a round brush.
Pore (soil) - A very small open space in a rock or granular material. Also called an
INTERSTICE, VOID, or void space. Also see VOID.
Pore Water Pressure Gauge Sensors (canst) -That measure static and dynamic soil pore water
pressures using two different models
Porosity (soil) - A measure of the spaces or voids in a material or aquifer. 0 The ratio of the
volume of spaces in a rock or soil to the total volume. This ratio is usually expressed as a
percentage.
Positive Pressure. (water) - A positive pressure is a pressure greater than atmospheric. It is
measured as pounds per square inch (psi) or as inches of water column. A negative
G- 50
pressure (vacuum) is less than ahnospheric and is sometimes measured in inches of
mercury. In the metric system pressures are measured in kg/ sq m, kg/ sq em or pascals (1
psi = 6,895 Pa = 6.895 kN I sq m).
Postchlorination (water) - The addition of chlorine to the plant effluent, FOLLOWING plant
treatment, for disinfection purposes.
Post-tensioning (const) - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete
has hardened.
Potable Water (water) - Water that does not contain objectionable pollution, contamination,
minerals, or infective agents and is considered satisfactory for drinking.
\.
PPM (water) - Initials for "Parts Per Million." The number of weight or volume units of a minor
constituent present with each one million units of the major constituent of a solution or
mixture. Used to express the results of most water and wastewater analyses, but more
recently milligrams per liter (mg/L) is the preferred term.
Pre-Aeration (water) - The addition of air at the initial stages of treahnent to freshen the
wastewater, remove gases, add oxygen, promote flotation of grease, and aid coagulation.
Precast concrete (const) - Plain or reinforced concrete element casf elsewhere than its final
position in the structure.
Prechlorination (water) - The addition of chlorine at the headworks of the plant PRIOR TO
other treahnent processes mainly for disinfection and control of tastes, odors, and aquatic
growths. Also applied to aid in coagulation and settling.
Precipitate (water) - An insoluble, finely divided substance which is a product of a chemical
reaction within a liquid. D The separation from solution of an insoluble substance.
Precipitation (water) - The process by which ahnospheric moisture ialls onto a land or water
surface as rain, snow, hail, or other forms of moisture. D The chemical transformation of a
substance in solution into an insoluble form (precipitate).
Precursor (water) - Natural organic compounds found in all surface and groundwaters. These
compounds MAY react with halogens (such as chlorine) to form trihalomethanes
(triHALoMETHhanes) (THMs); they MUST be present in order for THMs to form.
Prescriptive (water)- Water rights which are acquired by diverting water and putting it to use
in accordance wl.th specified procedures. These procedures include filing a request (with a
state agency) to use unused water in a stream, river or lake.
Preservation (const) - The technology of protecting wood from deterioration by living
organisms by application of chemical wood preservatives
Pressure H ~ a d (water) - The vertical distance (in feet) equal to the pressure (in psi) at a specific
point. The pressure head is equal to the pressure in psi times 2.31 ft/psi.
Prestressed concrete (const) - Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been
introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from loads.
Pretensioning (const) - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete
is placed.
Procurement (const) - Procurement is ' the amalgam of activities undertaken by the client to
obtain <t building or civil engineering work.
Product Water (water) - Water that has passed through a water treahnent plant. All the
treahnent processes are completed or finished. This water is the product from the water
G- 51
treatment plant and is ready to be delivered to the consumers. Also called FINISHED
WATER
Professional Constructor (const) - Responsible master of that discipline which comprises the
whole of the construction process as well as the essential parts thereof; possessing such
skills founded on knowledge acquired through prescribed education and refined by
experience, or earned equivalently as a recognized practitioner; who initiates, develops,
produces or delivers, in whole or essential part, construction works at prices, times, and
standards of quality which assures advantage to clients and society as a whole.
Progress Analysis (const) - Breakdown of a project in identifiable components so that it is
possible to control the process of construction.
Progress Control (const) -The process of measuring actual progress against predicted planning
and scheduling.
Project (const) - Combination of activities of different specialized groups, directed at a
nonrpetitive result with a clear beginning and end.
Project Brief (const) - The project embodiment of the selected option for the fulfillment of a
stated requirement for a facility or works.
Project Documentation (const) - Systematic arrangement of information about a project during
the course of the process.
Project Management (const) - Project management is concerned with the overall planning and
co-ordination of a project from inception to completion aimed at meeting the client's
requirements and ensuring completion on time, within cost and to required quality
standards. Project management is typically carried out either by a private consultant or an
employee of the project client.
Project Manager (const) - The person or firm appointed by the Client responsible for the
planning, co-ordination and controlling of a project from inception to completion, meeting
the client's requirements and ensuring completion on time, within cost and to required
quality standards.
Project Supervision (const) - Supervision and approval of the work of suppliers and other
organizations working on site, typically carried out either by a private consultant or an
employee of the client.
Protoplasm (water) - A complex substance (typically colorless and semi-fluid) regarded as the
physical basis of life, having the power. of spontaneous motion and reproduction; the
living matter of all plant and animal cells and tissues.
Protozoa (water) - A group of motile microscopic organisms (usually single-celled and aerobic)
that sometimes cluster into colonies and often consume bacteria as an energy source.
Psychrophilic Bacteria (water) - Cold temperature bacteria. A group of bacteria that grow and
thrive in temperatures below 68F (20C) .
. Pump (water) - A mechanical device for causing flow, for raising or lifting water or other fluid,
or for applying pressure to fluids.
Pump Station (water) - Installation of pumps to lift wastewater to a higher elevation in places
where flat land would require excessively deep sewer trenches. Also used to raise
wastewater from areas too low to drain into available collection lines. These stations may
be equipped with air operated ejectors or centrifugal pumps. See LifT STATION.
Pumping Water Level (water) - The vertical distance in feet from the centerline ' of the pump
discharge to the level of the free pool while water is being drawn from the pool.
G 52
Purge (water) - To remove a gas or vapor from a vessel, reactor or confined space, usually by
displacement or dilution.
Putrefaction (water)- Biological decomposition of organic matter, with the production of foul
smelling and -tasting products, associated with anaerobic (no oxygen present) conditions.
Putrescible (water) - Material that will decompose under anaerobic conditions and produce
nuisance odors.
Pyrometer (water) - An apparatus used to measure high temperatures.
Q,R
Quality Control (canst) - Work undertaken by contractor, client's representative or, possibly,
insurance company to ensure the quality of materials and work on site is in accordance
wfth the agreed specifications and accepted standards.
R A.S (water) - Return Activated Sludge, mg/L. Settled activated sludge that is collected in the
secondary clarifier and returned to the aeration basin to mix with incoming raw or
primary settled wastewater.
Rabbling (water) - The process of moving or plowing the material inside a furnace by using the
center shaft and rabble arms.
Rack (water) - Evenly spaced parallel metal bars or rods located in the influent channel to
remove rags, rocks, and cans from wastewater.
Rain (water) - Particles of liquid water that have become too large to be held by the
atmosphere. Their diameter generally is greater than 0.02 inch 31'\d they usually fall to the
earth at velocities greater than 10 fps in still air. See PRECIPIT AT! ON.
Raw Water (water) - Water in its natural state, prior to any treatment. 0 Usually the water
entering the first treatment process of a water treatment plant.
Reaeration (water) -The introduction of air through forced air diffusers into the lower layers of
the reservoir. As the air bubbles form and rise through the water, oxygen from the air
dissolves into the water and replenishes the' dissolved oxygen. 'The rising bubbles also
cause the lowe!" waters to rise to the surface where oxygen from the atmosphere is
transferred to the water. This is sometimes called surface re aeration.
Recarbonation (water) - A process in which carbon dioxide is bubbled into the water being
treated to lower the pH The pH may also be lowered by the addition of acid.
Recarbonation is the final stage in the lime-soda ash softening process. This process
converts carbonate ions to bicarbonate ions and stabilizes the solution against the
precipitation of carbonate compounds.
Receiving Water (water) - A strecun_ river, lake, ocean, or other surface or ground waters into
which treated or untreated wastewater is discharged.
Recharge Rate (water) - Rate at which water is added beneath the ground surface to replenish
or recharge groundwater.
Reclamation (water) - The operation or process of changing the condition or characteristics of
water so "that improved uses can be achieved.
Recycle (water) - The use of water or wastewater within (internally) a facility before it is
discharged to a treatment system. Also see REUSE.
G- 53
REDOX (wnter) - Reduction oxidation reactions in which the oxidation state of at least one
reactilnt is raised while that of another is lowered.
Reducing Agent (water) - Any substance, such as base metal (iron) or the sulfide ion (52-) that
will readily donate (give up) electrons. The opposite is an OXIDIZING AGENT.
Reductant (water),- A constituent of wastewater or surface waters that uses either free (02) or
combined oxygen in the process of stabilization.
Reflux (water) - Flow back. A sample is heated, evaporates, cools, condenses, and flows back to
the flask.
Refractory Materials (water) - Materials difficult to remove entirely from wastewater such as
nutrients, color, taste and odor-producing substances and some toxic materials.
Rehabilitate (canst) - Extensive maintenance intended to bring property or building up to
current acceptable condition, often involving improvements
Rehabilitation Project (canst) - Work associated with the rehabilitation and refurbishment of
buildings, normally the responsibility of people within the above disciplines who have
developed a particular expertise in this area.
Reinforced concrete - Concrete reinforced with no less than the minimum amount required by
this chapter, prestressed or non-prestressed, and designed on the assumption that the two
materials act together in resisting forces.
Reliquefaction (water) - The return of a gas to the liquid state; for example, a condensation of
chlorine gas to return it to its liquid form by cooling.
Renovate (canst) - Generally used to mean 'restore'
Repair (canst) - To restore an item to an acceptable condition by the renewal, replacement or
mending of decayed or damaged parts
Resident Engineer (canst) - The site representative of the Engineer responsible for issuing
instructions and drawings to the contractor's representative.
Residue (water) - The dry solids remaining after the evaporation of a sample of water or
sludge. Also see TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS.
Resistivity Probe (canst) - Sensors that measure depths of freezing and thawing fronts in the
pavement structUre
Respiration (water) - The process in which an organism uses oxygen for its life processes and
gives off carbon dioxide.
Restore (canst)- To bring back an item to its original appearance or state
Restraint (canst) - The partial or total restriction of movement. A device which produces this
effect
Retention (water) - That part of the precipitation falling on a drainage area which does not
escape as surface stream flow during a given period. It is the difference between total
precipitation and total runoff during the period, and represents evaporation,
transpiration, subsurface leakage, infiltration, and, when short periods are considered,
temporary surface or underground storage on the area. 0 The delay or holding of the
flow of water and water<arried wastes in a pipe system. This can be due to a restriction in
the pipe, a stoppage or a dip. Also, the time water is held or stored in a basin or wet well.
This is also called DETENTION.
Retention Time (water) - The time water, sludge or solids are retained or held in a clarifier or
sedimentation tank. See DETENTION TIME.
G- 54
GLOSSARY OF CIVIL. ENGINEERING TERMS
Return Activated Sludge (RAS) (water) - Settled activated sludge that is collected in the
secondary clarifier and returned to the aeration basin to mix with incoming raw or
primary settled wastewater.
Reverse Osmosis (water) - The application of pressure to a concentrated solution which causes
the passage of a liquid from the concentrated solution to a weaker solution across a semi-
permeable membrane. The membrane allows the passage of the water (solvent) but not
the dissolved solids (solutes). The liquid produced is a demineralized water. Also see
OSMOSIS.
Riprap (const) - Broken stones, boulders, or other materials placed compactly or irregularly on
levees or dikes for the protection of earth surfaces against the erosive action of waves.
Rise (const) -Distance from floor to floor.
Riser (const) - Vertical face of a step. Its height generally is taken as the vertical distance
between the treads.
Rising Sludge (water) - Rising sludge occurs in the secondary of activated sludge
plants when tlte sludge settles to the bottom of the clarifier, is compacted, and then starts
to rise to the surface, usually as a result of denitrification.
Roof Leader (water) - A downspout or pipe installed to drain a roof gutter to a storm drain or
other means of disposal.
Root Mop (water) '" When roots from plant life enter a sewer system, the roots frequently
branch to form a growth that resembles a string mop.
Root Sewer (water) - Any part of a root system of a plant or tree that enters a collection system.
Rotameter (water) - A device used to measure the flow rate of gases and liquids. The gas or
liquid being measured flows vertically up a tapered, calibrabid tube. Inside the tube is a
small ball or bullet-shaped float (it may rotate) that rises or falls depending on the flow
rate. The flow rate may be read on a scale behind or on the tube by looking at the middle
of the ball or at the widest part or top of the float.
Rotary Pump (water) - A type of displacement pump consisting essentially of elements rotating
in a pump case which they closely fit. The rotation of these elements alternately draws m
and discharges the water being pumped. Such pumps act with neither suction nor
discharge valv,es, operate at almost any speed, and dp not depend on centrifugal forces to
lift the water.
Rotifers (water) - Microscopic animals characterized by short hairs on their front end.
Rubble, Coursed (const) - Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones fitting approximately
on level beds, well bonded and brought at vertical intervals to continuous level beds of
courses.
Rubble, Ordinary (const) - Masonry composed of irregularly shaped stones laid without
regularity of coursing, but well bonded.
Rubble, Random (const) - Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones, well bonded and
brought at irregular intervals vertically to discontinuous but approximately level beds or
courses.
Run (const).- Total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landings.
Runoff (water) - That part of rain or other precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage
area and does not enter the soil or the sewer system as inflow.
G- 55
Rutting Dipstick (const) - A manually operated device used to record transverse profiles for the
bituminous cells.
s
SA R (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) (water)- This ratio expresses the relative activity of sodium
ions in the exchange reactions with soil. The ratio is defined as follows:
S V I (Sludge Volume Index) (water) - This is a calculation which indicates the tendency of
activated sludge solids (aerated solids) to thicken or to become concentrated during the
sedimentation/thickening process.SVI is calculated in the following manner: (1) allow a
mixed liquor sample from the aeration basin to settle for 30 minutes; (2) determine the
suspended solids concentration for a sample of the same mixed liquor; (3) calculate SVI by
dividing the measured (or observed) wet volume (mL/L) of the settled sludge by the dry
weight concentration of MLSS in grams fL.
Sacrificial Anode (water) - An easily corroded material deliberately installed in a pipe or tank.
The intent of such an installation is to give up (sacrifice) this anode to corrosion while the
water supply facilities remain relatively corrosion free.
Saddle (water)- A fitting mounted on a pipe for attaching a new connection. This device makes
a tight seal against tl1e main pipe by use of a clamp, adhesive, or gasket and prevents the
service pipe from protruding into the main.
Safe Water (water) - Water that does not contain harmful bacteria, or toxic materials or
chemicals. Water may have taste and odor problems, color and certain mineral problems
and still be considered safe for drinking.
Safe Yield (water) - The annual quantity of water that can be taken from a source of supply
over a period of years without depleting the source permanently (beyond its ability to be
replenished naturally in "wet years").
Salinity (water) - The relative concentration of dissolved salts, usually sodium chloride, in a
given water. 0 A measure of the concentration of dissolved mineral substances in water.
Salt (water) - A compound which upon dissociation yields cations (positively charged) of a
metal, and anions (negatively charged) of an acid radical.
Sand Trap (water) - A device which can be placed in the outlet of a manhole to cause a settling
pond to develop in the manhole invert, thus trapping sand, rocks and similar debris
heavier than water. Also may be installed in outlets from car wash areas. Also see GRIT
CATCHER.
Sanitary Sewer (water) - A pipe or conduit (sewer) intended to carry wastewater or waterborne
wastes from homes, businesses, and industries to the POTW (Publicly Owned Treatment.
Works). Storm water runoff or unpolluted water should be collected and transported in a
separate system of pipes or conduits (storm sewers) to natural watercourses.
saprophytes (water)- Organisms living on dead or decaying organic matter. They help natural
decomposition of organic matter in water.
Saprophytic Organisms (water) - Organisms living on dead or decaying organic matter. They
, help natural decomposition of the organic solids in wastewater.
Sash (const)- A single assembly of stiles and rails made into a frame for holding glass, with or
without dividing bars. It may be supplied glazed or unglazed.
G- 56
Saturated Soil (soil) - Soil that cannot absorb any more liquid. The interstices or void spaces in
the soil are filled with water to the point at which runoff occurs.
Saturation (water) - The condition of a liquid (water) when it has taken into solution the
maximum possible quantity of a given substance at a given temperature and pressure.
Saturator (water) - A device which produces a fluoride solution for the fluoridation process.
The device is usually a cylindrical container with granular sodium fluoride on the bottom.
Water flows either upward or downward through the sodium fluoride to produce the
fluoride solution.
Scale (water) - A combination of mineral. salts and bacterial accumulation that sticks to the
inside of a collection; pipe under certain conditions. Scale, in extreme growth
circumstances, creates additional friction loss to the flow of water; Scale may also
accumulate on surfaces other than pipes. 0 The marked plate against which an indicator
or recorder reads, usually the same as the range of the measuring system. See RANGE.
Schedule, Pipe (water) - A sizing system of numbers that specifies the l.D. (inside diameter)
and O.D. (outside diameter) for each diameter pipe. The schedule number is the ratio of
internal pressure in psi divided by the allowable fiber stress multiplied by 1,000. Typical
schedules of iron and steel pipe are schedules 40, 80, and 160. Other forms of piping are
divided into various classes with their own schedule schemes.
Schmutzdecke (water) - A layer of trapped matter at the surface of a slow sand filter in which a
dense population of microorganisms develops. These microorganisms within the film or
mat feed on and break down incoming organic material trapped in the mat. In doing so
the microorganisms both remove organic matter and add mass to the mat, further
developing the mat and increasing the physical straining action of the mat.
Scooter (water) - A sewer cleaning tool whose cleansing action d e p ~ d s on the development of
high water velocity around the outside edge of a circular shield. The metal shield is
rimmed with a rubber coating and is attached to a framework on wheels (like a child's
scooter). The angle of the shield is controlled by a chain spring system which regulates the
head of water behind the scooter and thus the cleansing velocity of the water flowing
around the shield.
Screen (water) - A device used to retain or remove suspended or floating objects in wastewater.
The screen has _openings that are generally uniform in size. It retains or removes objects
larger than the openings. A screen may consist of bars, rods, wires, gratings, wire mesh, or
perforated plates.
Scum (water) - A layer or film of foreign matter (such as grease, oil) that has risen to the
surface of water or wastewater. 0 A residue deposited ori the ledge of a sewer, channel,
or wet well at the water surface. 3) A mass of solid matter that floats on the surface.
SeCI.ling Water (water) - Water used to prevent wastewater or dirt from reaching moving parts.
SeCI.ling water is at a higher pressure than the wastewater it is keeping out of a mechanical
device.
Seasonal Water Table (water) - A groundwater table that has seasonal changes in depth or
elevation.
Secondary Oarifier (water) - A wastewater treatment device which consists of a rectangular or
circular tank that allows those substances not removed by previous treatment processes
that settle or float to be separated from the wastewater being treated.
Secondary Treatment (water) - A wastewater treatment process used to convert dissolved or
suspended materials into a form more readily separated from the water being treated.
Usually the process follows primary treatment by sedimentation. The process commonly
G- 57
is a type of biological treatment process followed by secondary clarifiers that allow the
solids to settle out from the water being treated.
Sediment (water) -Solid material settled from suspension in a liquid.
Sedimentation (water) - A water treatment process in which solid particles settle out of the
water being treated in a large clarifier or sedime!ltation basin.
Sedimentation Basin (water) - Clarifier, Settling Tank. A tank or basin in which wastewater is
held for a period of time during which the heavier solids settle to the bottom and the
lighter materials float to the water surface.
Seed Sludge (water) - In wastewater heahnent, seed, seed culture or seed sludge refers to a
mass of sludge which contains populations of microorganisms. When a seed sludge is
mixed with wastewater or sludge being treated, the process of biological decomposition
takes place more rapidly.
Seismic (gen)- Relating to an earthquake or violent earth vibration such as an explosion.
Select Backfill (const) - Material used in backfilling of an excavation, selected for desirable
compaction or other characteristics.
Select Bedding (water) - Material used to provide a bedding or foW1dation for pipes or other
underground structures. This material is of specified quality for desirable bedding or
other characteristics and is often imported from a different location.
Selector (water) - A reactor or basin in which baffles or other devices create a series of
compartments. The environment and the resulting micwbial population within each
compartment e<m be controlled to some extent by the operator. The environmental
conditions (food, lack of dissolved oxygen) which develop are intended to favor the
growth of certain organisms over others. The conditions thereby SELECT certain
organisms.
Separate Contracts (corist) - With separate contracts the client's professional adviser lets
contracts for . the work with a ntunber of separate contractors. 11lis arrangement was
commonplace prior the emergence of the general contractor.
Septic (water) - A condition, produced by bacteria when all oxygen supplies are depleted. If
severe, the bottom deposits produce hydrogen sulfide, tile deposits and water tum black,
give off foul odors, and the water has a greatly increased chlorine demand.
Septic Taqk (water) - A system used where wastewater collection systems and treatment plants
are not available. The system is a settling tank in which settled sludge is in intimate
contact with the wastewater flowing through the tank and the organic solids are
decomposed by anaerobic bacterial action. Used to treat wastewater and produce an
effluent that is usually disposed of by subsurface leaching.
Septic Tank Effluent Filter (STEF) System (water) - A facility where effluent flows from a septic
tank into a gravity flow collection system which flows to a gravity sewer, treatment plant
or subsurface leaching system. The gravity flow pipeline is called an effluent drain.
Septic Tank Effluent Pump (STEP) System (water) - A facility where effluent is pumped from a
septic tank into a pressurized collection system which may flow. into a gravity sewer,
treatment plant, or subsurface leaching system.
Septidty (water) - Septicity is the condition in which organic matter decomposes to form foul-
. smelling products associated with the absence of free oxygen. If severe, the wastewater
produces hydrogen sulfide, turns black, gives off foul odors, contains little or no dissolved
oxygen, and the wastewater has a high oxygen demand.
G- 58
Sequestration (water) - A chemical complexing (forming or joining together) of metallic cations
(such as iron) with certain inorganic compounds, such as phosphate. Sequestration
prevents the precipitation of the metals (iron). Also see CHELATION.
Serial Tender (const) - A serial tender is where a number of similar projects are awarded to a
contractor, following a competitive tender on a master bill of quantities. This master bill
forms a standing offer open for the client to accept for a number of contracts. Each
contract is separate and the price for each calculated separately.
Series Operation (water) - Wastewater being treated flows through one treatment unit and then
flows through another similar treatment unit. Also see PARALLEL OPERATION.
Service Pipe (water) - The pipeline extending from the water main to the building served or to
the.consumer's system.
Service Root (water) - A root entering the sewer system in a service line and growing down the
pipe and into the sewer main.
Settle.ment (soil) - Downward movement of the soil or of a structure which it supports
Sewage (water) - The used household water and water-carried solids that flow in sewers to a
wastewater treatment plant. The preferred term is WASTEWATER.
Sewer (water) - A pipe or conduit that carries wastewater or d ~ a i n a g e water. The term
"collection line" is often used also.
Sewer Ball (water) - A spirally grooved, inflatabler semi-hard rubber ball designed for
; hydraulic cleaning of sewer pipes. See BALLING.
I
'wer Cleanout (water) - A capped opening in a sewer main that allows access to the pipes for
rodding and cleaning. Usually such cleanouts are located at terminal pipe ends or beyond
terminal manholes. Also called a FLUSHER BRANCH.
Sewer Gas (water) - Gas in collection lines (sewers) that results from the decomposition of
organic matter in the wastewater. When testing for gases found in sewers, test for lack of
oxygen and also for explosive and toxic gases. 0 Any gas present in the wastewater
collection system, even though it is from such sources as gas mains, gasoline, and cleaning
fluid.
Sewer Main (water) - A sewer pipe to which building laterals are connected. Also called a
COLLECTION'MAlN.
Sewerage (water) - System of piping with appurtenances for collecting, moving and treating
wastewater from source to discharge.
Shear Wall (const) - A wall that resist horizontal forces applied in the plane of the wall.
Shock Load (water) - The arrival at a water treatment plant of raw water containing lJI\USual
amounts of algae, colloidal matter, color, suspended solids, turbidity, or other pollutants.
Shredding (water) - Comminution. A mechanical treatment process which cuts large pieces of
wastes into smaller pieces so they won't plug pipes or damage equipment. SHREDDING
and COMMINUTION usually mean the same thing.
Shrinkage (const) -Decrease in length or volume
Sidestream !water)- Wastewater flows that develop from other storage or treatment facilities .
. This wastewater may or may not need additional treatment.
Significant Figure (gen) - The number of accurate numbers in a measurement. If the distance
between two points is.measured to the nearest hundredth and recorded as 238.41 feet, the
measurement has five significant figures.
G -59
Sill (const) -The horizontal bottom of a frame.
Silting (water) - Silting takes place when the pressure of infiltrating waters is great enough to
carry silt, sand and other small particles from the soil into the sewer system. Where lower
velocities are present in the sewer pipes, settling of these materials results in silting of the
sewer system.
Single-Stage Pump (water) - A pump that has only one impeller. A multistage pump has more
than one impeller,
Siphon (water) - A pipe or conduit through which water will flow above the hydraulic grade
line (HGL) under certain conditions. Water (or other liquid) is first forced to flow or is
sucked or drawn through the pipe by creation of a vacuuin. As long as no air enters the
pipe to interrupt flow, atmospheric pressure on the liquid at the elevated (higher) end of
the siphon will cause the flow to continue.
Site Co-ordination (const) - Responsibility for the co-ordination of day-to-day operations on site
in accordance with the project and the predetermined program, typically carried out by an
employee of the contractor.
Site Management (const) - The overall management of the processes required to bring the site
operations of a project to a satisfactory conclusion, typically carried out either by private
consultant or an employee of the project client.
Site Manager (const) - The person responsible on behalf of the client for controlling and
coordinating all the work of others in order to bring the site operations of a project to a
satisfactory conclusion.
Site works (const) - All work carried out within the site of a construction project
Skatole (water) - An organic compound (C9H9N) that contains nitrogen and has a fecal odor.
Slake (water) - To mix with water so that a true chemical combination (hydration) takes place,
such as in the slaking of lime.
Sliplinirtg (water) - A sewer rehabilitation technique accomplished by inserting flexible
polyethylene pipe into an existing deteriorated s e w e ~ : .
Slope (water) - The slope or inclination of a trench bottom or a trench side Wall is the ratio of
the vertical distance to the horizontal distance or "rise over run." Also see GRADE (2).
Sloughing (water) - Biological or biomass growths which break off from the fixed film media.
The "sloughed" biological growth becomes suspended in the fixed film effluent and is later
removed in the secondary clarifier as sludge.
Sludge (water) -The settleable solids separated from water during processing.
Sludge Age (water) - A measure of the length of time a particle of suspended solids has been
retained in the activated sludge process.
Sludge Density Index (SDI) (water) - This calculation is used in a way similar to the Sludge
Volume Index (SVI) to indicate the settleability of a sludge in a secondary clarifier or
effluent. The weight in grams of one milllliter of sludge after settling for 30 minutes. SDI =
100/SVI. Also see SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SVI).
Sludge Digestion (water) - The process of changing organic matter in sludge into a gas or a
liquid or a more stable solid form. These changes take place as microorganisms feed on
. sludge in anaerobic (more common) or aerobic digesters.
Sludge Gasification (water) - A process in which soluble and suspended organic matter are
converted into gas by anaerobic decomposition. The resulting gas bubbles can become
G- 60
attached to the settled sludge and cause large clumps of sludge to rise and float on the
water surface.
Sludge Volume Index (SVI) (water) - This is a calculation which intiicates the tendency of
activated sludge solids (aerated solids) to thicken or to become concentrated during the
process. SVI is calculated in the following manner: (1) allow a
mixed liquor sample from the aeration basin to settle for 30 minutes; (2) determine the
suspended solids concentration for a sample of the same mixed liquor; (3) calculate SVI by
dividing the me!lsured (or observed) wet volume (mL/L) of the settled sludge by the dry
weight concentration of MLSS in gran:s/L.
Sludge-Volume Ratio (SVR) (water) - The volume of sludge blanket divided by the daily
volume of sludge pumped from the thickener.
Slugs (water) - Intermittent releases or discharges of if\dustrial wastes.
Slurry (water) - A watery mixture or suspension of insoluble (not dissolved) matter; a thin,
watery mud or any substance resembling it (such as a grit slurry or a lime slurry).
S'l'oke Test (water) - A method pf blowing smoke into a closed off section of a sewer system to
locate sources of surface inflow.
Snake (water) - A stiff but flexible cable that is inserted into sewers to clear stoppages; also
known as a "sewer cable."
Soap Cake or Soap Buildup (water)- A combination of detergents and greases that accumulate
in sewer systems, build up over a period of time, and may cause severe flow restrictions.
Soft Water (water) - Water having a low concentration of calcium and magnesium ions.
According to U.S. Geological Survey guidelines, soft water is water having a hardness of
60 milligrams per liter or less.
Soil Displacement (water) - Movement of soil from one place to another. Generally
accompanies SILTING of a sewer system. Where infiltration is taking place and silt is
carried into a sewer system, such silt or soil is removed from the ground around the sewer
pipe and the result is soil displacement.
Soil Pipe (water) - A type of wastewater or service connection pipe made of a low grade of cast
iron. 0 In plumbing, a pipe that carries the discharge of toilets or similar fixtures, with or
without the discharges from other fixtures.
Soil Pollution (water)- The leakage (exfiltration) of raw wastewater into the soil or ground area
around a sewer pipe.
Soil Pressure Gauge (soil) -Sensors that measure static and dynamic stresses, both vertical and
horizontal, in soils and oilier unbounded layers.
Soil Stabilization (water) -Injection of chemical grouts into saturated or otherwise unstable soil.
The process seals out water and prevents further instability.
Solid Masonry Unit (const) - A masonry \lfrlt with net cross-sectional area in every plane
parallel to the bearing surface 75% or more of its gross cross-sectional area measured in
the same plane.
Solids Concentration (water) -The solids in the aeration tank which carry microorganisms that
feed on wastewater.
Soluble BOD (water) - Soluble BOD is the BOD pf water that has been filtered in the standard
suspended solids test ..
G- 61
Solute (water) -The substance dissolved in a solution. A solution <is made up of the solvent and
the solute.
Solution (water) - A liquid mixture of dissolved substances. In a solution it is impossible to see
aU the separate parts.
Solvent (water) - Any substance that is used to dissolve another substance in it.
Solvent Extraction (water) - The process of dissolving and separating out particular
.constituents of a liquid by treatment with solvents specific for those constituents.
Extraction may be liquidsolid or liquidliquid.
Sounding Rod (water) - A T -shaped tool or shaft that is pushed or driven down through the
soil to locate underground pipes and utility conduits. Also see PROBE.
Sounding Tube (water) - A pipe or tube used for measuring the depths of water.
Spall (const) - A flaky fragment, usually produced by. a blow, or by the action of weather or
pressure
Spalling (const) - Detachment of fragments, usually of flaky shape, from a larger mass by a
blow, or by the action of weather or pressure; chipping of stone, masonry or concrete
Spandrel Wall (const) - An exterior curtain wall at the level of the outside floor beams in
multistory buildings. It may extend from the head of the window below the floor to the
sill of the window above.
Specific Conductance (water) - A rapid method of estimating the dissolved solids content of a
water supply. The measurement indicates the capacity of a sample of water to carry an
electric current, which is related to the concentration of ionized substances in the water.
Also called CONDUCTANCE.
Specific Gravity (water)- Weight of a particle, substance, or chemical solution in relation to the
weight of an equal volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1.000 at 4C (39F).
Particulates in raw water may have a spei::ific gravity of 1.005 to 2.5. 0 Weight of a
particular gas in relation to the weight of an equal volume of air at the same temperature
and pressure (air has a specific gravity of 1.0). Chlorine has a specific gravity of 25 as a
gas.
Specific Yield (water)- The quantity of water that a unit volume of saturated permeable rock or
soil will yield when drained by gravity. Specific yield may be expressed asa ratio or as a
percentage by volume.
Spiral reinforcement (const) -Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical
helix.
Splash Pad (water) - A structure made of concrete or other durable material to protect bare soil
from erosion by splashing or falling water.
Split (const) -Break in a material, approximately parallel with the natural grain or cleavage of
the material
Spoil (water) - Excavated material such as soil from the trench of a water main.
Spore (water) - The reproductive body of an organism which is capable giving rise to a new
organism either directly or indirectly. A viable (able to live and grow) body regarded as
the resting stage of an organism. A spore is usually more> resistant to disinfectants and
heat than most organisms.
Spring Line (water) - Theoretical center of a pipeline. Also, the fo'i iaying a course of
bricks.
G- 62
Srteriliution (water) - The rsmoval or destruction of all microorganisms,' including pathogenic
and other bacteria, vegetative forms and spores. Compare with DISINFECTION.
Stabilization (water) - Conversion to a form that resists change. Organic material is stabilized
by bacteria which convert the material to gases and other relatively inert substances.
Stabilized organic material generally will not give off obnoxious odors.
Stabilize (water) - To convert to a form that resists change. Organic material is stabilized by
bacteria which convert the material to gases and other relatively inert substances.
Stabilized organic material generally will not give off obnoxious odors.
Stabilized Waste (water) - A waste that has been treated or decomposed to the extent that, if
discharged or released, its rate and state of decomposition would be such that the waste
would not cause a nuisance or odors.
Stain (const) - To discolor. An uncontrolled discoloration, usually on concrete, masonry, and
wood
Stale Water (water)- STALE WATER
Standard Deviation (gen) - A measure of the spread or dispersion of data.
Standard Solution (water) (water) - A solution in which the exact concentration of a chemical or
compound is known.
Stasis - Stagnation or inactivity of the life processes within organisms.
Static Head (water) - When water is not moving, the vertical distance (in feet) from a specific
point to the water surface is the static head. (The static pressure in psi is the static head in
feet times 0.433 psi/ ft.) Also see DYNAMIC PRESSURE and STATIC PRESSURE.
Static Lift (water) - Vertical distance water is lifted from upstreazn water surface up to
downstream water surface (which is at a higher elevation) when no water is being
pumped.
Static Pressure (water) - When water is not moving, the vertical distance (in feet) from a specific
point to the water surface is the static head. The static pressure in psi is the static head in
feet times 0.433 psi/ ft. Also see DYNAMIC PRESSURE and STATIC HEAD.
Static Sensors (const) - Those sensors that generate data at 15 minute intervals Examples are
weather sensors, etc.
Static Water Depth (water) - The vertical distance in feet from the centerline of the pump
discharge down to the surface level of the free pool while no water is being drawn from
the pool or water table.
Static Water Head (water)- Elevation or surface of water that is not being pumped.
Static Water Level (water)- .The elevation or level of the water table in a well when the pump
is not operating. 0 The level or elevation to which water would rise in a tube connected to
an artesian aquifer, basin, or conduit under pressure.
Station (water)- A point of reference or location in a pipeline is sometimes called a "station." As
an example, a building service located 51 feet downstream from a manhole could be
reported to be at "station 51."
Step-Feed Aerption (water) - Step feed aeration is a modification of the conventional activated
sludge process. In step atfration, primary effluent enters the aeration tank at several points
along the length of the tank, rather than all of the primary effluent entering at the
beginning or head of the tank and flowing through the entire tank in a plug flow mode.
G- 63
Stilling Well (water) - A well or chamber which is connected to the main flow channel by a
small inlet. Waves and surges in the main flow stream will not appear in the well due to
the small diameter inlet. The liquid surface in the well will be quiet, but will follow all of
the steady fluctuations of the open channel. The liquid level in the well is measured to
determine the flow in the main channel.
Stirrup (const) - Reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion stresses in a structural member:
typically bars, wires or welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed) either single leg or bent
into L, U, or rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at an angle to longitudinal
reinforcement. (The term "stirrups" is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural
members and the term "ties" to those in compression members.) See also Tie.
Stitching (const) -Insertion of new bricks to replace existing damaged bricks
Stool (const) -The part of the sill inside the building.
Stop Log (water) - A log or board in an outlet box or device used to control the water level in
ponds.
Storm Collection System (water) - A system of gutters, catch basins, yard drains, culverts and
pipes for the purpose of conducting storm waters from an area, but intended to exclude
domestic and industrial wastes.
Storm Runoff (water) - The amount of runoff that reaches the point of measurement within a
relatively short period of time .after the occurrence of a storm or other form of
precipitation. Also called "direct runoff."
Storm Sewer (water) - A separate pipe, conduit or open channel (sewer) that carries runoff from
storms, surface drainage, and street wash, but does not include domestic and Industrial
wastes. Storm sewers are often the recipients of hazardous or toxic substances due to the
illegal dumping of hazardous wastes or spills created by acddents involving vehicles and
trains transporting these substances. Also see SANITARY SEWER.
Storm Water (water) - The excess water running off from the surface of a drainage area during
and immediately after a period of rain. See STORM RUNOFF.
Storm Water Inlet (water) - A device that admits surface waters to the storm water drainage
system. Also see CURB INLET and CATCH BASIN.
Stratification (water) -The formation of separate layers (of temperature, plant, or animal life) in
a lake or reservoir. Each layer has similar characteristics such as all water in the layer has
the same temperature. Also see THERMAL STRATIFICATION ..
Stray Current Corrosion (water) - A corrosion activity resulting from stray electric current
originating from some source outside the plun;tbing system such as D.C. grounding on
phope systems.
Strength design (const) - Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor, 0.
Strength, nominal - Strength of a member or cross-section _calculation in accordance with
provisions and assumptions of the strength design method of this chapter before
application of any strength reduction factors.
Strength, required - Strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or
related internal moments and forces in such combinations.
Stress (gen) - Intensity of force per unit area.
Stretch (water) ~ L e n g t h of sewer from manhole to IID1nh0le.
G- 61
Stringers (const)- Inclined members along the sides of a stairway. The stringer along the wall is
called a wall stringer. Open stririgers are those cu to follow the lines of risers and treads.
Closed stringers have parallel top and bottom, and treads and risers are supported along
their sides or mortised into them. In wood stairs, stringers are placed outside the carriage
to provide a finish.
Stringers (water) - Horizontal shoring members, usually square, rough cut timber, that are used
to hold solid sheeting, braces or vertical shoring members in place. Also called WALERS.
Stripped Gases (water) - Gases that are released from a liquid by bubbling air through the
liquid or by allowing the liquid to be sprayed or tumbled over media.
Stripped Odors (water) - Odors that are released from a liquid by bubbling air through the
liquid or by allowing the liquid to be sprayed or tumbled over media.
Structural Defect (const) -:A flaw or imperfection of a structure or design which was built into a
project, pipeline or other collection system appurtenance.
Structural Design (const) - Design of the structural elements of large constructions, undertaken
by a structural engineer. In smaller and less complex constructions this work will
normally be within the responsibility of other construction professionals.
Structural Failure (water) - A condition that exists when one or more components of a system
break down or fail to perform as expected. A structural failure may result from defective
parts or design or may result from other circumstances that occur after the completion of
construction.
Struvite (water) - A deposit or precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate
found on the rotating components of centrifuges and centrate discharge lines. Struvite can
be formed when anaerobic sludge comes in contact with spinnirlg centrifuge components
rich in oxygen in . the presence of microbial activity. Struvite can also be formed in
digested sludge lines and valves in the presence of oxygen and microbial activity. Struvite
can form when the pH level is between 5 and 9.
Stuck (water) - Not working. A stuck digester does not decompose organic matter properly.
The digester is characterized by low gas production, high volatile acid to alkalinity
relationship, and poor liquidsolids separation. A digester in a stuck condition is
sometimes called' a "sour" or "upset" digester.
Submergence (water) -The distance between the water surface and the media surface in a filter.
Subsidence (water) - The dropping or lowering of the ground surface as a result of removing
excess water (overdraft or overpumping) from an aquifer. After excess water has been
reindved, the soil will settle, become compacted and the ground surface will drop and can
cause the settling of underground utilities.
Subsoil Geology (soil) -The study of soil conditions existmg below the surface of the ground at
any selected site.
Substrate (water) - The base on which an organism lives. The soil is the substrate of most seed
plants; rocks, soil, water, or other plants or animals are substrates for other organisms. 0
Chemical used by an organism to support growth. The organic matter in wastewater is a
substrate. for the organisms in activated sludge.
Subsurface Leaching System (water) - A method of treatment and disposal of septic tartk
effluent, sand filter effluent, or other treated wastewater. The effluent is applied to soil
below the ground surface through open"jointed pipes or drains or through perforated
pipes (holes in the pipes). The effluent is treated as it passes through porous soil or rock
G- 65
sb'ata (layers). Newer subSiuface leaching systems include chamber and gravelless
systems, and also gravel b'enches without pipe the full length of the b'ench.
Subsystem (water) - An extensive underground sewer system connected to the main collection
system, but not considered part of the main system. An example might be the
undergro.und sewer system of a mobile home park.
Sucker Rods (water) - Rigid, coupled sewer r o d ~ of metal or wood used for clearing stoppages.
Usually available in 3ft, 39in, 4ft, Sft and 6ft lengths.
Suction Head (water) - The POSffiVE pressure [in feet (meters) or pounds per square inch] on
the suction side of a pump. The pressure can be measured from the centerline of the pump
UP TO the elevation of the hydraulic grade line on the suction side of the pump.
Suction lift (water)' The NEGATIVE pressure (in feet (meters) of water or inches (centimeters)
of mercury vacuum] on the suction side of the pump. The pressure can be measured 'from
the centerline of the pump OOWN TO (lift) the elevation of the hydraulic grade line on
the suction side of the pump.
Sump (water) -The term "sump" refers to a facility which connects an indusb'ial discharger to a
public sewer. The facility (sump) could be a sample box, a clarifier or an intercepting
sewer.
Sump Card (water) - A 3x5 reference card which identifies the location of a sump, lists the
monitoring devices located in the sump (pH for example), and indicates which b'eatment
processes are connected to the sump.
Superchlorination (water) - Chlorination with doses that are deliberately selected to produce
free or combined residuals so large as to require dechlorination.
Sup,ematant (water) - Uquid removed from settled sludge. Supernatant commonly refers to the
liquid between the sludge on the bottom and the sewn on the water surface of a basin or
container.
Supersaturated (water) - An unstable condition of a solution (water) in which the solution
contains a substance at a concenb'ation greater than the saturation concentration for the
substance.
Surcharge (water) - Sewers are surcharged when the supply of water to be carried is greater
than the capacity of the pipes to carry the flow. The surface of the wastewater in manholes
rises above the top of the sewer pipe, and the sewer is under pressure or a head, rather
than at atmospheric pressure.
Surcharge Manhole (water) - A manhole in which the rate of the water entering is greater than
the capacity of the outlet under gravity flow conditions. When the water in the manhole
rises above the top of the outlet pipe, the IDanhole is said to be "surcharged."
Surface Loading (water) - One of the guidelines for the design of settling tanks and clarifiers in
b'eatment plants. Used by operators to determine if tanks and clarifiers are hydraulically
(flow) over or underloaded. Also called OVERFLOW RATE.
Surface Runoff. (water) - The precipitation that cannot be absorbed by the soil and flows across
the surface by gravity. 0 The water that reaches a sb'eam by b'aveling over the soil
surface or falls directly into the sb'eam channels, including not only the large permanent
sb'eams but also the tiny rills and rivulets. 3) Water that remains after infilb'ation,
interception, and surface storage have been deducted from total precipitation.
Surfaced Defect (water) - A break or opening in a sewer pipe where the covering soil has been
washed away and the opening or break is exposed on the ground surface.
G- 66
Surfaced Void (water)- A dip or depression in the ground that appears when silting has taken
place to a degree that a void is caused in the subsoil. Through successive caveins, the void
reaches the surface of the ground.
Surfactant (water) - Abbreviation for surface-active agent. .The active agent in detergents that
possesses a high cleaning ability.
Surge Chamber (water) - A chamber or tank connected to a pipe and located at or near a valve
that may quickly open or close or a pump that may suddenly start or stop. When the flow
of water in a pipe starts or stops quickly, the surge chamber allows water to flow into or
out of the pipe and minimize any sudden positive or negative pressure waves or surges in
the pipe.
Suspended Growth Process (water) - Wastewater treatment processes in which the
microorganisms and bacteria treating the wastes are suspended in the wastewater being
treated. The wastes flow around and through the suspended growths. The various modes
of the activated sludge process make use of suspended growth reactors. These reactors
can be used for BOD removal, nitrification and denitrification.
Suspended Solids (water) - Solids that either float on the surface or are suspended in water,
wastewater, or other liquids, and which are largely removable by laboratory filtering. 0
The quantity of material removed hom water in a laboratory test, as prescribed in
STANDARD METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WASTEWATER,
and referred to as. Total Suspended Solids Dried at 103-lOS"C.
Swab (water) - A circular sewer cleaning tool almost the same diameter as the pipe being
cleaned. As a final cleaning procedure after a sewer line has been cleaned with a
porcupine, a swab is pulled through the sewer and the flushing action of water flowing
around the tool cleans the line.
Synergistic Reaction (water) - An interaction between two or m o r ~ individual compounds
which produces an injurious effect upon the body (or an organism) which is GREATER
than either of the substances alone would have produced.
T
T 0 C (water) -Total Organic Carbon. TOC measures the amount of organic carbon in water.
Tag Line (water) ~ A line, rope or cable that follows equipment through a sewer so that
equipment can be pulled back out if it encounters an obstruction or becomes stuck.
. Equipment is pulled forward with a pull line.
Tap (water) - A small hole in a sewer where a wastewater service line hom a building is
connected (tapped) into a lateral or branch sewer.
Temporary Groundwater Table (water) - During and for a period following heavy rainfall or
snow melt, the soil is saturated at elevations above the normal, stabilized or seasonal
groundwater table, often hom the surface of the soil downward. This is referred to as a
temporary condition and thus is a temporary groundwater table. D When a collection
system serves agriculturill areas in its vicinity, irrigation of these areas ,can cause a
temporary rise in the elevation of the groundwater table.
Tender (const) - An offer which incorporates the sum of money, time and other conditions
required to carry out the contract obligations in order to complete a project or a part of it
consisting of specified works.
G- 67
Tendering (const) - Tendering is the management and commercial function of determining the
tender based upon the estimate and other details prepared by the contractor's estimator
and other personnel. '
Tendon (const) - Steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rod, or strand, or a bundle of such
elements, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Teratogenic (water) - Any substance which tends to cause birth defects after conception.
Terminal Cleanout (water)- When a manhole is not provided at the upstream end of a sewer
main, a cleanout is usually provided. This is called a "terminal cleanout" or. a FLUSHER
BRANCH.
Terminal Manhole (water) - A manhole located at the upstream end of a sewer and having no
inlet pipe. Also called a DEAD END MANHOLE.
Tertiary Treatment (water)- Any process of water renovation that upgrades treated wastewater
to meet specific reuse requirements. May include general cleanup of water or removal of
specific parts of wastes insufficiently removed by conventional treatment processes.
Typical processes include chemical treatment and pressure filtration. Also called
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT.
Thermal shock (const) - Force, arising out of thermal expansion or contraction, which causes
disruption of a material on sudden heating or cooling
Thermal Stratification (water) - The formation of layers of different temperatures in a lake or
reservoir. Also see STRATIFICATION.
Thermocline (water) - The middle layer in a thermally stratified lake or reservoir. In this layer
there is a rapid decrease in with depth. Also called the METALIMNION.
Thermohygrograph (const) - Device that measures and records simultaneously air temperature
and relative humidity
Thermophilic Bacteria (water) - Hot temperature bacteria. A group of bacteria that grow and
thrive in temperatures above 113F (45C). The optimum temperature range for these
bacteria in anaerobic decomposition is 120F (49C) to 135F (57"C). Aerobic thermophilic
bacteria thrive between 120F (49C) and 158F (70C).
Thickening (water) - Treatment to remove water from the sludge mass to reduce the volume
that must be handled.
Thief Hole (water) - A digester sampling well which allows sampling of the digester contents
without venting digester gas.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV) (water) - The average concentration oftoxic gas or any other
substance to which a normal person can be exposed without injury during an average
work week.
Threshold Odor (water) - The minimum odor of a water sample that can just be detected after
successive dilutions with odorless water. Also called ODOR THRESHOLD.
Threshold Odor Number (TON) (water) - The greatest dilution of a sample with odor-free
water that still yields a just detectable odor.
Thrust Block (water) - A mass of concrete or similar material appropriately placed around a
pipe to prevent movement when the pipe is carrying water. Usually placed at bends and
valve structures.
Tide Gate (water) - A gate with a flap suspended from a free-swinging horizontal hinge,
usually placed at . the end of a conduit discharging into a body of water having a
G- 68
fluctuating surface elevation. The gate is usually closed because ofoutside water pressure,
but will open when the water head inside the pipe is great enough to overcome the
outside pressure, the weight of the flap, and the friction of the hinge. Also called a
BACKWATER GATE. Also see CHECK VALVE and FLAP GATE.
Tie (const) - Loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement. See also
stirrup.
Time Lag (water) - The time required for processes and control systems to respond to a signal
or to reach a desired level.
Time Weighted Average (water)- The average concentration of a pollutant based on the times
and levels of concentrations of the pollutant. The time weighted average is equal to the
sum of the portion of each time period (as a decimal, such as 0.25 hour) multiplied by the
pollutant concentration during the time period divided by the hours in the workday
(usually 8 hours).
Total Contribution (water) - All water and wastewater entering a sewer system from a specific
facility, subsystem or area. This includes domestic and industrial wastewaters, inflow and
infiltration reaching the main collection system.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) (water) - All of the dissolved solids in a water. TDS is measured
on a sample of water that has passed through a very fine mesh filter to remove suspended
solids. The water passing through the filter is evaporated and the residue represents the
dissolved solids. Also see SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE.
Total Dynamic Head (TDH) (water) - When a pump i;; lifting or pumping water, the vertical
distance (in feet) from the elevation of the energy grade line on the suction side of the
pump to the elevation of the energy grade line on the discharge side of the pump.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) (water)- TOC measures the amount of oPganic carbon in water.
Total Residual Chlorine (water) - The amount of available chlorine remaining after a given
contact time. The sum of the combined available residual chlorine and the free available
residual chlorine. Also see RESIDUAL CHLORINE.
Totalizer (water) - A device or meter that continuously measures and calculates (adds) a
process rate variable in cumulative fashion; for example, total flows displayed in gallons,
million gallons, cubic feet, or some other unit of volume measurement. Also called an
INTEGRATOR. '
Toxaphene (water) - A chemical that causes adverse health effects in domestic water supplies
and also is toxic to freshwater and marine aquatic life.
Toxic (water)- A substance which is poisonous to a Jiving organism.
Toxic Organic Management PJ.cin (TOMP) (water) - A strategy for keeping track of all solvents
delivered to a site, their storage, use and disposal. This includes keeping spent solvents
segregated from other process wastewaters to maximize the value of the recoverable
solvents, to avoid contamination of other segregated wastes, and to prevent the discharge
of toxic organics to any wastewater collection system or the environment. The plan should
describe measures to control spills and leaks and to ensure that there is no deliberate
dumping of solvents. Also known as a SOLVENT MANAGEMENT PLAN.
Toxicity (water) - The relative degree of being poisonous or toxic. A condition which may exist
in wastes and will inhibit or destroy the growth or function of certain organisms.
Traditional Contracting (const) - Is the method of construction procurement in which
independent professionals (i.e. architects, engineers, quantity surveyors) are employed by
the client to complete the design work. The client then enters into separate contract with a
G- 69
contractor to execute the designed construction. The contractor is selected on some basis
of competition.
Tramp Oil (Free Oil) (water) -Oil that comes to the surface of a tank due to natural flotation.
Transfer (const)- Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning
bed to concrete member.
Transmissivity (water) - A measure of the ability to transmit (as in the ability of an aquifer to
transmit water).
Transpiration (water) - The process by which water vapor is released to the atmosphere by
living plants. This process is similar to people sweating. Also see
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION.
Trap (water) - In the wastewater collection system of a building, plumbing codes require every
drain connection from an appliance or fixture to have a trap. The trap in this case is a
gooseneck that holds water to prevent vapors or gases in a collection system from entering
the building. 0 Various other types of special traps are used in collection systems such as
a GRIT TRAP or SAND TRAP.
Tread (canst) -Horizontal face of a step. Its width usually is taken as the horizontal distance
between risers .
. Tremie (water)- A device used to place concrete or grout under water.
Trichloroethane (water) - An organic chemical used as a cleaning solvent that causes adverse
health effects in domestic water supplies.
Trickling Filter (water) - A treatment process in which the wastewater trickles over media that
provide the opportunity for the formation of slimes or biomass which contain organisms
that feed upon and remove wastes from the water being treated.
Trickling Filter Media (water) - Rocks or other durable materials that make up the body of the
filter. Synthetic (manufactured) media have been used successfully.
True Color (water) - Color of the water from which turbidity has been removed. The turbidity
may be removed by double filtering the sample through a Whatrnan No. 40 filter when
using the visual comparison method.
Trunk Sewer (water) - A sewer that receives wastewater from many tributary branches or
sewers and serves a large territory and contributing population.
Trunk System (water) - A system of major sewers serving as transporting lines and not as local
or lateral sewers.
Tube Settler (water) - A device that uses bundles of small-bore (2 to 3 inches or 50 to 75 mm)
tubes installed on an incline as an aid to sedimentation. The tubes may come in a variety
of shapes including circular and rectangular. As water rises within the tubes, settling
solids fall to the tube surface. As the ~ J u d g e (from the settled solids) in the tube gains
weight, it moves down the tubes and settles to the bottom of the basin for removal by
conventional sludge collection means. Tube settlers are sometimes installed in
sedimentation basins and clarifiers to improve particle removal.
Tubercle (water) - A protective crust of corrosion products (rust) which builds up over a pit
caused by the loss of metal due to corrosion.
Tuberculation (water) - The development or formation of small mounds of corrosion products
(rust) on the inside of iron pipe. These mounds (tubercles) increase the roughness of the
inside of the pipe thus increasing resistance to water flow (decreases the C Factor).
G 70
Turbid (water) - Having a cloudy or muddy appearance.
Turbidity (water) - The cloudy appearance of water caused by the presence of suspended and
colloidal matter. In the waterworks field, a turbidity measurement is used to indicate the
clarity of water. Technically, turbidity is an optical property of the water based on the
amount of light reflected by suspended particles. Turbidity caru:tot be directly equated to
suspended solids because white particles reflect more light than dark-colored particles
and many small particles will reflect more light than an equivalent large particle.
Turbidity Meter (water) - An instrument for measuring and comparing the turbidity of liquids
by passing light through them and determining how much light is reflected by the
particles in the liquid. The normal measuring range is 0 to 100 and is expressed as
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs).
Turbidity Units (water) -Turbidity units are a measure of the cloudiness of water. If measured
by a nephelometric (deflected light) instrumental procedure, turbidity units are expressed
in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) or simply TU. Those turbidity units obtained by
visual methods are expressed in Jackson Turbidity Units GTU) which are a measut:e of the
cloudiness of water; they are used to indicate the clarity of water. There is no real
connection between NTUs and JTUs. The Jackson turbidimeter is a visual method and the
nephelometer is an instrumental method based on defle<;ted light.
Turbulent Mixers (water) - Devices that mix air bubbles and water and cause turbulence to
dissolve oxygen in the water.
Turnkey (const) - A turnkey contract is one where the client has an agreement with one single
administrative entity, who provides the design and construction under one contract, and
frequently effects land acquisition, financing, leasing, etc.
Two-Stage Filters (water) - Two filters are used. Effluent from the first filter goes to the second
filter, either directly or after passing through a clarifier.
Two-stage Tender (const) - With a two-stage tender three or four con-tractors with appropriate
experience are first separately involved in detailed discussions with the client's
professional advisers regarding all aspects of the project. Price competition is introduced
in the second stage.
Two-Way Cleanout (water)- An opening in pipes or sewers designed for rodding or working a
snake into t h ~ pipe in either direction. Two-way cleanouts are most often found in
building lateral pipes at or near a property line.
u,v
Ultrafiltration (water) - A membrane filter process used for the removal of some organic
, compounds in an aqueous (watery) solution.
Unconsolidated Formation (water) - A sediment that is loosely arranged or unstratified (not in
layers) or whose particles are not cemented together (soft rock); occurring either at the
ground surface or at a depth below the surface. Also see CONSOLIDATED FORMATION.
Undermined (water) - A condition that occurs when the bedding support under a pipe or
manhole has been removed or washed away. Conditions leading to or causing this are
believed to be the presence of excess water during backfill. Other causes are horizontal
boring operations, excavations adjacent to the pipe or manhole and exfiltration or
infiltration at drop joints. 0 When flow through a broken section of pipe carries away soil
G- 71
around the break leaving a void or empty space, the surfaces over the void are said to be
"undermined."
Undisturbed Soi (water)! - Soil, at any depth, which has not been excavated or disturbed by
excavation or construction.
Uniformity Coefficient (water)- The ratio of (1) the diameter of a grain (particle) of a size that is
barely too large to pass through a sieve that allows 60 percent of the material (by weight)
to pass through, to (2) the diameter of a grain (particle) of a size that is barely too large to
pass through a sieve that allows 10 percent of the material (by weight) to pass through.
The resulting ratio is a measure of the degree of uniformity in a granular material such as
filter media.
Upper Explosive limit (water) - The point at which the concentration of a gas in air becomes
too great to allow an explosion upon ignition due to insufficient oxygen present.
Upper Flamable limit (water) -The point at which the concentration of a gas in air becomes too
great to sustain a flame upon ignition due to insufficient oxygen present.
Upset (water)- An upset digester does not decompose organic matter properly. The digester is
characteqzed by low gas production, high volatile acid/ alkalinity relationship, and poor
liquidsolids separation. A digester in an upset condition is sometimes called a "sour" or
"stuck" digester.
Upstand (const) - Portion of roof covering turned up against a vertical surface, yet not
necessarily tucked into a groove
Upstream (water) - The direction against the flow of water; or, toward or in the higher part <fa
sewer or collection system.
U-Tube (water) - A pipe shaped like a U that is constructed in a force main to raise the
dissolved oxygen concentration in the wastewater. 0 U-tube. manometers are used to
indicate the pressure of a gas or liquid in a contained area, such as a pipeline or storage
vessel.
Vac-All (water) - Equipment that removes solids from a manhole as they enter the manhole
from a hydraulic clearung operation. Most of the wastewater removed from the manhole
by the operation is separated from the solids and returned to the sewer.
Vault (water) - A small box-like structure that contains valves used to regulate flows.
Vector (water) -An insect or other organism capable of transmitting germs or other agents of
disease.
Vegetable Wastes (water)- Vegetable matter entering a collection system. This term is usually
used to distinguish such types of waste from animal, industrial, COilUI\ercial and other
types of waste solids.
Velocity Head (water)- The energy in flowing water as determined by a vertical height (in feet
or meters) equal to the square of the velocity of flowing water divided by twice the
acceleration due to gravity (V2/2g).
Veneered Wall (const) - A wall having a facing of masonry or other material securely attached
to a backing, but not so bonded as to exert a common reaction under load.
Venturi Meter (water)- A flow measuring device placed in a pipe. The device consists of a tube
whose diameter gradually decreases to a throat and then gradually expands to the
diameter of the pipe. The flow is determined on the basis of the difference in pressure
(caused by different velocity heads) between the entrance and throat of the 'Venturi meter.
G -72
r
Viscosity (water) - A property of water, or any other fluid, which resists efforts to change its
shape or flow. Syrup is more viscous (has a higher viscosity) than water. The viscosity of
water increases significantly as temperatures decrease. Motor oil is rated by how thick
(viscous) it is; 20 oil is considered relatively _thin while 50 weight oil is"relatively
thick or viscous.
V-Notch Weir (water) - A triangular weir with a "V" notch calibrated in gallons per minute
readings. By holding the weir in a pipe with rubber seals forcing a flow to pass through
the "V," a measure of the gallonage flowing through the pipe can be read on the basis of
. the depth of water flowing over the weir.
Void (const) - (in the context of cellular materials, such as concrete) cavity formed either
intentionally or unintentionally
Void (soil)- A pore or open space in rock, soil or other granular material, not occupied by .solid
matter. The pore or open space may be occupied by air, water, or other gaseous or liquid
material. Also called an INTERSTICE, PORE, or void space.
Volatile (water)- A volatile substance is one that is capable of being evaporated or changed to
a vapor at relatively low temperatures. Volatile substances., also can be partially removed
by air stripping. 0 ln terms of solids analysis, volatile refers to materials lost (including
most organic matter) upon ignition in a muffle furnace for 60 minutes at 550C. Natural
volatile materials are chemical substances usually of animal or plant origin. Manufactured
or synthetic volatile materials such as ether, acetone, and carbon tetrachloride are highly
volatile and not of plant-or animal origin. Also see NONVOLATILE MA TIER.
Volatile Adds (water)- Fatty acids produced during digestion which are soluble in water and
can be steamdistilled at atmospheric pressure. Also called organic acids. Volatile acids are
commonly reported as equivalent to acetic acid.
Volatile Uquids (water)- Uquids which easily vaporize or evaporate at room temperature.
Volatile Matter (water)- Matter in water, wastewater, or other liquids that is lost on ignition of
the dry solids at SSOOC.
Volatile Solids (water)- Those solids in water or other liquids that are lost on ignition of the dry
solids at sso-c.
Volumetric A measurement based on the volume of some factor. Volumetric titration
is a means of measuring unknown concentrations of water quality indicators in a sample
BY DETERMINING 1HE VOLUME of titrant or liquid reagent needed to complete
particular reactions.
Volumetric Feeder (water) - A dry chemical feeder which delivers a measured volume of
chemical during a specific time period.
Volute (water)- The spiral-shaped casing which surrounds a pump, blower, or turbine impeller
and collects the liquid or gas discharged by the impeller.
Vortex (water) -A revolving mass of water which foril\S a whirlpool. This whirlpool is caused
by water flowing out of a small opening in the bottom of a basin or reservoir. A funnel-
shaped opening is created downward from the water surface.
W A S (water) - Waste Activated Sludge, mg/L The excess growth of microorganisms which
musf be removed from the process to keep the biological system in balance.
G- 73
W, X, Y, Z
Walers (water) -Horizontal shoring members, usually square, rough cut timber, that are used
to hold solid sheeting, braces or vertical shoring members in place. Also called
STRINGERS.
Wall (const)- Member, usually vertical, used to enclose or separate spaces.
Wall (const) - Vertical or near-vertical construction for enclosing space or retaining earth or
stored materials.
Warp (const)- Change from a straight or true plane condition
Wasteline Cleanout (water) - An opening or point of access in a . building wastewater pipe
system for rodding or snake operation.
'asteline Vent (water) - Most plumbing codes require a vent pipe connection of adequate size
and located downstream of a trap in a building wastewater system. This vent prevents the
accumulation of gases or odors and is usually piped through the roof and out of doors.
Wastewater (water) - A conununity's used water and water-carried solids (including used
water from industrial processes) that flow to a treatment plant. Storm water, surface
water, and groundwater infiltration also may be included in the wastewater that enters a
wastewater treatment plant. The term "sewage" usually refers to household wastes, but
this word is being replaced by the term "wastewater."
Wastewater Collection System (water) -The pipe system for collecting and carrying water and
watercarried wastes from domestic and industrial sources to a was.tewater treatment
plant.
Wastewater Facilities (water) - The pipes, conduits, structures, equipment, and processes
required to collect, convey, and treat domestic and industrial wastes, and dispose of the
effluent and sludge.
Wastewater Treatment Plant (water)- An arrangement of pipes, equipment, devices, tanks and
structures for treating wastewater and industrial wastes. D A water pollution control
plant.
Water Audit (water) - A thorough examination of the accuracy of water agency records or
accounts (volumes of water) and system control equipment. Water managers can use
audits to determine their water distribution system efficiency. The overall goal is to
identify and verify water and revenue losses in a water system.
Water Cycle (water) -The process of evaporation of water into the air and its return to earth by
precipitation (rain or snow). This . process also includes transpiration from plants,
groundwater movement, and runoff into rivers, sheams and the ocean. Also called the
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE.
Water Hammer (water) -The sound like someone hammering on a pipe that occm:s when a
valve ' is opened or closed very rapidly. When a valve position is changed quickly, the
water pressure in a pipe will increase and decrease back and. forth very quickly. This rise
and fall in pressures can cause serious damage to the system.
Water Lance (water) - A pipe on the end of a water hose that is used to hydraulically jet out
solids.
Water Table (water) - The upper surface of the zone of saturation of groundwater in an
unconfined aquifer.
G -74
Water vapor (const) - Creates a pressure just like any other gas. Cold air has a relatively low
vapor pressure, while warm air (with larger amounts of water vapor) has a greate1
pressure. The difference in pressure cause the vapor to penetrate building materials in th
direction from high to low pressure
(water)- The region or land area that contributes to the drainage or catchment area
above a specific point on a stream or river.
Wayne Ball (water) - A spirally grooved, inflatable, semi-hard rubber ball designed for
hydraulic cleaning of sewer pipes. See BALLING and SEWER BALL.
Weather (const) - To degrade under the action of the weather. Also used to describe the
inclusion of a slight slope to throw off eg. on a sill
Weathering (const) - Action of weather in producing degradation; aging 2) Alternatively used
as a noun to describe a slight construction slope designed to throw off rainwater
Weir (water) - A wall or plate placed in an open channel and used to measure the flow of
water. The depth of the flow over the weir can be used to calculate the flow rate, or a chart
or conversion table may be used to convert depth to flow. 0 A wall or obstruction used to
control flow (from settling tanks and clarifiers) to ensure a uniform flow rate and avoid
short-circuiting.
Weir Loading (water) - A guideline used to determine the length of weir needed on settling
tanks and clarifiers in treatment plants. Used by operators to determine if weirs are
hydraulically (flow) overloaded.
Weir, Proportional (water) - A specially shaped weir in which the flow through the weir is
directly proportional to the head.
Well Isolation Zone (water) - The surface or zone a water well or well field,
supplying a public water system, with restricted land uses to prevent contaminants from a
not permitted land use to move toward and reach such water well or well field. Also see
WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREA (WHPA).
Well Log (water) - A record of the thickness and characteristics of the soil, rock and water-
bearing formations encountered during the drilling (sinking) of a well.
Well Point (water) - A hollow, pointed rod with a perforated (containing many small holes) tip.
A well poinl is driven into an excavation where water seeps into the tip and is pumped
out of the area. Used to lower the water table and reduce flooding during an excavation.
Well Protection Area (water) - The surface and subsurface area surrounding a water well or
well field, supplying a public water system, through which contaminants are reasonably
likely to move toward and reach such water well or well field. Also see WELL
ISOLATION ZONE.
Wet Oxidation (water) - A method of treating. or conditioning sludge before the water is
removed. Compressed air is blown into the liquid sludge. The air and sludge mixture is
fed Into a pressure vessel where the organic material is stabilized. The stabilized organic
material and inert (inorganic) solids are then separated from the pressure vessel effluent
by dewatering in lagoons or by mechanical means.
Wet Well (water) - A compartment or tank in which wastewater is collected. The suction pipe
of a pump may be connected to the wet well or a submersible pump may be located in the
wet well.
Wetted Perimeter (water) - The length of the wetted portion of a pipe or channel covered by
flowing water.
Wholesome Water (water)- A water that is safe and palatable for human consumption.
Winders (const) -Steps with tapered treads in sharply curved stairs.
Wire-To-Water Efficiency (water) - The combined efficiency of a pump and motor together.
Also called the OVERALL EFFICIENCY.
Wobble friction (const) - In prestressed concrete, friction caused by unintended deviation of
prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile.
Wrinkle (const) - Slight ridge caused by folding, rumpling or creasing. In roofing may refer to
the common wrinkled pattern that forms over the joints of insulation in insulated roof
systems. Similar to buckling
Wye Strainer (water)- A screen shaped like the letter Y. The water flows in at the top of theY
and the debris in the water is removed in the top part of theY.
Wythe (const)- Each continuous vertical section of a wall one masonry unit in thickness.
Yield (const) - Permanent deformation which a material undergoes when it is stressed beyond
its elastic limit
Yield strength (const) - Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in
mega pascals.
G- 76
GLOSSARY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TERII
INDEX
I- 1
Index
Aggregate, 1
Alignment chart, 239
Alternate design method, 357
Pt. 26,32
Balance design, 29
Bend, 11
Bond,157
Braced frame, 239
Brackets, 148
Bresler equation, 230
Bundled bars, 8, 11
Development of, 161
Coefficients for continuous beams
and slabs, 39
Coefficient of resistance, 28
Columns, 185
Axial load capacity of, 187
Axial load and bending, 203
Composite, 191
Structural steel encased
concrete core, 191
Economical design, 190
Spiral, 189
Limits of reinforcement, 189
Sizes and spacing of spirals, 189
Tied, 187
Limits of reinforcement, 188
Sizes and spacing of bars, 188
Types of, 1786
Columns, eccentrically loaded
Analysis of, 205
Axial plus bending in both axis, 229
Balanced loading, 207
diagram, 207
Columns, long, 237
Combined footing, 259
Concrete
Average strength, 6
Compressive strength of, 4
Heavyweight, 3
Lightweight, 2
Modulus of elasticity of, 3
Normal weight, 3
Proportion, 2
Concrete protection for reinforcement, 9
Corbels, 148
Cracking moment, Me,, 36
Deep beams, 111
Deflection of beam, 36
Maximum permissible, 38
Development length, 157, 171
Basic concept of, i58
Basic development length, 159, 161
Bundled bars, 161
Flexural reinforcement, 161
Hooks, 167
Modification factors
Tension bars, 160
Compression bars, 161
Negative mo01ent bars, 164
Positive moment bars, 162
Doubly reinforced beam, 106
Analysis of, 106
Steps in design of, 107
Steps in investigation of, 109
Dowels, 269
Earthquake load, 21
Effective length factors, 238
\
\
I -2
foundation, 259
Footing, 259
section, 263
Distribution of reinforcement, 265
Loads and reactions in, 262
Minimum depth of, 268
Shear in, 266
Types of, 259
Honeycomb, 1
Hooks, 11, 166
Development of, 167
Interaction diagram, 207
Isolated footing, 259
Loads, 11
Arrangement of, 12
Combination, 21
Dead load, 11
Live load, 12
Minimum roof loads, 14
Special loads, 14
Load factors, 21, 24
Load transfer from column to footing,
268
Long column, 185, 237
Long-term deflection 37
Mat foundation, 259
Minimum thickness of flexural
members, 35
Modulus of elasticity, 3
Modulus of rapture, 36
Moment magnifier method; 240
Biaxial bending, 243
Nominal moment, 28
Normal weight concrete, 3
One-way slab, 74
Maximum spacing of
reinforcement, 74
Steps in design, 75
Overreinforced design, 29
P-delta moment, 185
Pedestal, 185
Pile caps, 259
Plastic centroid, 204
Radius of gyration, 238
Reinforcement
Deformed, 7
Metal,6
Plain, 7
Spacing limits of, 8
Required strength, 21, 23
Secondary moment, 185
Shear and 22
Shear and diagonal tension, 125
Critical section for beam, 132
Footing, 266
IN DE)
Steps in vertical stirrup design, 133
Types of, 126
Shear friction design method, 148
Shear reinforcement, 130
Minimum amount of, 131
Spacing limits of, 131
Types of, 130
Shear span, 126
Shear strength provided by concrete,
127
Shear strength provided by
reinforcement, 129
Short column, 185
Short compression block, 185
Shrinkage reinforcement, 74
Singly reinforced beam, 27.
Steps in desigh, 33, 34
. Steps in investigation of, 34
INDEX
Slab
One-way, 74
Two-way, 335
Slenderness effects in columns, '237
Approximate evaluation of, '238
Consideration of, '239
Effective length factors, '238
Soil pressure, permissible, 261
Spacing of reinforcement, 8
Splices of reinforcement, 1567
Lap, 1568
Steel ratio p, 27, 29
Balanced, 30
Maximum,32
Minimum, 31, 32, 90
Stirrup, 129
Design yield strength, 130
Inclined, 129
Strain, .26
Strap footing, 324
Strength reduction factors, 22
Structural steel encased concrete core,
191
T-beams,87
Balanced and maximum steel area,
89
Minimum steel ratio, 90
Steps in design of, 93
Steps in investigation of, 95
With negative moment, 90
Temperature reinforcement, 74
Time-dependent factor, 37
Torsion, 128, 150
Details of reinforcement, 154
Minimum reinforcement, 1454
Spacing of reinforcement, 155
Torsional moment, 151
Trapezoidal footing, 315
Two-way slab, 335
Column and middle strips, 335
Direct design method, 338
Minimum thickness, 336
Ultimate moment, 28
Unbraced frame, '239
Underreinforced design, 29
Wall footing, 259
Water, 1
Potable, 2
Water-cement ratio, 4
Wind load, 21
Wind pressure, 15
Pressure coefficients for, 16
Working strength, 357
1- 3

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