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Part 11: E.F.
Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________
BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES:

BOOK 3: PART 11: SECTION 3: TOPICAL THEMES: E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE: ACOUSTIC DESIGN:
Mefferts Code: Acoustics
Edited by: Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim. Ebenergy Enterprises ISBN: 9966-784-52-7 Retail Price: Kshs. 1,990/- (US $35) Code: E3123
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 1 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________

BOOK 3: PART 11: SECTION 3: EDITOR: DEDICATION:
TO:
TOPICAL THEMES: E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE: ACOUSTIC DESIGN:
Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim.

My Family: Wife: Sons: Daughter: Hawa Abdulrasul Achu Ebrahim, Ebrahim & Imran Y. Ebrahim, Hannan Y. Ebrahim.
AND:
Thank you for your patience and perseverance during this period of turbulence and uncertainty. Also for your faith and belief in the ordained My Extended Family: To: My Late Mum: and Late Dad: Mrs. Lillian Lela Ebrahim Orloff. Mr. Ebrahim Atma Singh Hazara Singh. (01/05/1936 to 01/09/2000) (02/01/1934 to 04/06/2004)
Ebenergy Enterprises
Code: E3123 ISBN: 9966-784-52-7
Late: Elder Sister Shamim E.A. Abdulkayum, Her Children: Sabrina A.A. Abdulrahim, Abdulkadir Abdulkayum & Siraj Abdulkayum, Surviving Sister: Shama E. Matharu, Her Children: Simran Matharu, Sharman Matharu, Sonan Matharu & Sanny Matharu, Brother: Ayub H. Ebrahim & wife Dolat K.A. Ebrahim, Their Children: Deleila A. Ebrahim, Mariam A. Ebrahim & Arfan A. Ebrahim, Brother: Twalib H. Ebrahim & wife Sultana T. Ebrahim, Their Children: Saadah T. Ebrahim, Mohammed T. Ebrahim & Salmaan T. Ebrahim, Youngest Brother: Nazir H. Ebrahim. Forgive me for all my trespasses, excesses and for not achieving my potential. For Im only a mortal and Almighty God knows best for all of us.
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Yusuf H. Ebrahim can be contacted: Address: Ebenergy Enterprises, Unit 1, Ebrahim House, 4th Avenue Parklands, P.O. Box 34838, 00100 GPO Nairobi, Kenya. Website: www.ebenergy.net Email: info@ebenergy.net or yusuf@ebenergy.net or ebrahim@wananchi.com Email: ebrahim@uonbi.ac.ke Tel: +254 020 3751239 Mobile: +254 722513617.
Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Ebenergy Enterprises: Code: E3123 ISBN: 9966-784-52-7

First Published: 2007. Published and Printed by Ebenergy Enterprises.
BOOK 3: TOPICAL THEMES: PART 11:
E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE:

SECTION 3: ACOUSTIC DESIGN:
Edited by:
Yusuf H. Ebrahim,
BArch. Hons (Nbi), MPhil. (CANTAB), MAAK(A).
Nairobi, Kenya.
Forward Letter: Ebrahim, Sorry for the delay in providing comments on BK1: Part 6 Elementary Past Examination Papers1: 2008 E1600 that you sent to me on 10th December 2007. It provides good reading to students in regards to planning for subject, programme and revision for examinations that provides students with great challenges. It is a book that should be recommended to not only students of Architecture but also to students pursuing other disciplines of study. The introduction and preambles section has highlighted the evolution of architectural and building science education system in Kenya. The presentation makes an informed reading. The brief history of building science examination at the Department of Architecture and Building Science, University of Nairobi has covered the development that started in 1978 and is still continuing. Section 1.3 and 1.42 has not indicated what you intended to cover and the benefits that the readers are likely to derive. The Section 1.5 on General Examination Techniques is well presented, discussed and provides important limits to students. Part A: Past Examination Papers presents interesting information but fails to provide an in depth analysis that would assist students that are preparing for examples. You should have gone further to present the predictability in setting of examination questions as you strongly argued that examiners are usually restricted by the syllabus as they set examinations. Part B: Selective Model Answers: The section is incomplete but would present useful information to students to help them appreciate what examiners require of them when marking. Perhaps, a sample marking scheme with marks distribution would suffice. I have totally failed to find any relationship between Pages 27 433 and the previous Pages 6 264. In addition, there are grammatical and typographical errors that you will have to address.
Currently divided into 5 parts on an annual basis: Book 1: Part 6: Elementary Past Examination Papers: 2008 Code: E1600, Book 1: Part 6: Section 1: Year 1: 2008: Code: E1610, Book 1: Part 6: Section 2: Year 2: 2008: Code: E1620 (ISDN: 9966-784-55-1), Book 1: Part 6: Section 3: Year 3: 2008: Code: E1630 (ISDN: 9966-784-54-3), Book 1: Part 6: Section 4: Year 4: 2008: Code: E1640, Book 1: Part 6: Section 5: Year 5: 2008: Code: E1650 2 Section 1.3: Types of Examinations at the Departmental Level and Section 1.4: How to use this Book. 3 Building Science Text Book Series. 4 Main text of the manuscript given to Prof. Olima. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 5 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Otherwise, a very innovative idea that should be encouraged and supported. You may pick some of the views to form the forward that you required from me. Prof. Washington H.A. Olima, Dean, School of the Built Environment, University of Nairobi. 5th February 2008
Forward by Editor:
Professor Erich F. Meffert: (University of Nairobi: 1975 1989)
The Imperial College of East Africa was started around 1956 and The Department of Architecture was one of the departments located in the Nairobi (Kenya) campus. There seems to have been some understanding between the 3 colleges in East Africa on the distribution of departments and disciplines amongst the states, until the break up of the East African Union in the 1970s. The Department was housed in the current Gandhi Wing of the present Main Campus along University Way and was named The Gandhi Memorial Academy. Around 1965, Szokolay5 (S.V) and others joined the college and between April to July 1965, met and compiled reports on the curriculum to be undertaken by an architectural student and the professional examinations to follow. Distinguished scholars such as Koenigsberger6 (O.H) and Paul Oliver7 were invited to Nairobi and the work that follows formed global standards till this day. Zack Maleche8 joined the department as a fresher in 1974 and remembers the location and some of the lecturers of the time. One of these was Professor Carl H. Pinfold. Professor Pinfold seems to have been interested in Vision, Lighting, Acoustics Design and Noise Control. Between 4th November 1975 to around 1979, when he left the department, he wrote numerous articles on these subjects. Selbi Mvusi writes a 25 pages article on Visual Perception under the Department of Design. Around 1975, with the help of The Danish Government, a new building was built along State House Road to house 4 departments under the banner of Faculty of Architecture, Design and Development (FADD). Maleche notes that The Environmental Laboratory was located on the Ground Floor at the current location of the FADD Library. This would eventually be moved to the basement under a larger establishment with the help of the German Government. They also equipped the laboratory and provided research funding and technical assistance. Around 1974, Henry Wood comes to Nairobi from Newcastle upon Tyne University (Previously University of Durham) as a professor and gives his Inaugural Lecture at Taifa Hall (University of Nairobi) on 12th May 1976, entitled Synthesis in Design and Education. It would seem that with the movement of the department to the new building, he is also made The Chairman of The Department of Architecture after Professor Saad Yahya9 is elected as The Dean of The Faculty.
S.V. Szokolay is one of the authors of the legendary Manual of Tropical Housing and Building and is of interest to the editor in future publications. 6 Refer: Koenigsberger, O.H. et al. (1974): Manual of Tropical Housing and Building: Part One: Climatic Design. Longman, London. 7 Refer: Oliver, Paul (1971): Shelter in Africa. Barrie & Jenkins Ltd., London. 8 Probably the longest serving member of staff, Department of Urban & Regional Planning, School of the Built Environment, University of Nairobi. 9 Valuer and Planner in Kenya. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 8 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
5
An internal directory lists the staff of the faculty and shows a continental mix of nationalities at this time. Erich Meffert seems to have joined the department around 1975/6 to fill the gap in Architectural Science Section with Professor Pinfold. In April 1978, Dr. Erich Meffert writes a single page summary Environmental Science/Course Content. This is probably one of the first assignments that Meffert undertook after the departure of Pinfold and forms bases for his work at the university and broadens the course content to be offered to the students in the department. On 18th November 1976, E. Meffert wrote a 2 page article on the climates of Kenya. There seems to be a large amount of research publications emanating from staff of the department and from the associated Housing Research and Development Unit (HRDU) especially on housing and building science related issues. It is at this time that the legendary publication, Manual of Tropical Housing and Building: Part One: Climatic Design by O.H. Koenigsberger and others, was released and this seems to have a great impact on the future education on an architect. Meffert would refer biblically to this work and likewise for his architectural progeny. Around 1979, it would seem that Meffert is elevated to the post of Associate Professor. In Ole Frydensberg acknowledgements on his pamphlet entitled Alternative Design for Remote Regions: A Pre-fabricated Building Structure, he acknowledges the support received from the University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture, and in particular thanks to Associate Professor Erich Meffert for his creative interest and help. I joined the department in October 1980 as a fresher. As part of the course work, we received lectures in climatology, meteorology, geology, etc. from service lecturers from the other departments. My first encounter with Professor Meffert was in my second year (1981/2). Unfortunately, my class lost a year due to the university crises of 1982. Our class resumed the second year in 1983 and for the next two years, Professor Meffert attempted to recoup the time lost in the architectural science section. During those days, the undergraduate program took five academic years. Thereafter, one had to work under the tutelage of a practicing architect for two further years prior to sitting the professional examinations under the countrys registration body. Professor Wood leaves the university around 1983 and Dr. G. Hanjari takes over for a short time as chairman of the department. Thereafter Professor Meffert takes over the helm. In the academic year of 1985/6, I set my final year of the undergraduate program. Professor Meffert becomes my Thesis Tutor and Engineer Architect Mehraz Ehsani was my Project Tutor. I spent countless hours with Meffert in the laboratory, either discussing the procedures to be followed on the experiments or data collection. The results of this Endeavour, secured me a first
class honors degree, top position in the class of 1986, a Mutiso Menezes Award10 and a fully funded scholarship11 for a masters program to the prestigious University of Cambridge, UK. In my thesis acknowledgement, I wrote: The work of a teacher is quite demanding especially when students call on you at very strange occasions. Yet when an idea strikes you and help is needed, a helping hand and words of inspiration can turn those gloomy times into an atmosphere of complete ecstasy. I thanked Professor Meffert for his continued help during the experiments and compilation of the thesis and for his technical advise on the project. At Cambridge, we continued communication and he sent me relevant climatic data for the simulation work for my dissertation. In 1989, I wrote to him about my anticipated return to Kenya and my letter was replied by the new chairman, Mr. Kamau Karogi. Meffert had left the university and there was a vacancy which Kamau was offering to me. I replied in the affirmative and after landing in Nairobi in late 1989, finalizing my marital vows to my spouse, took the lectureship position in 1990. It is interesting when thinking in hindsight, that my academic life has been influenced by man like Meffert and that I owe it to them to continue the mission. Generally speaking, between 1978/9, Meffert compiled the bulk of his lecture notes and curricula. He communicated with different peers and requested for waiver of rights to publish materials for academic purposes. Authors who waived rights include P. Dequekers Shadow and Solar Charts (1979), Antony Sealeys Climatology Notes (1979), etc. He also lobbied for funding to equip the environmental laboratory and library from donors including the German Government. He undertook experimental work with different organizations, either through the Environmental Laboratory Platform or through associates like the HRDU. Between 1980 to 1986, he modified these to reflect current knowledge and trends. It is during this period that he wrote legendary pieces of work like that on Hygrothermal Comfort (1980), Lamu (1980), Nairobis Heat Island (1981), Climatic Design of Kenya (1981) and Climatic Site Analysis (1986). It is at this time that administratively, he was very busy with his chairmanship and as such, had to deal with other architectural issues. 1987 to 1989 seems to be an era of collaborations for Meffert. He writes numerous articles with other authors, culminating with and article in 1989 (Published in Professor R.A. Obudhos African Urban Quarterly in Volume 5, Number 1 & 2, February & May 1990 edition), entitled Zanzibar Stone town: A Place of Many Seasons. It was only befitting that Professor Meffert moves his work to Zanzibar after this and that is another story for the future. November 2007
10 11
Yusuf H. Ebrahim.
Both a certificate of recognition and cash award. Cambridge Commonwealth Award. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 10 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Introduction of this Section by the Editor: Section 3: Acoustic Design:
It is said that for one to move forward into the future with confidence, he or she must make peace with the past. This is most apt with scientific and research work. Consequently, Im compelled to record the work of Professor Meffert while at the University of Nairobi (UON) in Four Volumes. Professor Mefferts Work falls in 3 categories. Firstly, is the period 1975 to 1979, which generally covers the bulk of lecture notes and curriculum development. These are covered in Section 1, 2 and 3 of this Part 11 (E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code). Secondly, the period between 1980 through to 1984 is seen as a period marked with modifications to the original scripts to reflect the than current schools of thought and trends. Further, during this period, he seeks permission from various authors to reproduce various publications for research and teaching or academic purposes. The third period is a time where he collaborates with others to synthesize his thoughts and venture into new horizons. Environmental Science Notes 1 through to 11 of this section fall within the first period of Mefferts life at UON. These were lecture notes that he prepared and circulated to the students and which he continued to modify over the period. ES Notes 5 was authored by Professor H.C. Pinfold and ES Note 4 was authored by Mwaniki wa Gichia & others. Mwaniki had a stint at UON between 1989 95. Strictly speaking, ES Note 1, 2, 3, 7, 10 & 11 were modified by Meffert between 1980 86 and fall within the second period and reflect the reproduction and modification of various articles and publications for limited circulation under copyright. There are also articles in collaboration and solely done for experimentation purposes ES Note 13, 14 & 15. ES Note 16 illustrates method of incorporating design techniques in studio based programs. ES Note 12 is by the editor and shows the techniques and procedures developed by the same. Further work has been done by associates of the editor and is presented in other arenas. ES Note 17 is also by the editor and shows the state of the Environmental Laboratory which Meffert equipped. There is an attempt to digitize the equipment and bring it in line with recent improvements by the
editor. ES Note 18 was authored by Professor Pinfold for use of Sound Measuring Instrument. ES Note 19 presents computer softwares developed by the editor based on his experiences with Professor Meffert and is used to bridge the technological divide. ES Note 20 is tables and data that Meffert collected. I must admit that this experience has been an enlightening one and which I would like to share with ours. The presentation is done as is, with Mefferts sketches in an unedited and non-modified form. This attempt seeks to record the work of the author, without making any unbiased judgment and allows the reader to reflect and seek their own destiny. In future editions, I hope to edit and modify the same, filling in the gaps and show current thought. The section is presented in the form of Environmental Science Notes as follows: ES Note 1: Properties of Sound: Objective and subjective sound, human ear sensitivity, inverse square law and acoustical sensation. Process of Hearing: Frequency response of ear, equal loudness contours, phon scale, decibel scale, effects of noise, background noise and recommended acoustic standard. Behavior of Sound: Sound reflection and absorption, surface treatment, volume and reverberation time. Acoustic Design and Noise Control: Noise criteria, how to design, detail and specification for propagation of noise. Acoustic criteria, design of auditoria, detailing and specifications. Room Acoustics and Noise Criteria of Building Materials: Sound reduction and principles. Planning, detailing and specification in relation to noise criteria. Outdoor and Indoor Noise Control: Dealing with structure borne and impact sound. Design of Auditoriums: Issues of adequate loudness, uniform distribution, optimum reverberation, checking and remedy to acoustic defects, standards for adequate acoustics.
ES Note 2:
ES Note 3:
ES Note 4:
ES Note 5:
ES Note 6: ES Note 7:
ES Note 8:
Definition of Terms: Issues of intimacy, presence, liveness, warmth, loudness, brilliance, balance, blend, ensemble, freedom from echo and noise. Noise Control: Classification of noise controls, urban noise and mitigating mechanisms. Design for Sound Insulation: Protection against airborne sound and transmission loss, single leaf and multileaf partitions, construction techniques for noise control. Noise Criteria: Background noise level, noise criterion curves and worked examples. Prediction Methods and Calculations: Reverberation calculations and worked example. Noise Control and Material Testing: Room Acoustics and Reverberation Time in Auditoriums: Case study method: Block Courses and Seminars with Outside Participation: Studio Programs: Implementation of Theoretical and Practical Knowledge into Studio Design Projects. Introduction of Research Facilities: Environmental Laboratory and Workshop, Department of Architecture & Building Science, University of Nairobi. Measuring Instruments: Sound survey using the B&K Type 2203 Precision Sound Level Meter. Computer Applications: Presents Ebacoustics Software.
ES Note 11: ES Note 12: ES Note 13: ES Note 14: ES Note 15: ES Note 16:
ES Note 17:
ES Note 20:
Appendix: ADDENDUM: GLOSSORY: Added by the editor. Added by the editor.
SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: BASIC SI UNITS: Added by the editor. LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS: REFERENCES: November 2007 Added by the editor. Added by the editor. Yusuf H. Ebrahim.
Introduction of the other Authors mentioned in this section by the Editor: Asante, Yaw: Dequeker, Paul: Ehsani, Mehraz: Hanjari, Dr. G: Karogi, Kamau: Koenigsberger, O.H12: Extracts from Dennis Sharps Obituary to the Architect best known for his works on Tropical Architecture: Born in Berlin in 1908, Koenigsberger studied architecture for five years at the Technical University Berlin under the influential German Architect and teacher Professor Hans Poelzig and the key Functionalist Architect Bruno Taut. After periods working in Berlin and in Cairo researching and excavating the Temple of Thotmes III in Thebes he moved to India in 1939. In Mysore State he served for 9 years as Chief Architect and Planner before his appointment as the first Director of Housing under Nehrus new government, involved in housing and new towns. It seems he had much to do with the choice of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew for the housing, and Le Corbusier to prepare the overall plan and design of the civil buildings in Chandigarh, the new capital city of Punjab. His most important work was on low-cost housing development, action planning (community based schemes supported by government agencies) and tropical architecture. Some work in this field had already been started by Fry and Drew with their books on tropical architecture. In 1957 due to pressure of work in West Africa, Maxwell Fry passed on the headship of the new graduate school for tropical architecture at the Architectural Association (later the Development Planning Unit (DPU) at University College) to Koenigsberger. With DPU he took part in numerous important UN, governmental and educational missions and workshops that ranged from housing refugees in India to an extensive resettlement project in Ghana for the Volta Dam.
12
Digested from: The Independent, Obituaries 13th January 1999 (CAA Website: www.archexchange.org). _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 15 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Koenigsbergers classic textbook the Manual of Tropical Housing and Building was published in 1974 and prepared jointly with colleagues T.G. Ingersoll, A. Mayhew, and S.V. Szokolay. It still sells 1,000 copies a year in India. Maleche, Zack: Mvusi, Selbi: Environmental Science Note 2 was authored by Selby Mvusi (Visual Perception: In relation to external and internal field, function, relation and controls in design development). An Internet Search13 reveals that Selby Mvusi was an Artist and Political Activist who died in a car accident in Nairobi on 10th December 1967. This information is captured in Feature Timeline: South African Art: Culture & Society Magazine on the book, Protest Art in South Africa 1968 1976: A Study of its Production, Context and Reception. It is not clear from historical records when Selbi Mvusi was in The University of East Africa. Obudho, Professor R.A: Oliver, Paul: Pinfold, Professor Carl H: Sealey, Antony: Szokolay, S.V: Wood, Professor Henry14: Professor Wood is a native of Belfast in Northern Ireland, although he grew up in the almost rural context of the small provincial town. As a consequence, over the years, he has developed a consciousness concerning the environmental contrasts between small knit communities and those of very large towns and cities. From a very early age Professor Wood has felt deeply about things which have had a bearing upon his life and his work ever since. He believes in the uniqueness of man as an individual whose ability and motivation in life know no boundaries. He also believes that this potential is a powerful force in society as a whole which must have expression, and that given adequate liberation will lead to untold harmony.
www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology. Brief history as given in his 9th Inaugural Lecture, Synthesis in Design and Education, University of Nairobi, Taifa Hall, 12 May 1976. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 16 of 168
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Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes:
Yusuf H. Ebrahim
He sees the Arts, the Sciences, and other forms of life as avenues leading to such expression, and Architecture itself as the environmental crucible for such liberation. Professor Woods own interest activities over the years reflect something of this philosophy. He has always had an interest in the Sciences as well as Arts and has studied both, though the former to a much lesser extent. During the early War years he studied Civil Engineering at Queens University Belfast, before entering his chosen career in Architecture. Commencing in the College of Art, Belfast, he completed his studies at the College of Art in Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1946 and received the Royal Institute of British Architects Silver Medal in 1947, and the year when he took up a Post Graduate Scholarship in Planning. Whilst a student, Professor Wood enjoyed both work and play. He boxed, ran and swum for his University and today one of his greatest forms of release is deep sea long distance swimming. He become President of the SRC in his final year at Edinburgh and was soon to be among students once more when he took his first teaching post as lecturer at Kings College, University of Durham, in 1950. The College later become known as the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, from whose School of Architecture Professor Wood come to Nairobi, some two years ago. During his career as a teacher Professor Wood vigorously involved himself in Practice indeed was thrust into a long period of responsibility by his own university, when he was architect to the rehabilitation of most of the main campus, including the onerous task of designing the new School of Architecture in the old quadrangle of the university. His work in practice has scaled from furniture design, buildings and redevelopment to participation in the design of one of the new towns in the North East of England. Professor Woods interests on the Science side are best seen in his activities as an amateur astronomer, which are linked with his fascination for mans endeavors in space. A fellow member of the British Interplanetary Society since 1962, he was a Founder member of an Astronomical Society in the North East of England. He has designed several observatories including one which houses a 2 ton telescope. His great interest was ultimately rewarded when he become the designer of the University Geophysics Research Station to which the Apollo Mission Moon Rocks were actually brought and tested. Professor Wood is married, his Edinburgh born wife is a graduate in Design and his son a musician and composer.
Two years in Kenya (Since 1974) have helped Professor Wood to the conclusion that the climate has its extremes but is superb for astronomy, the valleys and mountains are physically tough but rewardingly beautiful, the coral reefs are skirted by sharks but still invite total immersion, and most challenging of all her students the reason for coming in the first place! Yahya, Professor Saad:

BOOK 3: PART 11: SECTION 3: TOPICAL THEMES: E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE: ACOUSTIC DESIGN:
CONTENT: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 1: PROPERTIES OF SOUND: Objective and Subjective Sound: Frequency: Wavelength: Human Ear Sensitivity: Sound Pressure: Loudness: Threshold of Audibility: Threshold of Pain: Inverse Square Law: Acoustical Sensation: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 2: PROCESS OF HEARING: Frequency Response of the Ear and Loudness: Equal Loudness Contours: The Phon Scale: The Sone and Phon Scales: Equal Loudness Contours: Octave Band Sound Pressure and Frequency Levels: The Measurement of Noise The Sound Level Meter and Weightings Scales: Sound and Distance The Inverse Square Law: Sound Pressure and Loudness: The Decibel Scale: Sound Intensity: Sound Power: Sound Pressure Level and NR Curves: Examples: Addition of Decibels: Recommended Acoustic Standards: Acoustic Sensation: Effects of Noise: Background Noise or Noise Criteria: Sound Pressure Level (S.P.L.) of different NC-Curves at Particular Frequencies: Acceptable Range of NC Levels: Recommended Range of Values for Relatively Steady Background Sound Levels:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 3: BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND: Sound Reflection and Absorption: Surface Treatments: Room Contents: Air Volume: Sound Absorption Co-efficient: Example: Sound Diffusion and Diffraction: Sound Diffusion: Sound Diffraction: Reverberation: Reverberation Time: Absorption Coefficient: Addition of Absorption: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 4: NOISE CONTROL: INTRODUCTION: Need for Noise Criteria: Categorization of Criteria: Criteria Elements: TYPES OF CRITERIA: Criteria for Steady Background: Application: Criteria for Variable Noise: Application: Criteria for Speech: Application: SOUND INSULATION: Composite Partitions: ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION: Types of Absorbers: Important Points: ROOM ACOUSTICS: AUDITORIA: Important Considerations: Calculation of Reverberation Time: Multipurpose Auditoria: URBAN NOISE: Transport Noise: Road Traffic Noise:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ NOISE CRITERIA: Types of Criteria: Sound Insulation: Composite Partitions: TRANSPORT NOISE: URBAN NOISE: Effects of Noise: Sleep Disturbance: Speech Interference: SURFACE REACTION TO NOISE: Annoyance: Attitudes: Cognitive Factors: Transport Noise: Aircraft Noise: Railway Noise: TRAFFIC NOISE: Percentile Noise Levels: Prediction of Traffic Noise: Important Considerations: Protection from Traffic Noise: RECOMMENDATIONS OF NOISE LEVELS: ROOM ACOUSTICS: AUDITORIA: Important Considerations: Geometry and Volume: Early Reflections: Points to note in Early Reflections: Absorption of Sound: General Layout of Materials: Reverberation Time: Background Levels: DESIGN STRATEGY IN ROOM ACOUSTICS FOR AUDITORIA: MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIA: ASSISTED RESONANCE (Electric Acoustics): BUILDING ACOUSTICS AND NOISE: Introduction:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ REVERBERATION TIME: Egring Formula: Measurement of Reverberation Time: ABSORPTION: Porous Absorbers: Panel Absorbers: Cavity Resonator: APPLICATION OF ABSORBERS: Types of Absorbers in Market: Combinative Use of Absorbers: Protection of Porous Absorbers: Absorption by People and Furniture: Absorption and Insulation: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 5: ROOM ACOUSTICS: Sound Reduction: Sound Reduction Principles: NOISE CRITERIA OF BUILDING MATERIALS: Common Building Types and Spaces requiring Quiet Conditions: Common Weaknesses in Building Elements: Absorption Coefficients: Common Building Materials and Absorption Coefficients: Sound Absorption: Relative Efficiency of Sound Absorbing Materials: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 6: NOISE CONTROL OUTDOORS/INDOORS: Structure Borne Sound: Impact Sound: Vibrating Equipment: Principles for Isolating Structure Borne Sound: Resilient Floors: Rigid Structures: Machine Rooms: Ducts: Floor-ceiling Constructions for Impact Isolation: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 7: DESIGN OF AUDITORIUMS: Adequate Loudness: Uniform Distribution: Optimum Reverberation:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Diminuation of any Acoustical Defects: Exclusion of Noises and Vibrating Interfering with any Performance: Recommended Volume-per-seat Values for various Types of Auditoriums: Acceptable Intrusive Noise Levels: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 8: DEFINATIONS OF THE TERMS: Intimacy or Presence: Liveness: Warmth: Vocabulary of Subjective Attributes of Musical-acoustic Quality: Loudness of the Direct Sound: Loudness of the Reverberant Sound: Definition or Clarity: Brilliance: Balance: Blend: Ensemble (Ease of Hearing among Performers): Freedom from Echo: Freedom from Noise: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 9: NOISE CONTROL: Generally: Classification of Noise Control: Interior Noise: Outdoor Noise: Airborne Noise: Structure-borne Sound: Impact Noise or Vibrations: Urban or Environmental Noise: Mitigating Mechanisms: Specific Solutions: Organisation: Sound-absorptive Treatment: Masking Noise: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 10: DESIGN FOR SOUND-INSULATION: Protection against Airborne Sound: Transmission Loss: Single-leaf Partitions: Mass Law: Multiple Partition: Franking Partition: Impact Noise:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Sound-insulating Building Constructions: Noise Criterion (NC) Level: Noise Criterion Curves: Optimum Performance of Elements: Walls: Floors/Ceilings: Doors and Movable Partitions: Windows: SOUND INSULATION: Transmission Loss Data for Common Building Constructions: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 11: NOISE CRITERIA: Background Noise Level: Noise Criterion (NC) Curves: Example: Criteria for Residential Buildings: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 12: PREDICTION METHODS/CALCULATIONS: CINEMA: Reverberation Calculation: Cinemas: Monophonic Sound: Cinemas: Stereophonic Sound: Cinema: Reverberation Calculations: Cinema: Drawings: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 13: NOISE CONTROL: MATERIAL TESTING: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 14: ROOM ACOUSTICS: REVERBERATION TIME IN AUDITORIUMS: Donovan Theatre: National Theatre: Kenyatta Conference Centre: Bomas of Kenya: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 15: BLOCK COURSES/SEMINARS WITH OUTSIDE PARTICIPATION: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 16: IMPLEMENTATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE INTO STUDIO DESIGN PROGRAMMES (STUDIO): ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 17: Environmental Laboratory and Workshop:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Department of Architecture & Building Science, University of Nairobi: Environmental Laboratory: Environmental Workshop: Main Space: Acoustic Dead Room: Instrument Room: Environmental Library: Manual Equipment: Digital & Analogue Equipment: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 18: MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: Sound Survey Using the B&K Type 2203 Precision Sound Level Meter: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 19: COMPUTER SOFTWARES: Ebacoustics Software: Ebacoustics Res Det 2007 Version: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 20: APPENDIX: APPENDIX 1: Acoustical Sensation: APPENDIX 2: Effects of Noise: APPENDIX 3: Recommended Background Noise or Noise Criteria: APPENDIX 4: S.P.L. (dB-A) of different NC-Curves at Particular Frequencies: APPENDIX 5: Recommended Acoustic Standards: APPENDIX 6: Acceptable Intrusive Noise Levels: APPENDIX 7: Recommended NC Levels for Various Environments: APPENDIX 8: Equivalent dB(A) Traffic Noise Level: APPENDIX 9: Increase or Reduction by Change or Distance: APPENDIX 10: Reduction by Buildings: APPENDIX 11: Reduction by Shrubs and Trees: APPENDIX 12: Influence by Wind: APPENDIX 13: Reduction by Noise Shadowing: APPENDIX 14: Some Typical Sound Pressure Levels in Some Common Environments: APPENDIX 15: Typical Noise Level Data in Decibels: APPENDIX 16: BZ Classification Reference Curves: APPENDIX 17: L. Doelle Classification: Sound Absorption Coefficients of Building Materials, Acoustical Materials and Room Contents: APPENDIX 18: J.E. Moore Classification: Sound Absorption Coefficients of Building Materials, Acoustical Materials and Room Contents: APPENDIX 19: Equal Loudness Contours: APPENDIX 20: Octave Band Sound Pressure level and Octave Band Centre Frequency: APPENDIX 21: Sound Absorption Coefficient of Building Materials, Acoustical Materials and Room Contents.
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ADDENDUM: GLOSSORY: SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: BASIC SI UNITS LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS: REFERENCES:
1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 1:

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: PROPERTIES OF SOUND: By E. Meffert (1984/85), Department of Architecture.
One has to differentiate between Objective Sound and Subjective Sound.
1.1 PROPERTIES OF SOUND:
The first is the fluctuation in pressure15, while the second is a physiological sensation evoked by physical fluctuation as above. In general we are dealing with the second one16. Its speed is circa 344 m/sec.
1.2 Objective and Subjective Sound:
1.3 Frequency:
The number of oscillations in 1 second is called Frequency. Each complete oscillation is called a Cycle. The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz), which means number of cycles per second. Frequency is an objective physical figure to be measured by acoustical instrumentation. The distance a sound wave travels during each cycle is called Wavelength17. The wavelength within 20 to 10,000 Hz ranges from 17m to 25mm. This is important in the acoustical design of auditoriums.
1.4 Wavelength:
1.5 Human Ear Sensitivity:

The Human Ear responds to an audio-frequency range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. Most sounds as speech, music, noise contain different frequencies18. The standard frequencies selected in environmental acoustics are 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 Hz. Most sounds are Complex19 Tones20, the Lowest of which is called Fundamental, while the Higher Ones are Partials or Overtones.
15 16
That means: a particle displacement in an elastic medium like air for instance. That means: an auditory sensation created by fluctuations in air pressure and passing through the ear. 17 That means: Speed of Sound or Frequency. 18 That means: Low-, Medium-, and High-frequency components. 19 That means: They contain several additional frequencies. 20 A Tone is a Sound Sensation of a Single Frequency. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 27 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Simple integral multiples are called Harmonies. The overtones add distinctive qualities to the tone, which contribute to the tone colour21 of the musical sound.
1.6 Sound Pressure:

The fluctuation in the atmospheric pressure caused by vibration of air particles due to a sound wave is called Sound Pressure. It is measured on a logarithmic scale, called the Decibel (dB) Scale. The unit of this scale, the decibel, is the smallest change in sound pressure that the ear can detect. Sound Pressure Levels are measured by a Sound Level Meter.
Loudness is the subjective impression of an auditory sensation. The phon is the unit of loudness level. The phon scale takes into account the varying sensitivity of the ear to sounds of different frequencies. A 10 dB increase means doubling of loudness; a 20 dB increase equals a quadrupling of loudness (See Table 1.1).
1.7 Loudness:
The minimum audible Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is called Threshold of Audibility.
1.8 Threshold of Audibility:
1.9 Threshold of Pain: The SPL of a sound which stimulates the ear to the point of pain is called Threshold of Pain. In between pressure is increased 1 Million Times. In general the ear is less sensitive to Low than High Frequency Sounds.
Sound sources radiate sound waves in all directions, but the radiation pattern will vary with the frequency of the emitted sound wave. In a field free from reflecting surfaces a sound wave travels outward from its source in a spherical wave front; consequently its energy is spread over an extending surface. Since the area of a sphere is proportional to the square of the radius, the intensity of sound at any point is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source to the point Inverse Square Law. When there are no reflecting surfaces, the reduction of sound intensity can be regarded as 6 dB each time the distance from the source is doubled.
1.10 Inverse Square Law:
21
Or Timbre. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 28 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
1.11 Acoustical Sensation:
Table 1.1:
Showing Sound, Decibels and Acoustical Sensation Relationship.

Ref: L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, New York 1972, P.16.

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE EAR AND LOUDNESS: By E. Meffert (1986/87), Department of Architecture.
2.1 PROCESS OF HEARING: 2.2 Frequency Response of the Ear and Loudness:
The human ear can detect sounds at all frequencies within the audible range. However, it is not equally sensitive at all frequencies, and equal sound pressure levels at different frequencies will produce different sensations of loudness. In fact, the ear is most sensitive in the 2 KHz to 5 KHz range, and least sensitive at extremely high and low frequencies. Also this phenomenon is more pronounced at low sound pressure levels than at high sound pressure levels.
A family of curves known as Equal Loudness Contours illustrates the subjective responses of subjects to various sound pressure levels. The curves are labeled in Phons, the basic unit of loudness.
2.3 Equal Loudness Contours:
The phon scale measures loudness independently of frequency and it is such that at 1000 Hz the phon level is the same as the decibel level. For instance a sound pressure level of 120 dB has a loudness of 120 phons. That is, the phon value coincides with the dB Value at 1000 Hz but differs at all other frequencies (See Figure 1.1). We can see from the equal loudness contours that the ear is much less sensitive at very low and very high frequencies. For instance a sound pressure level of 40 dB at 1000 Hz produces a loudness of 40 phons; for the same sensation of loudness a pure tone at 1000 Hz would have a sound pressure level of 52 dB and at 8000 Hz a SPL of 50 dB. The threshold of audibility at 1000 Hz is 0 dB; at 50 Hz it is 41 dB. As noted earlier, the sensitivity of the human ear to frequency is more pronounced at low SPLs than at high SPLs. For instance, a sound at 30 Hz would have to be about 50 dB higher than a sound at 1000 Hz to be judged equally as loud. But when the SPL is over about 80 dB at 1000 Hz the level at 30 Hz which would be judged equally as loud, would be only 15 dB higher.
2.4 The Phon Scale:
The negative values of sound pressure levels on the threshold of audibility curve between 2000 and 5000 Hz show that the ear is capable of detecting sound pressures which are less than the reference pressure 2 x 10-5 N/m2. That is, at low levels of intensity the ear is considerably more sensitive to frequencies, especially between 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz. On the whole, it is advantageous that the ear is more sensitive to sounds in the frequency range between about 400 Hz and 5000 Hz which is essential for speech intelligibility and for the full enjoyment of music.
The phon scale is quite arbitrary but is convenient because of its relation to decibels (at 1 KHz). However, the logarithmic nature of this scale makes comparisons between different loudness difficult; the units are not conveniently additive for different sounds. Another scale, the Sone Scale was established which overcomes this difficulty. It has an arithmetic character and, thus, a sound of 4 sones is twice as loud as a sound of 2 sones. In the phon scale, a doubling of loudness level corresponds to a difference of about 10 phons. A sone is defined as the loudness equivalent to a loudness level of 40 phons. The relationship between phons and sones is as follows:
2.5 The Sone and Phon Scales:
Log10S = 0.03P 1.2

Where: S = Loudness in sones and P = Loudness in phons.
2.6 Equal Loudness Contours:
Figure 2.1: Equal Loudness Contours.

2.7 Octave Band Sound Pressure and Frequency Levels: 2.8 The Measurement of Noise The Sound Level Meter and Weightings Scales:
Sound propagation in air can be compared to waves in water. The waves spread uniformly in all directions, decreasing in amplitude as they move from the source. In a free field22, the sound wave travels from its source in a spherical wave front. Consequently, its energy is spread over a continuously extending surface. Sound intensity I, is the energy passing through unit area per unit time in the direction of travel. Since the area of sphere is proportional to the square of its radius, the intensity of sound at any point is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source to that point. This is known as the Inverse Square Law in architectural acoustics. It is thus seen that for every doubling of the distance from the source, the sound intensity decreases to one quarter of the original intensity. This corresponds to a decrease of 6 dB in sound pressure level and intensity for every doubling of the distance from the source. Thus a speech giving 60 dB at a distance of 3m will give an SPL of 54 dB at 6m, 48 dB at 12m, 42 dB at 24m, etc. This explains the inadequate loudness noticeable at the remote seats of every large auditorium.
2.9 Sound and Distance The Inverse Square Law:
2.10 Sound Pressure and Loudness:

Sound is generated when a vibrating body causes pressure variations in the air. The greater the amount of physical energy applied to generate the sound, the greater the movement of the vibrating body and the greater also is the amplitude. The greater, then, will be the compression of the air molecules, the greater the pressure on the ear drum and the louder the sound. The ear responds to a very wide range of sound pressures, although the sound pressures themselves are very small. For instance, at a frequency of 1000 Hz, the Threshold of Audibility23 occurs at a sound pressure of about 3 x 10-5 N/m2; the Threshold of Pain24, which is the pressure at which the ear begins to hurt, is about 30 N/m2. The range of sounds which can be heard varies by a million times in their air pressure. Measuring sound pressure on a standard scale over this wide range will be awkward to deal with. Moreover,
22 23
Free from reflecting surfaces. i.e. The quietest sound that an average person can just hear. 24 Note: The normal atmospheric pressure is 105 N/m2. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 32 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
the ear does not respond equally to changes of sound pressure at all levels of intensity; infact, the ear responds to proportional changes in sound pressure.
2.11 The Decibel Scale:

Owing to the foregoing, it is convenient to measure sound pressures on a relative or logarithmic scale. This scale is called the Decibel Scale. The sound pressures are then compared with a reference value. The decibel scale is, therefore, not an absolute scale but a simple comparative scale relating two different pressures. The sound pressure measured on this scale is called The Sound Pressure Level and is defined as follows: Sound Pressure Level (dB) = 20 Log10P/Po Where P is the pressure being compared and Po is the reference pressure, usually taken as 2 x 10-5 N/m2. Thus if the pressure of a noise is 2 N/m2, the SPL is 100dB. The use of the decibel scale therefore reduces the scale of sound pressure of 1:106 to the sound pressure level of 0 to 120 dB. The decibel scale also fits approximately the human perception of the loudness of sound which is approximately proportional to the logarithm of the sound energy.
2.12 Sound Intensity:

The passage of sound waves is accompanied by a flow of sound energy. The energy passing through unit area per unit time in the direction of travel is referred to as the Intensity of the sound. Its unit is Watts per square metre or W/m2. There is a direct relationship between intensity and pressure; intensity I is directly proportional to the square of the pressure P - i.e:
I P2
In fact, the intensity is defined as:
I = P2/Pe
Where P is the density of the medium, and e is the velocity of sound in the medium. The product Pe is called the Acoustic Impedance of the medium. Sound intensity levels are expressed in decibels above a reference level. The lowest sound intensity that the normal ear can detect is about 10-12 W/m2 the highest intensity that the normal ear can
withstand is about 10 W/m2. On the decibel scale, the sound intensity is decibels is expressed as: Sound Intensity Level:
I = 10log10I/Io (dB)
Where: I is the intensity being compared, and Io is the reference intensity (Io = 10-12 W/m2).
Any sound source has a characteristic sound power which is a measure of the energy output of the sound source. The sound power is a fundamental physical property of the source alone and it is therefore an important absolute parameter which is widely used for rating and comparing sound sources. On the other hand the sound pressure levels the source gives rise to depend on many external factors, e.g. distance, temperature and the environment. The average sound power generated by sound sources is very, very small. For instance, in a typical room, a man speaking produces sound power between 10 and 50 microwatts to make himself adequately heard. Also it will require 4 million people speaking loudly to produce enough power to burn a single 40W Bulb! The sound power level has also been put on a logarithmic scale relative to a standard power level. The sound power level is defined as: Sound Power Level:
2.13 Sound Power:
SWL = 10log10W/Wo (dB)

2.14 Examples:
Decibels may not be combined by simple addition.
If the intensity of a sound source is 1000 times the reference intensity Io, the Sound Intensity Level (SIL) will be: SIL (dB) = 10Log10I/Io = 10Log101000 Io/Io = 10Log101000 = 30 dB.
2.15 Examples 1:
2.16 Examples 2: The change in sound pressure level if the sound pressure is doubled is:
SPL1 SPL2 = 20Log102P/Po 20Log10P/Po = 20Log102P/P = 20Log102 = 6 dB.
The change in sound power when the sound power is doubled is: SWL1 SWL2 = 10Log102W/Wo 10Log10W/Wo = 10Log2W/W = 10Log2 = 3 dB.
2.17 Examples 3:
Similarly, when intensity is doubled, the change is sound intensity level is 3 dB.
2.18 Sound Pressure Level and NR Curves:
Figure 2.2: Noise Criteria (NC) Curves.
Figure 2.3: Noise Reduction (NR) Curves.
2.19 Addition of Decibels:

The following table may be used for the addition of decibels:
Difference between the two levels (d): Add to higher level (dB): 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.2 1 0.8 8 0.6 9 0.5 10 or more: 0
Basic Outdoor Criterion25 for Residential Areas:
2.20 Recommended Acoustic Standards:
Correction for: _______________________________________________________________________________ Rural residential, zones of hospital, recreation: 0 Sub-urban residential, little road traffic: +5 Urban residential: +10 Residential urban with some workshops or with business or with main roads: +15 City (business, trade, administration): +20 Predominantly industrial area (heavy industry): +25 Further corrections, which concern the time of day: _______________________________________________________________________________ Day time: 0 Evening: -5 Night time: -10 to -15 In the case of indoor spaces, the above valves may be converted into internal criteria by the application of the following approximate corrections for the insulation of facades with windows: _______________________________________________________________________________ Windows open: -10 Single window shut: -15 Double windows shut or non-openable windows: -20 If measured values for faade insulation are available these should be substituted. In addition, the criterion should not be set below 20 dB(A).
25
Acc. To International Standards Organization (ISO): 35 to 45 dB(A). _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 36 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
For noise in non-residential rooms the following internal criteria are proposed: _______________________________________________________________________________ Larger office, business store, department store, meeting room, quiet restaurant: 35 Larger restaurant, secretarial office (typewriter): 45 Larger typing hall: 55 Workshops (according to intended use): 45 to 75
Ref: J.R. Hassall & K. Zaweri, Application of Bruel & Kjaer Equipment to Acoustic Noise Measurements, Naerum 1978.
Some more indoor standards: _______________________________________________________________________________ Residential: Bedroom, private house: 25 Bedroom, flat: 30 Bedroom, hotel: 35 Living room: 40 Commercial: Private office: 35 45 Bank: 40 50 Conference room: 40 45 General office, shop, store: 40 55 Restaurant: 40 60 Cafeteria: 50 60 Industrial: Precision workshop: 40 60 Heavy workshop: 60 90 Laboratory: 40 50 Educational: Lecture room, classroom: 30 40 Private study: 20 35 Library: 35 45 Health: Hospital, public ward: 25 35 Hospital, private ward: 20 25 Operating theatre: 25 30 Auditoria: Concert hall: 25 35 Church: 35 40 Court room, conference room: 40 45 Recording studio: 20 25 Radio studio: 20 30 Theatre for drama: 30 40
Ref: Manual of tropical housing & building, Part I Climatic Design, London 1974.
2.21 Acoustic Sensation: Sound: Decibel: Acoustical Sensation: _______________________________________________________________________________ Jet take-off: Artillery fire: 130 Riveting: 120 Deafening. Sonic boom: Orchestra music fortissimo: 110 Rock band: 100 Truck unmuffled: Loud street noise: 90 Very loud. Police whistle: 80 Noisy office: Quiet typewriter: 70 Loud. Average radio: 60 Noisy home: Average conversation: 50 Moderate. Quiet radio: 40 Private office: Quiet home: 30 Faint. Quiet conversation: 20 Rustle of leaves: Whisper: 10 Very faint. Human breathing:
Ref: L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, New York 1972, P.16.
2.22 Effects of Noise:

Up to this level annoyance: its result is more psychological; above physiological effects may occur, such as mental & bodily fatigue. 90 dB(A): Long time exposure causes permanent hearing loss. 100 dB(A): With short periods of exposure, the aural acuity may be impaired temporarily; prolonged exposure is likely to cause irreparable damage to the auditory organs. 120 dB(A): Causes pain. 150 dB(A): Causes instantaneous loss of hearing.
Ref: Manual of tropical housing & building, Part I Climatic Design, London 1974.
65 dB(A):
2.23 Recommended Background Noise or Noise Criteria:

Concert Hall: 15 20 Radio or recording studio: 15 20 Opera house: 20 Legitimate theater: 20 25 Music room: 20 25 Television studio: 20 25 Executive office: 20 30 Classroom or lecture hall: 25 Motion picture studio: 25 Conference room: 25 30 Church: 25 30 Courtroom: 25 30 Assembly hall/school auditorium: 25 35 Hotel: Home: Sleeping area: Motion picture theater: Hospital: Semi private office: Library: Business office: Restaurant: Drafting room: Gymnasium: Typing or accounting office: Coliseum: 25 35 25 35 30 30 30 35 30 35 35 45 35 50 40 45 45 50 45 60 50
Ref: L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, New York 1972.
2.24 Sound Pressure Level (S.P.L.) of different NC-Curves at Particular Frequencies:

Frequency (Hz): 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 _______________________________________________________________________________ NC-20 50 40 33 27 23 19 17 NC-30 57 48 41 36 32 29 28 NC-40 63 57 50 45 42 39 38 NC-50 71 64 58 54 52 49 48 NC-60 78 72 67 64 62 59 58 NC-70 84 79 75 73 71 69 68
Ref: L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, New York 1972.
Designated according to SPL values in the 1200 2400 Hz frequency band.
2.25 Acceptable Range of NC Levels: Environment: Range of NC Levels likely to be Acceptable: Factories (Heavy engineering): 55 75 Factories (Light engineering): 45 65 Sports areas: 35 50 Department stores and shops: 35 45 Restaurants, cafeterias and canteens: 35 45 Mechanized offices: 40 50 General offices: 35 45 Private offices, libraries, courtrooms & school rooms: 30 35 Homes, bedrooms: 25 35 Hospital wards and operating theatres: 25 35 Cinemas: 30 35 Theatres, assembly halls and churches: 25 30 Concert and opera halls: Broadcasting and recording studios: 20 25
Concert halls, large theatres, opera houses: 15-20NR Multi-purpose halls, small theatres: 20-25 Courtrooms, conference rooms, debating chambers: 25-30 Small rooms, e.g. classrooms: 25-35 Sleep and rest: Bedrooms, living rooms, lounges, hospital wards: 25-30 Study and consultation: Libraries, executive offices, surgeries: 25-35 Eating: Restaurants, dining rooms: 25-35 Cafeterias: Below 45 Desk work with telephone use: Standard offices: 30-40 Repetitive tasks needing limited thought: General offices: 35-45 Large kitchens, noisy computer suites: Below 50 Specific ancillary areas: Waiting: 35-40 Dressing/changing: Below 40 Circulation: 30-40 Toilets: 35-45 Carparks: Below 55 Out of doors: In the street, in shopping precincts: Below 55
(Lower if external background levels are low) Minimum levels refer in particular to middle and high frequencies. Levels must be adjusted downwards Note: where the background noise contains repetition/rhythm, information, pure tones, etc.
26
Listening to music/speech26:
2.26 Recommended Range of Values for Relatively Steady Background Sound Levels:
Studio recording and audiometry are normally subject to specific client requirements NR20 or less. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 40 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: SOUND REFLECTION & ABSORPTION: By E. Meffert (1984/85), Department of Architecture.
3.1 BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND: 3.2 Sound Reflection and Absorption:

To follow the rather complicated path of a single sound wave inside a room is quite difficult. It can be simplified if the sound waves (outwardly spreading layers of compression and rare-fraction) are replaced by imaginary sound rays, perpendicular to the advancing wave-front, traveling in straight lines, similar to beams of light (Geometric Acoustics). Similar to reflection of light, hard and flat surfaces reflect almost all incident sound energy according to the Law of Reflection. Soft and porous surfaces will absorb in-coming sound that means the energy concerned will be converted into heat, although the amount is extremely small. Practically all building materials absorb sound to some extent. Acoustical control requires the application of materials with a high degree of sound absorption. The following elements may contribute to sound absorption:
3.2.1 Surface Treatments: 3.2.2 Room Contents:
Of walls, floors and ceilings;
As the audience, draperies, upholstered seats, and carpets;
3.2.3 Air Volume:

The efficiency of any material in sound absorbance at specified frequencies is indicated by the Sound Absorption Coefficient (). This is not reflected by the surface. varies with the angle of incidence and with the frequency. The published values are averaged at a random incidence and a particular frequency.
3.3 Sound Absorption Co-efficient:
The surface absorption is measured in Sabins or Open-window Units. One Sabine represents a surface of 1 m2 with = 1.0. Area multiplied by will be the overall surface absorption.
The sound absorption provided by the audience can be also expressed by Sabins/person (or exposed objects). A person in an upholstered seat will provide for instance at 500 Hz an absorption of about 4 to 5 sabins. However, normally the absorption provided by an audience will be considered by the occupied floor area in m2.
3.4 Example:
A sound field is called Homogeneous, if the sound pressure is equal in all parts of the room that means: Sound Diffusion (SD) prevails. Adequate SD is important for certain types of rooms as concert halls, radio and recording studios, etc.
3.5 Sound Diffusion and Diffraction:
Diffusion of sound can be created in several ways:
3.6 Sound Diffusion:
3.6.1 Generous Application of Surface Irregularities and Scattering Elements: 3.6.2 Alternate Application of Sound-reflective and Sound-absorptive Surface
Treatments: 3.6.3 Irregular and Random Distribution of Differing Sound-absorptive Treatments:
Sound Diffraction means to bend sound waves around obstacles as columns, walls, and beams. It is more pronounced for low than for high frequencies. That proves the law of geometric acoustics as inadequate for precise prediction. This technique is hardly applicable to frequencies below 250 Hz, however valid as a first approach.
3.7 Sound Diffraction:
3.8 Reverberation:
Before a turned-off sound dies away (Decays to Inaudibility) a noticeable time will elapse. This prolongation within an enclosed space is called Reverberation. Reverberation has a distinct effect on hearing conditions in enclosed spaces as auditoriums etc. Its proper control will secure the optimum of intelligibility of speech and enjoyment of music.
3.9 Reverberation Time: In order to have a comparable standard figure, the Reverberation Time (RT) has been introduced. This is the time for the sound pressure level (inside a room) to decrease by 60 dB after the sound is stopped. 3.10 Absorption Coefficient: The relation between volume of room, total amount of absorption, and RT is shown by the Sabine Formula27:
RT =
Where: V A x = = =
0.16 V A + xV
Volume of Room in m3, Total Room Absorption in m2 Sabins, and Air Absorption Coefficient.
3.11 Addition of Absorption:

The absorption of a surface is found by multiplying its area S by its absorption coefficient , and the total room absorption A is the sum of these products including the absorption provided by the audience and any other room contents:
A = S1. 1 + S2. 2 + S3. 3 + .. + Sn. n

Where: S 1 , 2 , 3 . n = = Individual Surface Areas in m2, Their respective Absorption Coefficients.
Above 1000 Hz Air Absorption Coefficient x has to be considered too.
27
Note: The Reverberation Formula applies only to auditoriums in which the sound is diffuse. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 43 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: ACOUSTIC DESIGN & NOISE CONTROL: By Mwaniki wa Gichia (1989 95), Department of Architecture.
Theory learnt in previous chapters. Noise criteria set conditions to apply theory in practice. Noise criteria basically are setting of clear targets for noise control of situation or space.
4.1 NOISE CONTROL: 4.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
To overcome various problems:
4.1.2 Need for Noise Criteria: 4.1.2.1 4.1.2.2 4.1.2.3 4.1.2.4 4.1.2.5
Financial Loss in Under or Over Designing for Noise Control: Claims for Hearing Damage due to Excessive Noise Levels: Commercial Viability of Noisy Hotel Bedrooms & Offices: Malfunctioning of Auditoria: Malfunctioning of Recording Studios: etc.
4.1.3 Categorization of Criteria: 4.1.3.1 Conditions Required at Listener: 4.1.3.2 Specification of Reduction in Noise:
(Insulation or Attenuation).
Criteria has to do with standards for noise control, however, individuals vary:
4.1.4 Problems in Setting Criteria:
4.1.4.1 Some Insensitive to Noise: 4.1.4.2 Others Highly Sensitive to Noise:

To strike meaningful balance criteria set for conditions that apply to majority of people.
4.1.5 Criteria Elements: Most noise criteria relate to noise level & spectrum shape. Some relate to noise that varies with time. Generally, meaning or information in noise extremely difficult to quantify & few criteria take account of this. Some have been proposed for particular sources.
Criteria for Steady Background; Criteria for Variable Noise; Criteria for Speech; and Criteria for Aircraft.
4.2 TYPES OF CRITERIA:
For relatively steady background noise dB(A) measuring unit applied with NR and PNC Curves (Noise Limiting Curves); Noise Limiting Curves used as specified maximum sound pressure levels permissible in each octave band. The rating of any noise is then determined by the point on its spectrum which is highest, relative to the criterion curve.
4.2.1 Criteria for Steady Background:
Figure 4.1: NR Curve. To generate specified background noise was found that if NR Curves are maintained the background noise not very pleasant (Too Characterless).
PNC Curves further developed (USA) to overcome problem.
4.2.2 Application:
Some sources of steady background sources: Mechanical Ventilation Ducts; Generators, Pumps; Plant Equipment; Crowded Public Spaces: Cafeterias, etc. Setting max limits of background noise critical in acoustic design of buildings: Too high a level results in complaints & poor conditions; Too low leads to unnecessary expense on noise control & too quiet environment. Examples of Target Noise Rating (Criteria) for Steady Background for Particular Activities: Activity: NR (dB): _______________________________________________________________________________ Sleep & Rest (Bedrooms, Lounges, Hospitals, etc): 25 30 Study & Consultation (Library, Executive Office): 25 35 Eating (Cafeterias, Dining Room): Below 45 Desk Work with Telephone (Standard Offices): 30 40
Many common noises vary with time: Road Traffic, Aircraft, Railways, Construction etc. Ln Value used to represent noise varying with time; Leq also used to represent noise varying with time: A way of assessing variable noise in terms of dosage noise energy received over a given period. Relation of energy in variable noise to an equivalent continuous sound level Leq in dB(A) over the same period of interest. Limits in terms of permissible dosage can be set.
4.2.3 Criteria for Variable Noise:
4.2.4 Application: In some cases road traffic combines with other forms of steady background noise e.g. Plant Equipment.
Combinative effect of both sources particularly for spaces such as offices are important, e.g. Recommended Values of Combinative Use: NR: Road Traffic Noise L10 dB(A): _______________________________________________________________________________ 20 20 25 26 30 33 35 40 40 45 45 50
4.2.5 Criteria for Speech:

Speech interference normally an issue in spaces such as factories, offices and function of speaking on telephone; Information in speech largely contained in consonants; They are weaker than vowels and occur in higher frequency range.
Interference caused by noise can be assessed by checking Speech Interference Level (SIL) arithmetic mean of SPL in octave band centre frequency 500, 1000 & 2000 Hz.
4.2.5.1 Speech Interference Level:
4.2.5.2 Articulation Index:

Articulation Index (AI) more refined measure of speech intelligibility measure of proportion of syllables that are intelligible e.g. if 30% of syllables intelligible, AI = 0.3.
4.2.6 Application:
Clear communication of speech will both be desirable & undesirable depending on circumstances: In some cases both may be required. Privacy in open plan offices requires that clear communication of speech prevails between those conversing while conversations by neighbours do not cause distraction by being intelligible. Insulation and masking complimentary in reducing awareness of content of speech.
Rough Guide for Small Rooms: Privacy Acquired: Mean SRI of Partition & SIL in Receiving Room: _______________________________________________________________________________ Confidential: > 75 Good: > 70 Fair: > 65 To achieve required noise criteria one must be able to apply insulation against intruding noise in a way as to achieve the expected noise criteria for a space or particular function. Previously insulation discussed in terms of insulating property of partition or material, and its SRI. In reality acoustic conditions of receiving room determine the actual SPL received through partition. Absorption qualities of receiving room determine SPL that is maintained in the space. Can be defined by following expression:
4.3 SOUND INSULATION:
D
Where:
=
D SRI S A
SRI 10Log S/A dB

= = = = Level Difference between Two Spaces; Sound Reduction Index; Area of Partition; and Total Absorption in Receiving Room.
4.3.1 Composite Partitions:

In many cases separating structure consists of more than one element e.g. a door, a window & wall. Sound Insulation of combined structure then necessary to calculate from information on the individual elements: This is done by calculating the overall through area weighting:
SRI (Composite) = av =
Where: So S1 = =
10Log 1/ av
1/So (S1 av + S1 av + .. )
Total Area of Partition; Total Area of Individual Element.
4.4 ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION: 4.4.1 Types of Absorbers: 4.4.1.1 Porous Absorber (Dissipative); 4.4.1.2 Panel Absorber (Membrane); 4.4.1.3 Cavity Absorber (Helmholtz Resonator). 4.4.2 Important Points: 4.4.2.1 Mechanism of Absorbing Sound; 4.4.2.2 Characteristic Absorption Qualities; 4.4.2.3 Importance of Dimensions in Determining Absorption. 4.5 ROOM ACOUSTICS: AUDITORIA: 4.5.1 Important Considerations: 4.5.1.1 Geometry & Volume Low Background Level; 4.5.1.2 Early Reflections; 4.5.1.3 Absorption of Sound; 4.5.1.4 RT. 4.5.2 Calculation of Reverberation Time:
RT =
0.16 V/A
Importance of formula in determining RT of auditoria for different situations.
As architect need to consider different NC for different types of auditoria.
4.5.3 Multipurpose Auditoria:
4.6 URBAN NOISE: 4.6.1 Transport Noise: 4.6.1.1 Noise Characteristics Noise Spectra; 4.6.1.2 Units of Measurement; 4.6.1.3 Peculiarities of Noise.
Prediction of Traffic Noise; Important Considerations:
4.6.2 Road Traffic Noise:

Period of Measurement; Distance From Road of Receiver; Speed of Vehicles; Road Gradient & Surface; Screening by Crash Barriers etc. Reflection.
Protection from Road Traffic Noise.
Criteria for Steady Background; Criteria for Variable Noise; Criteria for Speech; and Criteria for Aircraft.
4.7 NOISE CRITERIA: 4.7.1 Types of Criteria:
4.7.2 Sound Insulation:
SRI 10Log S/A dB
4.7.3 Composite Partitions:
SRI (Composite) = av =
10Log 1/ av
1/So (S1 av + S1 av + .. )
Urban noise from sources most predominant in urban areas: Industrial Noise; Construction Noise; Transport Noise.
4.8 TRANSPORT NOISE: 4.8.1 URBAN NOISE:
Most common effect is that of distraction or disruption; Most important disruptive effects are: Sleep Disturbance; and Speech Interference.
4.8.2 Effects of Noise:
Noise most common environment cause of sleep disturbance; Particularly serious for residential areas: Around Airports; Along Highways and Railways; Around Factories & Industries; Around Entertainment Centers open at Night. Noise disturbs sleep in various ways: May prevent people from falling asleep; May awaken people from sleep; May cause shift from deeper to shallower level of sleep. Studies have shown that sleep disturbance related to various factors: Intensity; Duration; Variability of Noise; Time of Night; Amount of Accumulated Sleep; Age & Sex of Individual.
4.8.3 Sleep Disturbance:
Masking speech with high background levels makes communication difficult; Noises whose spectra fall within range for speech are most disruptive; Studies on intelligibility of speech in noise led to development of measures for acoustic design. E.g. PSIL (Preferred Speech Interference Level); This is average SPL for octave bands centered on 500, 1000 & 2000 Hz.
4.8.4 Speech Interference:
Most common feeling evoked by disturbance from noise from studies; Annoyance mainly due to being bothered, displeased, irritated when: Disturbed an Activity; Got on their Nerves; Other feelings also exist due to noise disturbance: Fear; Nervous.
4.9 SUBJECTIVE REACTION TO NOISE: 4.9.1 Annoyance:
Peoples attitude towards noise modifies the reaction to the noise; Main attitudes are: Preventability of the Noise; Importance of Noise Source e.g. Generator for electricity in home; Considerations of Noise Makers e.g. Neighbours playing loud music.
4.9.2 Attitudes:
4.9.3 Cognitive Factors: Meaning of Noise also modifies reaction; e.g. People living under flight path of aircraft will perceive danger if plane flies very low or changes in engine thrust plane might crash on neighbourhood; Motor vehicles of some noise level as aircraft judged higher than aircraft. Psychologically aircraft expected to be higher.
Three basic categories of transport noise:
4.9.4 Transport Noise:
Aircraft Noise; Railway Noise; and Traffic Noise (Motor Vehicle).
Each form of transport noise due to noise varying with time & frequency has its unique characteristics; Consequently measurement methods & noise units vary from category to category; Railway & aircraft noise have degree of similarity due to discrete nature of events that occur at intervals.
Distances to the aircraft normally large. Considered as elevated point source; Different aircrafts give rise to different range of conditions: Military, civilian, helicopters, light aircraft, etc.
4.9.5 Aircraft Noise:
Could be flying at high altitude, landing or taking off or undergoing maintenance on ground. Measurements of aircraft noise done by studying individual components of noise & combining levels & examining time history; Units of measurement. Peak noise levels measured in PN dB (Perceived Noise Levels) & exposure to noise expressed in terms of NNI (Noise & Number Index) average peak levels and number of aircraft or events.
Normally a number of discrete events separated by long periods of background noise; Trains line sources made up of number of discrete point sources.
4.9.6 Railway Noise:
Figure 4.2: Time History for Noise of Diesel Hauled Train. Graph shows two peaks: Engine Noise; Rail/Wheel Noise.
Relationship between height of peak width of base, shape of flat top dependent on length of train, type of train & distance of receiver from track; In assessment of railway noise it is important to consider peak levels & the number & frequency of the events. These variables are combined using Leq to give a noise dose or to determine environmental comfort.
4.10 TRAFFIC NOISE: Road traffic noise most widespread form of traffic noise; Noise units used to describe traffic noise are L10 levels measured in dB(A). 4.10.1
Percentile Noise Levels:
Figure 4.3: Percentile Noise Levels. L10 Noise Level exceeded for 10% of the Time. L50 Noise Level exceeded for 50% of the Time. L90 Noise Level exceeded for 90% of the Time. Important consideration for Ln is the period of measurement; Two most useful values for traffic noise assessment are when n = 10 & n = 90; L90 is the range of noise level for 90% of the time & therefore for practical purposes taken as the background traffic noise; L10 on the other hand relates to peaks (10% of the time); This is important level to note because it is much higher than background normally & most likely to cause disturbance; However Lao should not be too high to cause uncomfortable background noise.
4.10.2 Prediction of Traffic Noise: Due to importance of traffic noise in urban setting, prediction vital for existing or proposed road; Prediction techniques varying from country to country, situation to situation; Important points to note are the main considerations in developing prediction techniques.
It is necessary to determine period during day when road traffic is high. For large cities 6.00 AM 12.00 Midnight (18 Hour Period) normally considered; For smaller cities such as Nairobi 7.00 6.00 PM (12 Hr Period) might be more appropriate depending on location of road or highway; In very busy motorways in large cities 24 hour period can be considered.
4.10.3 Important Considerations: 4.10.3.1 Period of Measurement of Ln Value:
Vertical or horizontal distance or receiver from road determines exposure to traffic noise.
4.10.3.2 Distance from Road Receiver:
Figure 4.4:
Figure 4.5:
4.10.3.3 Speed of Vehicles & Percentage of Heavy Vehicles:

Speed and number of heavy vehicles determined by class of road & location. Major highways would expect a high number of heavy vehicles as well as roads leading to industrial areas and warehouse storages neighbourhood roads are expected to have very few heavy vehicles; Roads with strict restrictions on speed more likely to be noisier than fast highways, generally.
Steeper the road gradient more traffic noise generated; Rougher the road surface: Gravel: Greater noise level expected generally.
4.10.3.4 Road Gradient & Surface:

Aggregate: Murram.
4.10.3.5 Screening by Crash Barriers, Buildings, Earth moulds etc: Barriers along road or between receiver and road will attenuate sound. 4.10.3.6 Reflections:
Various elements along road can increase propagation of airborne traffic noise through reflections; Buildings on opposing faade can be main source of reflecting traffic noise.
Figure 4.6: Reflections from Buildings.
Figure 4.7: Reflections from Balconies.
4.10.4 Protection from Traffic Noise: Disturbing nature of traffic noise & its adverse effects on productivity & long term health of urbanites requires legislation be formulated for protection against this noise pollution;
Areas requiring special attention are: Need to manufacture quieter cars and better designed roads; Spreading of traffic onto minor roads should be discouraged. Traffic should be channeled onto main road network; Major highways should bypass urban centers; Consideration should be given to the cost of providing sound insulation particularly for residential accommodation when major highways put up on existing residential areas; Where the problem exists then noise control measures should be adopted: Site Planning: Screens & Barriers: Sound Insulation of Walls etc.
Figure 4.8: Traffic By-passes in Urban Areas.
Much work has been done for traffic noise in relation to residential accommodation. Recommendations have been made: For a highway or motorway passing near residential accommodation: a). The L10 (18 Hour) noise level should not be greater than 67 dB at the times of highest traffic flow; b). A new road should not introduce an increase of 1 dB or more to the existing noise level before construction begins.
4.11 RECOMMENDATIONS OF NOISE LEVELS:
4.12 ROOM ACOUSTICS: AUDITORIA: Room acoustics for auditoria used as model for room acoustics and due to it being most common space requiring specialist room acoustics.
Important Considerations: Geometry & Volume: Low Background Levels; Early Reflections; Absorption of Sound; Reverberation Time. Geometry and Volume: Need to reduce distance traveled; Limitation of fanning due to directivity of sound;
4.12.1
4.12.2
Figure 4.9: Limitation of Fanning due to Directivity of Sound. To be avoided shapes that focus sound;
Figure 4.10: Parallel Walls.
Figure 4.11: Concave Walls.
Figure 4.12: Concave Ceiling. Early Reflections: Need to reflect direct sound to back of room as soon as possible: Sound strongest on first early reflection; Similar to the process of amplification. Earlier the reflection, stronger the source of sound incident on reflecting material; Early reflections help to reinforce sound at back of space; Two basic ways of achieving early reflections: Via Walls; and Via Ceiling.
4.12.3
4.12.3.1 Via Walls: Through treatment of wall (material) and determination of angle incidence to source of sound- e.g.
Figure 4.13: Wall Treatment to increase Early Reflection. Same way: Ceiling reflectors used normally above source; Difference of sound path in applying ceiling reflector.
4.12.3.2 Via Ceilings:
Figure 4.14: Ceiling Treatment to increase Early Reflection.
e.g.
Veneered Timber Panels fixed solidly; Formica covered timber panels fixed solidly; Rigid smooth metal; Hard plaster on walls.
4.12.4 Points to note in Early Reflections: 4.12.4.1 Best Reflective Material has very Low Sound Absorption;
e.g.
Lower half of walls; Ceiling above source.
4.12.4.2 Reflection of Sound should be Concentrated close to Source;
4.12.4.3 Of Vital Importance to understand and sketch Ray Diagrams

before determining Position of Reflectors;
4.12.4.4 Reflection of Sound via Ceiling Reflector might need to consider

that RT should not be sacrificed; Due to reduction of volume; Solution:
Figure 4.15: Acoustic Clouds. Absorption of Sound: For correct RT of space there must be combination of reflection & absorption; Absorptive surface help reduce RT and reduce chance of echo forming; Most important location of sound absorptive material is at back of space where reflection can be source of echo; Upper parts of walls and ceiling/wall joint also appropriate for absorptive material treatment. General Layout of Materials: As guiding principal reflective surfaces should be: Ceilings: Walls (Lower walls & walls close to source).
4.12.5
4.12.6
Absorptive surfaces should be: Back walls; Upper parts of walls; Floors & furnishings (Seats). Reverberation Time: RT determines character & acoustic appropriateness of space; Volume & function normally determine RT: e.g. Function of Space: Recommended RT: Recommended Volume: (Respectively) _______________________________________________________________________________ Speech: 0.7 1.0 Seconds 200 8,000 m3 Music: 0.9 1.5 Seconds 500 9,000 m3 Church Music: 1.7 3.0 Seconds 1200 100,000 m3 Background Levels: Background levels must be kept at minimum (acceptable); Proper insulation of space against intruding noise must be checked. 1). 2). 3). 4). 5). 6). 7). 8). Determine function of auditoria; Select appropriate RT; Determine shape & geometry of space; Study ray diagrams expected & determine position of reflectors; Select volume that is appropriate or propose your own (after designing section); Determine amount of absorption & reflection required to give selected RT (RT = 0.16V/A); Locate reflecting & absorbing materials appropriately; Always remember to consider empty, full & full auditoria in design.
4.12.7
4.12.8
4.13 DESIGN STRATEGY IN ROOM ACOUSTICS FOR AUDITORIA:
Problem of multipurpose auditoria is that different functions might have conflicting reverberation time. E.g. School Multipurpose Hall: Function: RT: (Recommended) Seconds _______________________________________________________________________________ Speech from Headmaster: 0.9 Drama Festival: 1.6 Church Service: 2.2
4.14 MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIA:
If hall designed for one of the functions it is inappropriate for other two; Need to introduce flexibility of space to give different RT; Done through innovative use of material through expensive to install and maintain; e.g.
Figure 4.16: Absorptive Characteristics of Wall can be changed.
Figure 4.17: Variable Absorption Characteristics of Ceiling. Very expensive to install & maintain; This is an electro acoustic method of varying RT for different functions within same space; Works by having arrangement of mics & speakers in ceiling; Mics sensitive to different frequencies placed on different positions determined by tests; Speakers amplified to point just below feed back; Ceiling apparently more reflective with assisted resonance system.
4.15 ASSISTED RESONANCE (Electric Acoustics):
Figure 4.18: Electro Acoustic System in Ceiling.
Figure 4.19: Relationship between RT and Frequency of Hall.
4.16 BUILDING ACOUSTICS AND NOISE: 4.16.1 Introduction: 4.17 REVERBERATION TIME:
Definition: RT = 0.16 V/A A = = Total Absorption. S1a1 + S2a2 + S3a3 + . Snan Egring Formula: Where very large volumes used (significant air absorption at high frequency) or where rooms with very high absorption used Egring Formula more appropriate.
4.17.1
RT =
Where: S = = =
0.16 V S[-Log e (1-)] + V

Surface Area of Interior; Average Absorption Coefficient of Interior; Air Absorption.
Egring Formula only used when very accurate RT needed research; For design purposes Sabine Formula sufficient; Normally gives higher RT than reality; More absorption than anticipated; Absorption by air; Normally higher by 0.1 0.2 seconds, if calculations carried out well. Measurement of Reverberation Time: Best way of measuring RT by Reverberant Room Method; An acoustic chamber normally used with no walls parallel to one another. Walls are treated so as to reflect sound reverberant sound field randomly reflected.
4.17.2
4.17.2.1 RT measured at different frequency with chamber empty; 4.17.2.2 RT measured at different frequency with test material in
chamber (on floor); 4.17.2.3 The difference in RT between both circumstances is measure of additional absorption introduced by material.
For good results average values of RT need to be taken for both situations at each frequency can be achieved by halving different microphone positions.
Figure 4.20: Reverberant Room Method.
4.18 ABSORPTION:
Three basic types of acoustic absorbers: Porous (Dissipative): Panel (Membrane): Cavity (Helmholtz) Resonators. Porous Absorbers: Porous absorber causes sound energy to be dissipated by frictional & viscous losses in the structure of the material; Absorption of porous material depends on: Surface Porosity; Overall Porosity; Structure Factor (Degree of Inter-connection of Pores). Characteristic absorption qualities of porous absorbers show high absorption coefficient at higher frequency & falling efficiency at lower frequency; Lowest frequency at which material effective determined by its thickness in relation to wavelength of sound.
4.18.1
As a rule of thumb: thickness of a porous absorber should be at least wavelength of the lowest frequency of interest; Examples of Porous Absorbers: Mineral Wool; Glass Fibre; Open Cell Plastic Foams28; Perforated Wood Pulp or Fibre. Perforation of 20% or more open area not effective as porous absorber except at very high frequencies 4000 Hz and above. Panel Absorbers: Panel absorber consists of sheets or panels of materials e.g. Plywood; Metal; Plasterboard; Timber. That are mounted over an air space. As panel is forced to vibration by incident sound trapped air behind acts as spring & resonance occurs at frequencies which depends on mass of panel & depth of air space; Absorption is at maximum at this frequency due to frictional losses being at maximum; If stiffness of panel greater than that of air spring behind, resonant frequency might be 50% higher than expected. Panel absorbers very useful at low frequencies; Most applications useful within range 40 400 Hz. Cavity Resonator: Normally used for special particular sound; Cavity resonator basically an opening forming a neck to an enclosed volume; Resonant frequencies of cavity resonator determined by air in neck acting as piston oscillating at frequency determined by size of opening & volume of closed cavity;
28
4.18.2
4.18.3
Closed Cell Plastic Foams (Polystyrene) are poor porous absorbers. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 67 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Principal best exemplified by blowing over bottle. The more air there is the lower frequency sound is resonant; Practical example of cavity resonator is low percentage open perforated panel over an air space; Cavity resonators are effective over a very narrow frequency range. This range can be altered by varying neck size & volume of air:
f
Where:
=
C S l V
C/2 (S/l V)
= = = = Velocity of Sound; Cross-section Area of Neck; Length of Neck; and Volume of Enclosed Space.
4.19 APPLICATION OF ABSORBERS: 4.19.1 Types of Absorbers in Market:

Prefabricated Absorbers: Perforated Tiles; Vermiculite Panels. Plasters, Paints Sprayed Paint/Plaster (Tyrolean); Blankets: Wood Wool; Mineral Fibre; Rock Wool. Combinative Use of Absorbers: Due to each type of acoustic absorber being limited in its range of effectiveness combination of absorbers normally necessary; Porous Absorber/Panel Absorber: Impervious facing over porous absorber will increase absorption at low frequency, if facing acts as membrane absorber; Porous Absorber/Cavity Absorber: Range of cavity absorber can be extended slightly by placing porous material in air space;
4.19.2
4.19.3 Protection of Porous Absorbers: Porous absorbers normally flake off after long use or due to manhandling;
Protection normally required. Absorption by People and Furniture: People in the form of audience etc. act as high sources of absorption. Example of absorption () coefficient of people at 1000 Hz: Function/Activity: Absorption coefficient: () _______________________________________________________________________________ 0.98 Audience Seated on Wooden Chairs: 2 Persons/m2: 2 0.69 Audience Seated on Wooden Chairs: 1 Person/m : Unoccupied Cloth Covered Well Upholstered Seats: 0.88 (With Perforated Bottoms). Absorption and Insulation: Most good absorptive material poor in insulation of sound from external sources; In room acoustics where external noise sources are also a problem careful consideration required on insulative treatment of floors ceilings and walls; Impact Transmission; Flanking Transmission; Before treatment of absorbent material can be applied.
4.19.4
4.19.5

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: SOUND REDUCTION: By Professor Pinfold (6th February, 1976), Department of Architecture.
5.1 ROOM ACOUSTICS: 5.2 Sound Reduction:

Sound Reduction Methods are almost invariably expensive.
5.3 Sound Reduction Principles: 5.3.1 Principle 1:
Principle 1 is to kill the sound at its source.
5.3.2 Principle 2:
Principle 2 is to dissipate the sound by making it to do some work or by isolating it either from the surrounding air (if it is airborne) or from the structure (if it is structure borne).
Principle 3 is to plan sources of noise away from areas needing quiet conditions.
5.3.3 Principle 3:
5.4 Common External Noise Sources:

Are: Transportation: Construction Works: Nearby Factories: Places of Entertainment: Parking Areas. Airports; Railways; and Highways.
Are:
5.5 Common Internal Noise Sources:
Rooms Containing Machinery such as Wood and Metal Workshops; Kitchens; Busy Lobbies and Corridors; Lifts and Staircases; Air Conditioning and Ventilation Units; Compressors; Plumbing; Computer and Calculating Machine Rooms; Badly Placed Lavatories.
5.6 Weather Conditions & Noise Propagation: In addition, certain weather conditions such as very heavy rain and hail make the use of certain materials such as metals and plastics undesirable for roofs and exposed walls. 5.7 NOISE CRITERIA OF BUILDING MATERIALS: 5.8 Common Building Types and Spaces requiring Quiet Conditions:
Common building types and building spaces which require quiet conditions are: Auditoria; Conference Halls; Hospitals; Teaching Spaces; Libraries; Hotel Bedrooms; and Offices.
5.8.1 Indoor Spaces requiring Quiet Conditions:
5.8.2 Outdoor Spaces requiring Quiet Conditions:

On the other hand, over quiet conditions can destroy privacy. Some outdoor spaces should be protected from noise. E.g. Parks and Gardens.
5.9 Common Weaknesses in Building Elements: are: 5.9.1 Windows:

Windows especially when open. Even slightly open windows provide only 10 dB insulation and the best forms of double glazing 30 40 dB. These are average figures for the whole frequency range
and all glazing has some band of frequencies over which its insulation is drastically reduced (Coincidence Effect). Window overhangs and deep reveals sometimes channel additional noise into a building.
Almost as weak in insulation value as windows. They are seldom tight fitting and often of light construction. In urban situations where houses were often built close to the road a Porch was formed, i.e. a small space with an outer and inner door. This did much to provide both quietness and security. Lobbies with double doors have application where quiet spaces have to be planned adjoining noisy ones. Heavy double rebated doors with automatic spring or pneumatic closers are to be recommended in many situations.
5.9.2 Doors:
5.9.3 Walls:
The average two thickness external block wall 200 mm provides about 50 dB of insulation provided it contains no windows. Where windows constitute a third or more of the surface we must ignore the value of the wall and revert to the insulation value of the window. Internal single thickness 100 mm block walls provide about 45 dB of insulation which is sufficient for most internal purposes. Light boarding on framing is very poor in insulation value and should never be used between spaces which require any degree of privacy.
These are often overlooked as weak links in the sound transmission path. Concrete roofs can be regarded as being as good as walls. We have no measurements for makuti or thatched roofs. Iron roofs are very poor insulators. Tile roofs have many small air spaces between individual tiles which severely reduce their insulation value. When combined with a substantial ceiling which implies an air space, sometimes with additional insulation values comparable with walls can be achieved
5.9.4 Roofs:
Between two levels are usually built (in Kenya) with concrete. The effectiveness of such floors seems to vary a great deal and to depend on very complicated factors. Impact noise such as footsteps and the moving of furniture can be very troublesome, even through 4 6 of concrete.
5.9.5 Floors:
The following table of random incidence absorption coefficients presents values derived from tests by recognized authorities and is divided into three groups common building materials (1 to 22), common absorbent materials (23 to 34) and room contents (35 to 40). The frequency range given varies subject to the range used in the tests on which the data is based. In a few instances, interpolation, based on theory, has been used to complete the data. It must be borne in mind that sound absorption is not an intrinsic property of a material alone. Factors such as thickness, method of mounting and decorative treatment will influence absorption, as will the structures in which the material is built, particularly at low frequencies. The values quoted under the heading NRC are noise reduction coefficients which give an indication of the performance of the material as noise-reduction treatment. Frequency Hz ___________________________________________ 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC _______________________________________________________________________________ COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS: _______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Blockwork (Clinker Concrete) Unplastered, unpainted: 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 2. Brickwork, plain or painted: 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 3. Concrete, tooled stone or granolithic: 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 4. Cork tiles, 22 mm thick, on solid Backing: 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.55 0.6 0.55 0.38 5. Cork floor tiles see 6: 6. Floor, solid + 6 mm cork tiles, wood Blocks, linoleum, rubber or plastic Flooring: 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.05 7. Glass: 4mm: 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.02 Glass: 6mm: 0.1 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 Glass: used as wall finish, glazed tile Or polished, marble: 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 8. Granolithic, see 3: 9. Hardboard over air space see 14: 10. Lath and plaster see 13: 11. Linoleum see 6:
5.10 Common Building Materials and Absorption Coefficients: 5.11 Absorption Coefficients:
Frequency Hz ___________________________________________ 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC _______________________________________________________________________________ COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS Continued: _______________________________________________________________________________ 12. Marble see 7: 13. Plaster, lime or gypsum: - on solid backing: 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 - on lath or plasterboard over shallow Air space: 0.1 0.25 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.05 - on lath or plasterboard over deep air space: 0.15 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0.04 0.05 14. Plywood or hardboard panel mounted Over 25 mm air space against solid Backing: 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.05 - as above, with porous absorbent in air space: 0.4 0.25 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.05 15. Rubber flooring see 6: 16. Stone, polished see 7: 17. Water as in swimming pools: 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 18. Windows see 7: 19. Wood-block floor see 6: 20. Wood boards or 19 mm chipboard On joists or battens: 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 21. Wood-fibre board, 12 mm, mounted Against solid backing: - Unperforated: 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.25 0.3 0.3 - Painted: 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.15 As above, but mounted over 25 mm Air space on battens against solid backing: - Unpainted: 0.15 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 - Painted: 0.15 0.3 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.1 0.15 22. wood-strip floor on battens: 0.06 0.1 0.25 0.1 0.1 0.07 0.07 _______________________________________________________________________________ COMMON ABSORBENT MATERIALS: _______________________________________________________________________________ 23. Acoustic spray plaster, 12 mm: - on solid backing: 0.03 0.15 0.5 0.8 0.85 0.8 0.57
Frequency Hz ___________________________________________ 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC _______________________________________________________________________________ COMMON ABSORBENT MATERIALS Continued: _______________________________________________________________________________ - on 12 mm plasterboard over 75 mm air space: 0.3 0.3 0.55 0.75 0.8 0.8 0.6 24. Carpet: - 2 mm nylon pile bonded on Plastic backing: 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.04 - 5 mm needlepunch: 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.25 0.35 0.5 0.17 - 6 mm (medium) pile bonded on Closed-cell foam underlay: 0.03 0.09 0.2 0.54 0.7 0.72 0.38 - 9 mm tufted pile on felt underlay: 0.08 0.08 0.3 0.6 0.75 0.8 0.43 - 25 mm brushed-hair pile bonded On Hessian backing: 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.24 25. Curtains, medium velour: - straight across solid backing: 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.17 - 200% material (50% drape) over Solid backing: 0.05 0.25 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.44 26. Glass-fibre mat: 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.65 0.9 0.9 0.57 - 30 kg/m3, 25mm: 3 - 30 kg/m , 50 mm: 0.2 0.35 0.65 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.67 3 0.1 0.3 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.8 0.56 - 80 kg/m , 25 mm: 3 0.2 0.45 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.69 - 80 kg/m , 50 mm: - 30 kg/m3, 50 mm with 5% perf. Facing: 0.2 0.4 0.75 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.54 with 10% perf. Facing: 0.2 0.35 0.65 0.85 0.85 0.75 0.67 2 - 19 mm ceiling tiles, 3.5 kg/m faced With open-woven glass-cloth over 300 mm cavity: 0.4 0.55 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.75 0.72 27. Metal, perforated ceiling tiles Suspended with porous absorbent Material laid on top29: - 7% perforated: 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.72 - 25% perforated: 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.77
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Note: Where the absorbent material is bagged, there is likely to be some reduction in absorption at high frequencies. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 75 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Frequency Hz ___________________________________________ 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC _______________________________________________________________________________ COMMON ABSORBENT MATERIALS Continued: _______________________________________________________________________________ 28. Mineral-fibre slabs30: 50 kg/m3, 25 mm: 0.15 0.25 0.4 0.65 0.85 0.85 0.54 3 0.3 0.4 0.75 0.85 0.9 0.9 0.72 50 kg/m , 50 mm: 3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.75 0.85 0.85 0.60 - 100 kg/m , 25 mm: 3 100 kg/m , 50 mm: 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.95 0.9 0.81 3 50 kg/m , 50 mm With 5% perf. Facing: 0.25 0.45 0.75 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.55 With 10% perf. Facing: 0.25 0.4 0.75 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.70 19 mm mineral-fibre ceiling board/tile: 0.25 0.4 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.62 29. Plaster tiles, 10% perf. With Porous absorbent backing infill, Foil backing: 0.45 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.65 0.45 0.74 30. Polystyrene, expanded, 25 mm Thick, spaced 50 mm from Solid backing: 0.1 0.25 0.55 0.2 0.1 0.15 0.27 31. Polyurethane flexible open pore Foam, 50 mm, on solid backing: 0.15 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 32. Wood-fibre ceiling tile, 18mm: 0.15 0.4 0.55 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.61 33. Wood wool slabs, 50mm: - mounted solid, unplastered: 0.1 0.2 0.45 0.8 0.6 0.75 0.51 - as above, but over 50 mm Air space: 0.15 0.45 0.75 0.6 0.8 0.75 0.65 _______________________________________________________________________________ 34. SPECIAL PANELS: _______________________________________________________________________________ - hardboard, 3 mm, with bitumen roofing-felt stuck to back, 5 kg/m2, mounted over 50 mm air space against solid backing: 0.5 0.9 0.45 0.25 0.15 0.1 0.1
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Note: Where the absorbent material is bagged, there is likely to be some reduction in absorption at high frequencies. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 76 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Frequency Hz ___________________________________________ 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC _______________________________________________________________________________ SPECIAL PANELS: Continued: _______________________________________________________________________________ - two layers bituminous felt, about 4 kg/m2, mounted over 250 mm air space against solid Backing: 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 - 50 mm glass fibre/mineral Wool, 80 190 kg/m3, mounted Over 25 mm air space with open Metal mesh covering, > 30% perf: 0.15 0.35 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.95 0.9 _______________________________________________________________________________ ROOM CONTENTS: _______________________________________________________________________________ 0.003 0.007 0.02 35. Air x per m3: 36. Audience in fully upholstered Porous seats, per person: 0.2 0.25 0.4 0.55 0.65 0.65 0.6 - in leather or vinyl-upholstered seat, per person: 0.15 0.35 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.4 - in wood, padded seats, per person: 0.15 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.4 37. Large audience including aisle up to 1 metre width, per m2 audience area: 0.25 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 38. Seats, unoccupied: - fully upholstered porous seats, per person: 0.05 0.15 0.25 0.4 0.45 0.45 0.4 - leather or vinyl-upholstered seat per person: 0.1 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 - wood, padded seats per person: 0.1 0.1 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.2 39. Orchestral player with instrument: 0.2 0.35 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 (average) 40. Rostrum, portable, wood, 0.6 0.4 0.1 Per m2 of surface: In auditoria the audience and seating will usually provide a lot of the absorption. Unfortunately, owing to variations in seat spacing, upholstery and clothing, the absorption coefficient of seating
areas will vary. The coefficient given here (all rounded off to the nearest 0.05) are intended to be as representative as possible, but variations of the order of 10% will occur from auditorium to auditorium. In empty auditoria, the coefficient of the seating will vary so much depending on the seat spacing and upholstery that a coefficient per m2 of audience is not given here. The effect of seating spacing on the absorption per unoccupied seat is to decrease the absorption per seat at the higher frequencies as the spacing gets closer, but below 500 Hz there is not much change.
5.12 Sound Absorption: Relative Efficiency of Sound Absorbing Materials:
Figure 5.1: Basic Types of Sound-absorbing Material:
Figure 5.2: Specialized types of Sound-absorbing Materials:
Figure 5.3: Volume Resonators:

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: STRUCTURE BORNE SOUND: By Professor Erich Meffert (1986 Group), Department of Architecture.
Structure Borne Sound is that sound which is transmitted through the structure/fabric31 of the building. Structure Borne Sound is usually from two sources:
6.1 NOISE CONTROL OUTDOORS/INDOORS: 6.2 Structure Borne Sound:
6.2.1 Impact Sound:

Generated by the impact of an object and the structure e.g. footfall cliks, falling objects, moving furniture etc.
The vibrations of equipments is usually transmitted into the structure and further transferred to other parts of the building from where they can be heard by occupants.
6.2.2 Vibrating Equipment:
Since Structure Borne Sound is always unwanted sound, it has to be isolated and reduced. The main principles of isolating Structure Borne Sound is insulating at the source. The following general principles serve as a useful guide:
6.3 General Principles for Isolating Structure Borne Sound:
6.3.1 Machines should be Mounted on Resilient Floors Supported on a Rigid

Base: See figures 6.1 and 6.2 for examples of resilient floors to control Structure Borne Sounds. Figure 6.1 is poor because the vibrating fan is bolted to the floor and hence transmits vibrations directly into the structure. Figure 6.2 is better design because the fan is supported by resilient mounts and relocated close to the structural column which provides a more rigid support. Fan continues to vibrate by Structure Borne Sound is greatly reduced.
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The structure is the medium of transmission. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 80 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Figure 6.1: Showing Fan fixed Directly to Structure:
Figure 6.2: Showing Fan fixed on Resilient Mounts:
6.3.2 Machine Rooms and Ducts should be well Insulated for Noise Isolation:
(See Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Showing Mechanical Equipment Room Treatment to Control Mechanical System Noise and Vibrations:
6.3.3 Ducts should have Sound Attenuating Mufflers:

Where it is extremely necessary to control impact sound (e.g. foot falls, moving furniture or dropped objects) various details of resilient floors could be applied as shown on figure 6.4 A D. Carpeting and resilient floor tiles such as rubber and cork can be used to cushion impacts. They are most effective, however, at middle and high frequencies (e.g. Footfall Clicks), while low frequency Thuds still may pass through. To achieve high values of impact isolation over the entire frequency range, more elaborate constructions such as B through D may be required.
6.3.4 Use of Resilient Floors and Ceilings to Control Impact Sound:
Figure 6.4: Showing Various Floor-ceiling Constructions for Impact Isolation:


University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: DESIGN OF AUDITORIUMS: By Professor Erich Meffert (1980/81), Department of Architecture.
7.1 DESIGN OF AUDITORIUMS:

For good hearing conditions in an auditorium the following requirements are essential:
7.1.1 Adequate Loudness:

Ensure adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium, particularly the remote seats. Energy losses of traveling sound waves and excessive absorption by the audience and room contents result in reduction of loudness, which can be counteracted by the following: The auditorium should be shaped32 so that the audience is so close to the sound source as possible.
7.1.1.1 Auditorium Shape:
The sound source should be raised in order to secure a free flow of direct sound to every listener.
7.1.1.2 Raising of Sound Source:
The floor should be ramped or stepped maximum gradient 1:8.
7.1.1.3 Ramping or Stepping of Auditorium Floor: 7.1.1.4 Surround Sound Source with Sound Reflective Surface:
The sound source should be surrounded with sound-reflective surfaces; the dimensions of the reflective surface must be comparable to the wavelengths of the reflected sound; the time-delay between direct and first-reflected sound should not exceed 3/10033 seconds; the angles of the reflective surfaces must be established by the law of sound reflection; good use has to be made of the ceiling and wall surfaces in order to provide maximum short-delayed sound reflection.
7.1.1.5 Minimal Floor Area and Volume:

The floor area and volume should be kept at a minimum, thus shortening the sound-travel-distance.
32 33
In larger volumes use of balconies might be useful. Time delay in milliseconds: (R1 + R2 D) 0.34 = 30/1000 Seconds. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 84 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Parallel sound-reflective surfaces should be avoided to eliminate back reflections to the sound source.
7.1.1.6 Avoidance of Parallel Sound Reflective Surfaces:
7.1.1.7 Audience maximization of Visual and Audio Area:

The audience should occupy the most advantageous seating area both for viewing and for hearing; no aisle should be located along the longitudinal axis of the auditorium, where seeing and listening conditions are best.
7.1.1.8 Maximizing of Sound Emitting Sources:

It is essential that the maximum sound energy be emitted for all sending positions to all receiving positions; additional sound sources need additional sound-reflective surfaces (Churches).
In auditorium designed for musical or vocal performances, additional reflective surfaces must provide sound reflective back to the performers; correctly located sound reflectors also create a socalled Space Effect, typical of enclosed spaces but missing in open-air theatres.
7.1.1.9 Ensuring Performers Audio Feed-back:
Ensure uniform and diffused distribution of the sound energy. To achieve satisfactory diffusion of sound reasonable large and numerous surface irregularities must be provided; in smaller rooms a random distribution of absorbing materials or an alternate application of sound-reflective and sound-absorptive treatment of surfaces will be successful; acoustical diffusers are particularly important for concert halls, opera houses, radio and recording studios.
7.1.2 Uniform Distribution:
7.1.3 Optimum Reverberation:

Ensure optimum reverberation characteristics to allow optimum reception of the programme performed. Optimum Reverberation means the following:
7.1.3.1 Favorable RT vs. Frequency Characteristics: 7.1.3.2 Balanced Ratio of Reflected to Direct Sound: 7.1.3.3 Optimum Growth and Decay of Sound:
In acoustical design the optimum RT has to be selected; its control consists of establishing the amount of room absorption in order to get the selected value or RT34. In almost every auditorium the audience provides most of the absorption (0.45 m2 sabins per person); with fluctuating attendance this can be counteracted by upholstered seats. As a general rule, sound-absorbing materials should be installed, where acoustical defects as echoes, flutter echoes, long-delayed reflections and sound concentrations might occur; that is first on the rear wall, then on those portions of the side walls which are furthest from the source or along the perimeter of the ceiling.
The most common acoustical defects are: 7.1.4.1 Echo: Noticeable when the sound is being reflected from one boundary surface with sufficient intensity and delay to be perceived as a distinct sound; it occurs if a minimum internal of 1/25 second (for speech) to 1/10 second (for music) elapses between the direct and the reflected sound; since the speed of sound is 344 m/sec, the critical time intervals correspond to minimum distance differences of 14 m for speech and 34 m for music.
7.1.4 Diminution of any Acoustical Defects:
A defect similar to echo except the time delay is somewhat less.
7.1.4.2 Long-delayed Reflection: 7.1.4.3 Flutter Echo:
Between parallel surfaces.
7.1.4.4 Sound Concentration: Caused by reflections from concave surfaces, occurs always at the expense of other areas, where hearing conditions are poor; if concave surfaces cannot be avoided, their focus point should be outside or above the audience area.
An unwanted change in quality of sound due to uneven sound absorption at different frequencies; to be avoided by balancing absorption characteristics over the entire audio-frequency range.
7.1.4.5 Distortion:
Most noticeable under balconies; under-balcony spaces with a depth more than twice the height, should be avoided. 7.1.5 Exclusion of Noises and Vibrating Interfering with any Performance:
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7.1.4.6 Sound Shadow:
See Sabine Formula. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 86 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
7.2 Recommended Volume-per-seat Values for various Types of Auditoriums:

Volume per Audience Seat in m3 __________________________________________________________________________ Type of Auditorium: Min. Opt. Max. __________________________________________________________________________ Rooms of Speech: 2.3 3.1 4.3 Concert Halls: 6.2 7.8 10.8 Opera Houses: 4.5 5.7 7.4 Roman Catholic Churches: 5.7 8.5 12.0 Protestant Churches: 5.1 7.2 9.1 Multipurpose Auditoriums: 5.1 7.1 8.5 Motion-picture Theatres: 2.8 3.5 5.1 Ref: L.L. Doelle Env. Acoustics, New York, 1972 P.52.
Situation: dB(A): __________________________________________________________________________ 1. Large Lecture Theatre, Conference Room, Council Chambers: 30 - 35 2. Bedroom, hotel Rooms: 35 3. Living Room Suburban: 45 4. Living Room - Country House: 40 5. Church: 35 6. Classroom: 30 - 35 7. Private Office: 35 - 40 8. Large Office: 40 - 45 9. General Office, Typing Pool, Accounts Office: 50 - 55 10. Cafeteria, Retail Store, Departmental Store: 50 - 55 11. Hospital Ward: 30 - 35 12. Precision Workshop: 40 - 55 13. Heavy Workshop: 60 - 70 14. Laboratory: 40 - 50 15. Radio Studio, Concert Hall: 25 16. Libraries: 45 17. Television Studios: 30 18. Open Air Theatres: 40 19. Banks: 50 20. Court Rooms: 35
7.3 Acceptable Intrusive Noise Levels:
Figure 7.1: Optimum Reverberation Time at 512 Cycles for Different Types of Rooms as a Function of Room Volume:

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: DEFINITIONS OF THE TERMS:
8.1 DEFINATIONS OF THE TERMS: 8.2 Intimacy or Presence:

A hall that is small has visual intimacy. A hall has acoustical intimacy if music played in it sounds as though it is being played in a small hall. In the special language of the recording and broadcasting industry, an intimate hall has Presence. A listeners impression of the size of a hall is determined by the initial-time-delay gap, the internal between the sound that arrives directly at his ear and the first reflection that arrives there from the walls or ceiling. In halls that musicians describe as having intimate acoustics, the sound-reflecting surfaces are found to be so arranged that the initial-time-delay gap is small, shorter than about 20 milliseconds, 20 one-thousandths of a second. In order for a hall to be intimate, the direct sound from the performers must be too faint relative to the reverberant sound. In the weighting of these attributes, intimacy will be found to be nearly three times as important as any other one of the subjective musical-acoustic attributes that follow.
A hall that is reverberant is called a live hall. A room that reflects too little sound back to the listener for instance, one with too much sound-absorbing material is called dead or dry. A hall is live whose cubic volume is large for the size of the audience that occupies it, and whose interior surfaces are sound-reflective. Liveness in a hall imparts fullness of tone to music. Liveness is related primarily to the reverberation time for the middle and high frequencies, those above about 500 cycles per second. A hall can sound live and still be deficient in bass. The term warmth describes the quality that results from reverberation at the low frequencies.
8.3 Liveness:
Warmth in music is defined as liveness of the bass, or fullness of the bass tone relative to that of the mid-frequency tone. Fullness of the bass tone occurs when the reverberation time for the low frequencies (250 cycles per second and below) is somewhat longer than the reverberation time for the middle frequencies (500 to 1000 cycles per second). If the reverberation time is shorter for the low frequencies than for the middle frequencies, the sound is said to be brittle. Sometimes in a small room or studio there is a wide gap between the acoustical resonances at the low frequencies
8.4 Warmth:
that the augmentation of the different musical tones is noticeably uneven. If some low-frequency tones are exaggerated, the resulting uneven sound may be what is called Boomy. Boomy acoustics rarely occur in large concert halls or opera houses, unless sound-absorbing materials effective only at the high frequencies (Trebles) have been used extensively on the walls and ceiling. Most concert halls that are highly regarded have a warm sound a rich, full bass. Table 8.1: Vocabulary of Subjective Attributes of Musical-acoustic Quality: QUALITY: ANTITHESIS: _______________________________________________________________________________
NOUN FORM: ADJECTIVE FORM: NOUN FORM: ADJECTIVE FORM:
8.5 Vocabulary of Subjective Attributes of Musical-acoustic Quality:
_______________________________________________________________________________ 1. Intimacy, Presence: Intimate: Lack of Intimacy: Non-intimate: Lack of Presence: 2. Liveness: Live: Dryness: Dry: Fullness of tone: Deadness: Dead: Reverberation: Reverberant: Lack of Unreverberant: Reverberation: Resonance: Resonant: Dryness: Dry: 3. Warmth: Warm: Lack of Bass: Brittle: 4. Loudness of the Loud Direct Sound: Faintness Faint Direct Sound: Weakness Weak 5. Loudness of the Loud Faintness Faint Reverberant Sound: Weakness Weak 6. Definition, Clarity: Clear: Poor Definition: Muddy: 7. Brilliance: Brilliant: Dullness: Dull: 8. Diffusion: Diffuse: Poor Diffusion: Non-diffused: 9. Balance: Balanced: Imbalance: Unbalanced: 10. Blend: Blended: Poor Blend: Unblended: 11. Ensemble: Poor Ensemble: 12. Response, Attack: Responsive: Poor Attack: Unresponsive: 13. Texture: Poor Texture: 14. No Echo: Echo-free: Echo: With Echo: Anechoic: Echoic: 15. Quiet: Quiet: Noise: Noisy: 16. Dynamic Range: Narrow Dynamic Range: 17. No Distortion: Undistorted: Distortion: Distorted: 18. Uniformity: Uniform: Non-uniformity: Non-uniform:
8.6 Loudness of the Direct Sound: Loudness is a complex attribute. Our impression of the loudness of music in a hall is made up of the loudness of the direct and the reverberant sound, and we shall discuss these two loudness separately.
In a small hall the direct sound created by the orchestra usually reaches the back rows of the audience with adequate loudness. But in a very large hall, particularly if the seats are not racked sufficiently toward the back, the loudness of the direct sound is too low by the time it reaches the distant listeners. This can be observed for outdoor listening. The best halls are of limited length, and the surfaces above and on the sides of the stage are planned to protect the sound evenly to the rear seats. The direct sound of an orchestra in a hall with normally racked seats is usually at its most comfortable level about 60 feet from the concertmaster.
8.7 Loudness of the Reverberant Sound:

The energy in the reverberant sound is related to two variables, the intensity of the sound that does not travel directly to the listener, and the reverberation time of the hall with audience and orchestra present. In a hall with very large cubic volume and a short reverberation time, the loudness of the reverberant sound for a passage that calls for the fortissimo will be insufficient to express the composers specification. On the other hand, if the hall is small and highly reverberant, a symphony orchestra playing a double forte passage may reach levels that cause ear tickle or at least discomfort to many listeners. Good halls achieve an adequate balance between these extremes. Liveness, warmth, and the loudness of the direct and reverberant sounds are next in importance to acoustical intimacy, and taken together, they receive a slightly greater weighting in the computational scheme.
A hall is said to have definition when the sound is clear and distinct. A hall lacking in definition gives music a blurred or muddy quality. The degree of definition in a hall is a function of the pattern of interior sound-reflecting surfaces and therefore related to the intimacy. It is also a function of the reverberation time and is therefore related to the liveness; it is a function of the distance of the listener from the performer and is therefore related to the loudness of the direct sound; and it is a function of the cubic volume of the room and is therefore related to the loudness of the reverberant sound. Thus although we may perceive it as an entity, definition is really a kind of integration of four or the five attributes just discussed and therefore is not given a separate numerical scale in the computational system.
8.8 Definition or Clarity:
8.9 Brilliance: Brilliance id defined as bright, clear, ringing sound, rich in harmonics. It comes from the relative prominence of the treble and the slowness of its decay. It is affected by the initial-time-delay gap, the ration of the reverberation times at high frequencies to those at middle frequencies, the distance of the listener from the performers, and the presence in the hall of suitable sound-reflecting surfaces. A hall that has liveness at the high frequencies, clarity, and acoustical intimacy has brilliant sound. In other words, brilliance is closely related to three of the six attributes discussed above and is not given a separate numerical scale in the computational system.
Good balance entails both the balance between the sections of the orchestra and the balance between orchestra and vocal or instrumental soloists. Some of the ingredients that combine to give good balance to a concert hall are acoustic and some are musical. The stage enclosure should be properly designed for width, depth, height, and it should have irregularities on its inner surfaces. There should be either a partially open ceiling or reflecting panels at the sides and over the forward part of the audience. Beyond that, balance is in the hands of the musicians; the conductors seating of the sections and his control of the players. In an opera house, both the stage design and the pit design affect the balance of singer and orchestra as well as the conductors control of the orchestra.
8.10 Balance:
8.11 Blend:
Blend is defined as a mixing of the sounds from the various instruments of the orchestra in such a way that they seem harmonious to the listener. Blend is partly a matter of disposition of the orchestra, which should be spread neither too wide nor too deep. Blend also strongly depends on the design of the ceiling over the stage and on the presence of splayed surfaces that mix the sound before it emerges from the stage enclosure. Usually, balance and blend are treated under one heading because both depend on the design of the sending end of the hall.
8.12 Ensemble (Ease of Hearing among Performers):

Ensemble refers to the performers ability to play in unison, that is to say, the extent to which they initiate and release their notes simultaneously so that many voices sound as one. In order to achieve good ensemble, the musicians must be able to hear their fellow performers in the orchestra. If the stage or pit is very wide and shallow, the two sides of the orchestra will not be able to hear each other and the ensemble will be poor. The stage enclosure and the reflecting surfaces at the sides and above the stage are in general responsible for carrying the sounds from the performers on one part of the stage to those on other parts.
Diffusion, balance and blend, and ensemble are next in importance to the five most significant attributes named above; intimacy, liveness, warmth, loudness of the direct sound, and loudness of the reverberant sound.
Echo describes a delayed reflection sufficiently loud to annoy the listeners. It may come from ceiling surfaces that are very high or that focus sound into one part of the hall. Echo commonly results from a long high curved rear wall whose focal point is near the front of the audience or even on the stage. Echo is most likely to occur in the front seats of large halls and in halls with short reverberation time. If echo has not been avoided in the initial design of a hall, changes must be made in the reflecting surfaces after the hall is complete.
8.13 Freedom from Echo:
A concert hall must be free of extraneous noise from traffic, from adjoining halls or practice rooms, from subways, airplanes, ventilating systems, and movement of late-comers on stairways and in passageways. It is commonplace that the first factor in good design of a hall for music is the isolation of all external noise sources from the listeners. Many a good hall, has been undone by ventilation system noise or traffic or aircraft noise.
8.14 Freedom from Noise:
9.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 9: 9.1 NOISE CONTROL: 9.2 Generally: 9.3 Classification of Noise Control: 9.4 Interior Noise: 9.5 Outdoor Noise: 9.6 Airborne Noise: 9.7 Structure-borne Sound: 9.8 Impact Noise or Vibrations: 9.9 Urban or Environmental Noise: 9.10 Mitigating Mechanisms: 9.11 Specific Solutions: 9.12 Organisation: 9.13 Sound-absorptive Treatment: 9.14 Masking Noise: 10.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 10: 10.1 DESIGN FOR SOUND-INSULATION: 10.2 Protection against Airborne Sound: 10.3 Transmission Loss: 10.4 Single-leaf Partitions: 10.5 Mass Law: 10.6 Multiple Partition: 10.7 Franking Partition: 10.8 Impact Noise: 10.9 Sound-insulating Building Constructions: 10.10 Noise Criterion (NC) Level: 10.11 Noise Criterion Curves: 10.12 Optimum Performance of Elements: 10.13 Walls: 10.14 Floors/Ceilings: 10.15 Doors and Movable Partitions: 10.16 Windows: 10.17 SOUND INSULATION: 10.18 Transmission Loss Data for Common Building Constructions:
11.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 11: 11.1 NOISE CRITERIA: 11.2 Background Noise Level: 11.3 Noise Criterion (NC) Curves: 11.4 Example: Criteria for Residential Buildings:
12.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 12: 12.1 PREDICTION METHODS/CALCULATIONS: 12.2 CINEMA: 12.3 Reverberation Calculation: 12.4 Cinemas: Monophonic Sound:
12.5 Cinemas: Stereophonic Sound:
12.6 Cinema: Reverberation Calculations:
12.7 Cinema: Drawings:
13.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 13: 13.1 NOISE CONTROL: MATERIAL TESTING: 14.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 14: 14.1 ROOM ACOUSTICS: REVERBERATION TIME IN AUDITORIUMS: 14.2 Donovan Theatre:
Figure 14.1: Plan of Donovan Theatre: Finishes Within The Theatre: Floor: Carpeted Finish. Wall: Wood Paneling & Fiberboard Finish. Stage: Hard Wooden. Ceiling: Stepped with Tyrolean Finish.
Figure 14.2: Section A-A of Donovan Theatre:
Figure 14.3: Seat Details of Donovan Theatre:
14.3 National Theatre:
Figure 14.4: Plan of National Theatre:

Note: 15 Rows x 24 Persons Each (Total: 360 Low & 70 Balcony).
Finishes Within The Theatre: Floor: Carpeted Finish. Walls: Timber Lined with Acoustic Tiles. Stage: Hard Timber. Ceiling: Concrete & Timber Lining Finish.
Figure 14.5: Seat Details of National Theatre:

Note: Back to Back Dimension: 81 cm.
14.4 Kenyatta Conference Centre:
Figure 14.6: Plan of Kenyatta Conference Centre (Plenary Hall): Finishes Within The Theatre: Floor: Solid & PVC. Walls: Wooden Paneling, Concrete & Glass. Ceiling: Chiseled Dressed & Wooden Paneling. Acoustically: Hall is very good.
Figure 14.7: Section Y Y of Kenyatta Conference Centre (Plenary Hall):
Figure 14.8: External Image of Kenyatta Conference Centre:

14.5 Bomas of Kenya:
Figure 14.9: Section A-A of Bomas of Kenya: Finishes Within The Theatre: Floor: Concrete Finished Auditorium. Stage: Wooden Finish. Walls: Concrete Blocks, Open & Glazed. Ceiling: Wooden Log Trusses & Slate Finished Roof. Acoustically: Hall is not good.
Figure 14.10: Section B-B of Bomas of Kenya: Finishes Within The Theatre: Floor: Wooden Blocked Finish. Walls: Wooden Paneling & Plastered Finish.
14.6 City Hall:
15.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 15: 15.1 BLOCK COURSES/SEMINARS WITH OUTSIDE PARTICIPATION: 16.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 16: 16.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
INTO STUDIO DESIGN PROGRAMMES (STUDIO):
17.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 17: 17.1 Environmental Laboratory and Workshop: Department of Architecture & 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9
Building Science, University of Nairobi: Environmental Laboratory: Environmental Workshop: Main Space: Acoustic Dead Room: Instrument Room: Environmental Library: Manual Equipment: Digital & Analogue Equipment:
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI: DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE: ENVIRONMENT AT MEASURING EQUIPMENT: Prof. Carl Pinfold (17th February, 1976).
The range of acoustic measuring devices is wide and sophisticated. For field measurement of acoustic climate there are a variety of portable and less portable devices but today we generally use a portable tape recorder to record the phenomenon and do our analysis of these in the laboratory. By first recording a pilot tone of known intensity onto the recorder we can later refer all subsequently recorded sounds to this datum. Furthermore, using a Graphical Recorder we can get a visual picture of the rise and fall of sound over a recorded period. By further coupling a Statistical Distribution Analyzer to the Graphical Recorder we can obtain mathematically descriptive data about the noise climate such as the percentages of time during which certain intensity levels were exceeded. By introducing Filters into the above network we can obtain information about prevalence of various frequency bands and indeed frequency spectrum. By replacing the microphone in the above chain of equipment with an Accelerometer the same kind of information can be obtained about vibration. In auditorium and room acoustics the Reverberation Time of a space can be measured as follows:
17.10 Environment at Measuring Equipment: 17.10.1 Acoustic: 17.10.2 Acoustic Measuring Devices:
A blank cartridge pistol can be fired in the space. The resulting sound can be graphical trace on the Graphical Recorder. Alternatively, a microphone and amplifier can be directly connected to the Graphical Recorder and the resulting trace examined. A special protractor is used to measure Reverberation Time from the slope of the trace. All the above operations are concerned with measuring existing environmental situations. However, there have been developments in recent years whereby predictive tests can be made on models. This was first explored by Spandok in the late 1930s fro auditorium acoustics and this was later developed by Jordan who used the system to assist in the design of the Sydney Opera House. In 1965 -68 the system was further developed by Pinfold (see New Scientist Dec. 68) for examining the distribution of Traffic Noise using models. The general principle is to multiply the frequency of the signal by the scale factor of the model. Measurement of the acoustic insulation value of various forms of construction is carried out by feeding a Loudspeaker at one side of the barrier with a Signal Generator using either Sine Waves or Random Noise. The intensity levels between the two sides are compared by the use of a Sound Level Meter or a Frequency Spectrum Analyzer. The absorption characteristic of a material can be measure in a Standing Wave Apparatus but this method has fallen into disuse. The method now in common use is to place a large area of the material (or combination of materials) in a reverberant chamber to measure the reduction in reverberation time which its presence causes. From the Sabine Formula it is then possible to calculate the absorption coefficient of the material. This latter method is to be preferred as it gives the absorption characteristic in respect of a Random Incidence sound field. The Standing Wave Method gives results only in respect of Normal Incidence. There are many other Acoustic Measuring Devices but they are mostly for rather specialized use and need not concern the practicing architect.

University of Nairobi/Department of Architecture: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: ACOUSTICS: SOUND SURVEY USING THE B & K TYPE 2203 PRECISION SOUND LEVEL METRE: By Professor H.C. Pinfold (2oth May 1975), Nairobi University School of Architecture.
This sound level meter is a very expensive instrument and is only taken into the field when very accurate and detailed study of noise is necessary.
18.1 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: 18.2 Sound Survey Using the B&K Type 2203 Precision Sound Level Meter:
Figure18.1: Precision Sound Level Meter. Testing of Batteries: Before taking the instrument out, always set the central knob to battery in order to test whether the batteries are fully charged for the job in hand. This test is made by pulling the central knob outwards and noting whether the pointer or meter scale falls within the range marked battery, if not, the batteries must be changed. Octave Filter Set: The meter is sometimes accompanied by the Octave Filter Set Type 1613 which enables sound measurements to be taken at specific bands of frequencies. Measuring Sound Levels on either A, B and C Weighting (Linear or External Filter): The meter can be used to measure sound levels on either A, B and C Weighting, Linear or External Filter. For noise measurements the central knob is switched to A. B and C Weighting are seldom used. Linear is always used when tape recordings are made and denotes that there is no frequency discrimination in circuit. External filter means that type 1613 Octave Filter is being used and the meter will then only respond to frequencies in the octave settings to which the filter knob is set.
18.2.1
18.2.2
18.2.3
Rapid or Damped Response of Meter: It will be noted that the central function knob which switches the instrument on when pulled out can be turned to settings on the left or right. These settings are identical except that on the one side the meter responds very rapidly to charges of noise level and on the side the meter is damped so that while the sound level is rapidly fluctuating, the meter will average the levels by responding slowly to charges and hence will be more readily readable. Range of Readings: The meter dial is graduated from -10 through 0 to +10 decibels. Above the meter face are two concentric knobs and with these knobs we are able to set the range over which the meter will measure. Thus, if the range knobs are set so that the figure 70 appears in the red circle, this means that a reading of 4 decibels on the meter must be added to 70 or 5 should be subtracted giving 74 and 65 decibels respectively. The two concentric knobs should always be used in such a way that the black lower knob is as far clockwise as it is possible to locate the required range within the red circle. Calibration of Meter: If the meter has not been used for some while, it should be calibrated with a piston phone either type 4220 or type 4230. With type 4220, the mouth of the calibrator is placed gently over the microphone and its switch set to Measure. The function switch on the sound level meter is set to linear and the range switch to 120. The meter should read 4 decibels and if it does not do so, adjustments should be made with the adjusting screw to the left above the dial until the correct reading is obtained. For calibrator 4230, set the range to 90 and the meter should read 94. Taking Readings: The meter should be held more or less horizontally, slightly away from the body and pointing to the source of sound. When taking measurements one should always try to be more than one meter away from a vertical surface such as a wall, a window, etc. Average and Instantaneous Readings: 18.2.8 The functions switch may be used in the Slow position to determine average levels of sound but where momentary peaks of sound are of interest, the meter should be set at Fast. Most measurements for noise survey purposes are taken with the functions switch at A; but where noise such a industrial noise from machinery is involved, an analysis of the noise spectrum should be made by bringing the filter set into operation and taking readings at each octave band. For measurements at night, the dial should be lit up by pressing the knob above it marked Light.
18.2.4
18.2.5
18.2.6
18.2.7
19.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 19: 19.1 COMPUTER SOFTWARES: 19.2 Ebacoustics Software:
Ebacoustics:
Acoustics Design and Assessment Software: User Manual:
Ebacoustics Res Det 2007 Version: Abstract

SOFTWARE BASE NAME: Ebacoustics CURRENT VERSION: Ebacoustics Res Det 2007 Version. RECIPE: BASIC INGREDIENT: Res (Research). MENU: CUSTOMISED PRODUCT: Det (Detail Applications). YEAR OF DEVELOPMENT: 2007 Version. SLOGAN: Acoustics Design and Assessment Software. MOTIVATION: Bridging the information and technological gap. Development of indigenous and appropriate tools to achieve millennium goals. PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION: TARGET MARKET: PRESTIGE (FLAGSHIP). RESEARCH GROUPS: Researchers: Professionals, Government Organs, UN Organs, International Bodies, NGOs, CBOs, Academics, Students, Consultants, Corporations, Computer Companies. 1st January 2007 to 31st December 2007. Student: Individual: Academic Institution: Corporate: Student: Individual: Academic Institution: Corporate: Single User (1 Pac Max). Single User (1 Pac Max). Multiple User (30 Pac Max). Multiple User (30 Pac Max). Kshs. 5,000/- per annum. Kshs. 10,000/- per annum. Kshs. 150,000/- per annum. Kshs. 225,000/- per annum.
19.3 CHAPTER 1: EBACOUSTICS35 PROGRAM: INTRODUCTION: 19.3.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE SOFTWARE:
PERIOD OF LICENCE: TYPE OF LICENCE:
CONSIDERATION:
35
Ebacoustics 2007 is a Registered Trade Name under the Laws of Kenya, Copy Right and Trade Marks Act. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 117 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
19.3.2 OUTLINE OF FUNCTIONING: SOFTWARE BASE NAME: Ebacoustics SOFWARE LANGUAGE: MS Excel36 2003 Version. CURRENT VERSION: Ebacoustics Res Det 2007 Version. (FOR RESTRICTED USE ONLY).
FIRST GENERATION SOFWARE: These are first generation softwares using basic knowledge and tools available in everyday use. Second generation softwares would use more advance computer language such as Visual Basic or MS Access, while third generation softwares would be interfaces. PRODUCT RANGE: Based on following: PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION: RECIPE or BASIC INGREDIENT: MENU or CUSTOMISED PRODUCT: YEAR OF DEVELOPMENT: SPECIAL PRODUCTS: ECONOMY: STANDARD: PRESTIGE: Class. Optimum. Flagship.
PRODUCT CLASSIFICATION:
RECIPE: BASIC INGREDIENT: Pro Software: Level 1: Professional Version. Primarily for NEW PROJECTS and uses BASELINE CLIMATE DATA and OPTIMUM CONDITIONS (Rural Conditions). Aca Software: Level 2: Academic Version. In addition to the above, it can also be used to analyze existing scenarios and buildings. It also uses DATALOGGED INFORMATION, QUESTIONAIRS AND OBSERVATION DATA and IN-SITU CONDITIONS (Urban Micro Conditions).
36
Microsoft and Excel are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation and you would need a separate license to use these products directly from the developers. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 118 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
Res Software: Level 3: Research Version. In addition to the two above, it can also combine the two conditions (Macro Conditions). MENU: CUSTOMISED PRODUCT: Plan: Planning Applications: District Analysis. Arch: Architectural Applications: Building Analysis. Det: Detail Application: Elemental Analysis. YEAR OF DEVELOPMENT: 2007 Version. ANALOQUE CHOICES: Ebacoustics uses standard phrases or jargons to depict certain actions or course of action which make the flow of data seamless and will assist in back track analysis to check any errors or mitigating actions. This forms the basis for structuring or preparation of standard protocols for the main program: EBACOUSTICS 2007. The program is set up using workbook, which can be added or deleted as the need may arise. It comprises of either Mandatory or Selective Workbooks.
MANDETORY WORKBOOKS: These workbooks form a vital component of the basic program. Ebacoustics 2007 has 13 Mandatory Workbooks: Pro Version: 4 Workbooks, Aca Version: 4 Additional Workbooks and Res Version: 5 Additional Workbooks. SELECTIVE WORKBOOKS: You may choose to use information from this group of workbooks. Some of this information could be got from other sources and is subject to revision or upgrading as new knowledge is acquired. Ebacoustics 2007 has 13 Selective Workbooks to choose from: Pro Version: 3 Workbooks, Aca Version: 6 Additional Workbooks and Res Version: 4 Additonal Workbooks. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 119 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
19.3.3
EBACOUSTICS PRICE GUIDE:

DATED: 23rd April 2007
The following is the recommended price guide for various products: Ebacoustics37 2007: Brand Class: Economy: Economy: Economy: Economy: Standard: Standard: Standard: Standard: Product Type: Pro Det: Pro Arch: Pro Plan: Pro Special# Aca Det: Aca Arch: Aca Plan: Aca Special# Annual License Classification: Kshs/Annum. Student: Individual: Acad. Institution: Corporate: 2,000/-^ 2,000/-^ 30,000/-+ 45,000/-+ 78,750/-* 3,500/3,500/52,500/-* 112,500/-* 5,000/5,000/75,000/-* 2,000/3,000/5,250/7,500/5,000/8,750/12,500/75,000/131,250/-* 187,500/-* 112,500/196,875/-* 281,250/-*
Prestige: Res Det: 5,000/10,000/150,000/225,000/393,750/-* Prestige: Res Arch: 8,750/17,500/262,500/-* 562,500/-* Prestige: Res Plan: 12,500/25,000/375,000/-* Prestige: Res Special# ______________________________________________________________________
Note: 1. These prices are provisional and subject to change without notice and do not represent a commitment on the part of Ebenergy Enterprises. 2. License expires after due date and product should be discarded environmentally safely or renewed for a discounted latest version. 3. Student License: 1 Pac maximum (Single User). 4. Individual License: 1 Pac Maximum (Single User). 5. Academic Institutional License: 30 Pac Maximum (Multiple User): 50% Discount. 6. Corporate License: 30 Pac Maximum (Multiple User): 25% Discount.
+ *
Denotes Currently Available (Allow 2 Weeks for delivery nationally). Denotes Available on Special Order (Allow 1 Month for delivery nationally). # Denotes Special Publication limited to a particular Project/Time/Application. ^ Currently being published and expected launched in August 2007.
37
Ebacoustics 2007 is a Registered Trade Name under the Laws of Kenya, Copy Right and Trade Marks Act. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Page: 120 of 168 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: Yusuf H. Ebrahim
19.4 Ebacoustics Res Det 2007 Version: 19.5 Worked Example:
20.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 20: 20.1 APPENDIX: 20.2 APPENDIX 1: Acoustical Sensation: 20.3 APPENDIX 2: Effects of Noise: 20.4 APPENDIX 3: Recommended Background Noise or Noise Criteria: 20.5 APPENDIX 4: S.P.L. (dB-A) of different NC-Curves at Particular
Frequencies: 20.6 APPENDIX 5: 20.7 APPENDIX 6: 20.8 APPENDIX 7: Recommended Acoustic Standards: Acceptable Intrusive Noise Levels: Recommended NC Levels for Various Environments:
20.9 APPENDIX 8:
Equivalent dB(A) Traffic Noise Level:
20.10 APPENDIX 9:
Increase or Reduction by Change or Distance:
20.11 APPENDIX 10: 20.12 APPENDIX 11: 20.13 APPENDIX 12: 20.14 APPENDIX 13:
Reduction by Buildings: Reduction by Shrubs and Trees: Influence by Wind: Reduction by Noise Shadowing:
20.15 APPENDIX 14: Some Typical Sound Pressure Levels in Some Common
Environments: 20.16 APPENDIX 15: Typical Noise Level Data in Decibels: 20.17 APPENDIX 16: BZ Classification Reference Curves:
20.18 APPENDIX 17: L. Doelle Classification: Sound Absorption Coefficients of

Building Materials, Acoustical Materials and Room Contents:
20.19 APPENDIX 18: J.E. Moore Classification: Sound Absorption Coefficients of

Building Materials, Acoustical Materials and Room Contents:
20.20 APPENDIX 19: Equal Loudness Contours:
20.21 APPENDIX 20: Octave Band Sound Pressure level and Octave Band Centre
Frequency:
20.22 APPENDIX 21: Sound Absorption Coefficient of Building Materials, Acoustical

Materials and Room Contents.
21.0 ADDENDUM: 21.1 GLOSSORY:
Anecdotal: Based on anecdotes and possibly not true or accurate. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P37. Anecdote: A short, interesting or amusing story about a real person or event. This research is based on anecdote not fact. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P37. Atom: BioClimate: Climatic: The smallest part of a chemical ELEMENT that can take part in a chemical reaction. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P60. Combining form (in nouns, adjectives and adverbs) connected with living things or human life. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P103. The regular pattern of weather conditions of a particular place. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P202. (Only before noun) connected with weather of a particular area. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P203. Climatology: The scientific study of climate. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P203. Climogram: Zone depicting the Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) and Relative Humidity (RH) for a climatic region on the Bio-climatic Chart. Ref: Appendices 21.5: Climatic Site Analysis. Detect: To discover or notice _. Especially _ that is not easy to see hear etc. The tests are designed to detect the disease early. An instrument that can detect small amounts of radiation. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P317.
Detection: The process of detecting _. The fact of being detected. Early detection of cancers is vitally important. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P317. Diagnose: To say exactly what an illness or the cause of a problem is. This test is used to diagnose a variety of diseases. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P320 Diagnosis: The act of discovering or identifying the exact cause of an illness or a problem. An accurate diagnosis was made after a series of tests. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P320. Diagnostic: Connected with identifying; especially an illness. To carry out diagnostic assessments/tests: specific conditions which are diagnostic of Aids. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P320.
Electron:
Physics: A very small piece of MATTER (= A Substance) with a Negative Electric Charge, found in all atoms See also NEUTRON, PROTON. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P375.
Elective:
Using or chosen by election. Having the power to elect. MEDICAL TREATMENT: That you choose to have. OF A COURSE OR SUBJECT: that a student can choose to do. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P374. Biology: A unit inside a cell which controls a particular quality in a living thing that has been passed on from its parents. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P492.
Gene:
Genealogy: 1. The study of family history, including the study of who the ancestors of a particular person were. 2. A particular persons line of ancestors; a diagram that shows this. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P492. Genetics: The study of the Genes. The scientific study of the ways in which different characteristics are passed from each GENERATION of living things to the next. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P494. Hypothesis: An idea or explanation of _ that is based on a few known facts but that has not yet been proven to be true or correct: to formulate/confirm a hypothesis: guesses and ideas that are based on certain knowledge. Ref: Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P590. Hypothesize: To suggest a way of explaining _ when you do not definitely know about it; to form a hypothesis. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P590. Hypothetical: Based on situations or ideas which are possible and imagined rather than real and true: a hypothetical question/situation/example. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P590. Isobar: A line on a weather map that joins places that have the same air pressure at a particular time. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P636. Isopleths: Lines of identical value. Ref: Meffert Erich F. Prof (1978). Isotherm: A line on a weather map that joins places that have the same temperature at a particular time. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P636. Meteorology: The scientific study of the earths atmosphere and its changes, used especially in FORECASTING the weather (= saying what it will be like). Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P740. Neutron: Physics: A very small piece of MATTER (= A Substance) that carries No electric
CHARGE and that forms part of the NUCLEUS (= central Part) of an ATOM See also ELECTRON, PROTON. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P787. Nucleus: Noun: Nuclei 1. Physics: The central part of an atom, that contains most of its MASS (= Weight) and that carries a Positive Electric Charge See also PROTON, NEUTRON. 2. Biology: The central part of some cells, containing the GENETIC Material. 3. The Central part of 5th around which other parts are situated or collected: e.g. These paintings will form the nucleus of a new collection. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P800. Prescribe: To tell _ to take a particular medicine or have a particular treatment. E.g. Valium is usually prescribed to treat anxiety. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P917. Prescription: An official piece of paper on which a Doctor (PROFESSIONAL) writes the type of Medicine (REMEDY) you should have and which enables you to get it from a Chemist/Pharmacist (SPECIALIST). Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P918. Proton: Physics: A very small piece of MATTER (= A Substance) with a Positive Electric Charge that forms part of the NUCLEUS (= Central Part) of an Atom See also ELECTRON, NEUTRON. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P938. Remedial: Aimed at solving a problem, especially when this involves correcting or improving _ that has been done wrong. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P991. Remedy: A way of dealing with or improving an unpleasant or difficult situation: 1). A treatment or medicine to cure a disease or reduce disease or reduce pain that is not very serious. 2). A way of dealing with a problem, using the processes of the law. 3). To correct of improve _. 4). To remedy a deficiency. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P991. Selective: Affecting or concerned with only a small number of people or things from a larger group. Tending to be careful about what or whom you choose. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P1067. Template: A thing that is used as a model for producing other similar examples. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P1233. Weather: The condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, such as the temperature, and if there is wind, rain, sun, etc. Ref: Hornby, A.S. (2003): P203.
21.2 SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT:

BASIC SI UNITS (Ref: Koenigsberger, O.H. et al. (1973): P313).
Unit Symbol: m kg s K rad Name of Unit: metre kilogramme second degree Kelvin radian Accepted Units: km, cm, mm, nm tonne (= 1000kg), g (gramme) Time: Temperature: Plane Angle: ms (millisecond), minute, hour 1 oC (Celsius)=1 DegK Deg (degree) (minute) (second) Solid Angle: sr steradian angle subtended at Center of unit radius circle by unit length of arc. solid angle subtended at center of unit radius sphere by unit area of surface. Area: Volume: Density: Velocity: (Linear) Acceleration Force: Work, Energy: m/s N J (N m)
2
Quantity: Length: Mass:
Definition:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sq.M Cu.M kg/Cu.M m/s
Square Metre Cubic Metre Kilogramme per cubic metre metre per second metre per second squared Newton Joule kg m/ s
2
Square with sides of unit length. Cube with sides on unit length. Unit mass per unit volume. Unit length movement in unit time. Unit velocity change in unit time. Causing unit acceleration of unit mass.
2
1 km/h=0.278 m/s 1 knot=1.853 km/h
KN, MN kg Sq.M/s 1Wh=3600J 1kWh=3600kJ Power or Flow Rate: Density of Energy Flow Rate (Intensity): Thermal Capacity: J/DegC W (J/s) W/m2 Watt Megawatt Watt per Metre Squared kg Sq.M/s2 Kilowatt kW/ m2
Unit force acting over unit length. Unit energy spent Energy in unit time. Unit energy flow rate through unit area. Energy required by body for unit temperature increase.
Specific Heat: J/kg DegC J/Cu.M DegC Thermal Conductivity: W/m DegC Energy required by temperature increase (Per unit mass or unit volume). Heat flow rate through unit area of unit thickness of substance with unit temperature difference between the two faces. Thermal Transmittance: W/m2 DegC Heat flow rate through unit area of body with unit difference in temperature of air on the two sides. Latent Heat, Calorific Value: J/kg Change in energy content at change of state, or heat produced by combustion (Per unit mass or unit volume).
a A c
= = =
21.3 LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATIONS:
C Cv cal d e E f F fo fi h I Is I1 J k
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Thermal Diffusivity / Temperature Conductivity: m2.s-1 Area in m2 or Thermal Capacity in oK.s-1 Constant / Coefficient, for instance: cr = Radiation Coefficient = Convection Coefficient. -1 o -1 Or Specific Heat in J.Kg . K , Or Speed of Light. Conductance = 1/R in W.m-2.oK-1. Ventilation Conductance. Calorie. Depth / Thickness in m. Effectiveness of Openings. Energy of Work (Kg.m2.s-2) in Joules (J) or newtons x metre (N.m). Frequency. Flux. Surface Conductance Outside. Surface Conductance Inside. Hour (s). Intensity. Global Colar Incident, Direct & Diffuse (Short-wave) in Watts (J.s-1). Long-wave Radiation in Watts. Joule = N.m Conductivity, see also (Greek small letter Lamda).
K kg ly m N n Pw R Rsi Rso Q Qw Qg Q~ Qv Qf q q~ s S Sa t t tai tei tmr s tso tsi T U v V vol Y
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
Thermal Gradient in degree Kelvin. Kilogram. Langley. Meter. Newton. Number of Air Changes per Hour (ach). (Greek small letter Rho) = Density in Kg.m-3. Wind Pressure in Pascals (N.m-2). Resistance = 1/C (m2.oK.W-1). Internal Surface Resistance. External Surface Resistance. Heat Flow Rate in Watts. Heat Flow through the Opaque Portion of Wall. Heat Flow through Glazed Window. Cyclic Heat Flow. Heat Flow through Ventilation. Heat Flow through Fabric. Heat Flow Rate Density in W.m-2. Cyclic Heat Flow Rate Density. Second, occasionally also sec. Solar Gain Factor for Glass. Alternating Solar Gain Factor. Temperature in Centigrade (oC). Thermal Gradient ( = Greek capital letter Delta). Ambient Temperature Inside, occasionally also ta. Environmental Temperature, for inside conditions = 1/3tai+2/3tmr. Mean Radiant Temperature. Mean Temperature. Sol-air Temperature. Surface Temperature Outside. Surface Temperature Inside. Absolute Temperature in oK (oC + 273). Transmittance = U-value in W.m-2.oK-1. Air Velocity in m.s-1. Ventilation Rate m3.s-7. Volume in m3. Thermal Admittance = 1/R (Cyclic Heat Flow) in W.m-2.oK. Absorptivity ( = Greek small letter Alpha). Angle of Incident ( = Greek small letter Beta).
Emissivity ( = Greek small letter Epsilon). Diffusivity ( = Greek small letter Delta). Time Lag in Hours ( = Greek small letter Gamma). Decrement Factor ( = Micro Sign). Given Time ( = Greek small letter Theta). Wavelength, measured in m = 10-4 cm, or nm = 10-7 cm, or conductivity, see also k ( = Greek small letter Lamda). = Stefan-Boltzmann-constant ( = Latin capital letter EZH). = Sum ( = Greek capital letter Sigma). = Density ( = Latin small letter Turne). Other abbreviations used are explained within the text.
= = = = = =
Hornby, A.S. (2003): Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. Sixth Edition. Oxford University Press. Koenigsberger, O.H. et al. (1973): Manuel of tropical housing and building: Part one: Climatic design. Longman Group Limited, London. Meffert Erich F. Prof: (1978): The Hygrothermal Factor. Lecture Notes: University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture (7/11/78). Unpublished paper. (1979): Six Shadow Charts for Latitudes 4 North to 6 South. Environmental Science Paper No. 2. University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture. All charts have been designed by Paul Dequeker and are published with his permission. Responsible for this edition: Prof. Erich F. Meffert. Hygrothermal Comfort in Lamu Town: A Building-climatological Investigation into a High-density Settlement in the Warm-Humid Climate of the Kenyan Coast. Paper No. 6: Environmental Science. University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture.
21.4 REFERENCES:
(1980):
(1981: A): The Urban Heat Island of Nairobi. Paper No. 9: Environmental Science. University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture. (1981: B): Bouwcentrum International Education Workshop 4/38th ICHPB: Oct. 15
1981. Prof. Meffert Contribution Papers. (1981: C): FAO Course September 1981 in Nairobi / Environmental Building Science Manuscript. Diagrams for FAO Project: Rural Structures Development of Psychrometric Chart with Human Comfort superimposed on it. Climate Site Analysis. Lecture Notes: University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture 1986/87 (Physical Environment IV). Unpublished paper. Zanzibar Stonetown A Place of Many Seasons. Chief Technical Adviser, UNDP/UNCHS Habitat Project, Rehabilitation Zanzibar Stonetown. African Urban Quarterly Limited, P.O. Box 74165, Nairobi, Kenya and World Meteorological Organization (August 1992). Editor: R.A. Obudho, University of Nairobi. Special Issue of African Urban Quarterly: World Climate Programme, Applications and Services: Urban Climatology in Africa, Volume 5 Number 1 & 2, February & May 1990. Page: 122-123.
(1986):
(1989):
Olgyay, Victor (1963): Design with Climate: Bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK UON SERIES:
PRODUCT PRICE GUIDE:
Nairobi, Kenya.
DATED: January 2008: The following is the recommended price guide for various products: Retail Price Guide: Building Science Text Book Series:
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Product EE: Within Kenya Name: Code: Kshs. Building Science Text Book Series: Book 1: Elementary Course: E1000 9966-784-48-9 Book 1: Part A: Framed Elementary Course: E1010 1,990/9966-784-07-1 Book 1: Part 1: Introduction to Climatology and Meteorology: E1100 1,990/ISBN:
Abroad: US $ 35 35
Book 1: Part 2: Elementary Thermal Design, Ventilation and Solar Control: E1200 9966-784-00-4 Book 1: Part 2: Section 1: Elementary Thermal Design: E1210 1,990/35 9966-784-01-2 Book 1: Part 2: Section 2: Elementary Solar Control: E1220 1,990/35 9966-784-02-0 Book 1: Part 2: Section 3: Elementary Ventilation and Air Flow Design: E1230 1,990/- 35 9966-784-03-9 Book 1: Part 2: Section 4: Elementary Artificial, Hybrid and Intelligent Climatic Systems: E1240 1,990/35 Book 1: Part 3: Elementary Lighting Design: E1300 9966-784-04-7 Book 1: Part 3: Section 1: Natural Lighting Design: E1310 1,990/35 9966-784-05-5 Book 1: Part 3: Section 2: Artificial Lighting Design: E1320 1,990/35 9966-784-06-3 Book 1: Part 3: Section 3: Elementary Artificial, Hybrid and Intelligent Lighting Systems: E1330 1,990/35 Book 1: Part 4: Elementary Acoustics Design and Noise Control: E1400 9966-784-08-X Book 1: Part 4: Section 1: Noise Control: E1410 1,990/35 9966-784-09-8 Book 1: Part 4: Section 2: Room Acoustics: E1420 1,990/35 9966-784-10-1 Book 1: Part 4: Section 3: Elementary Artificial, Hybrid and Intelligent Acoustic Systems: E1430 1,990/35 9966-784-11-X Book 1: Part 5: Elementary Sustainable Design: E1500 1,990/35 Book 1: Part 6: Elementary Past Examination Papers: 2008: Book 1: Part 6: Section 1: Year 1: 2008: 9966-784-55-1Book 1: Part 6: Section 2: Year 2: 2008: 9966-784-54-3Book 1: Part 6: Section 3: Year 3: 2008: Book 1: Part 6: Section 4: Year 4: 2008: Book 1: Part 6: Section 5: Year 5: 2008: 9966-784-53-5Book 1: Part 7: Elementary Thesis Index: 2008: E1600 E1610 E1620 E1630 E1640 E1650 1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35
E1700 1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/-
Book 1: Part 8: Elementary Sustainable Architecture Studio: 2008: E1800 Book 1: Part 8: Section 1: Elementary Studio 1: 2008: E1810 Book 1: Part 8: Section 2: Elementary Studio 2: 2008: E1820 Book 1: Part 8: Section 3: Elementary Studio 3: 2008: E1830 Book 1: Part 8: Section 4: Elementary Studio 4: 2008: E1840 Book 1: Part 8: Section 5: Elementary Studio 5: 2008: E1850 Book 1: Part 8: Section 6: Elementary Studio 6: 2008: E1860
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Building Science Text Book Series: Book 2: Advanced Course: E2000 9966-784-49-7 Book 1: Part A: Framed Advanced Course: E2010 1,990/35 9966-784-12-8 Book 2: Part 1: The Human Factor in Environmental Design: E2100 1,990/35 9966-784-13-6 Book 2: Part 2: Applied Design Studio in Environmental Building Science: E2200 1,990/- 35 Book 2: Part 3: Advanced Thermal Design, Ventilation and Solar Control: E2300 1,990/- 35 9966-784-14-4 Book 2: Part 3: Section 1: Advanced Thermal Design: E2310 1,990/35 Influence of Heat Island on the Comfort of the Building Users: Case of City of Nairobi. 9966-784-15-2 Book 2: Part 4: Advanced Lighting Design: E2400 1,990/35 9966-784-16-0 Book 2: Part 5: Advanced Acoustics Design and Noise Control: E2500 1,990/35 9966-784-17-9 Book 2: Part 6: History of Regional Environmental Design: E2600 1,990/35 9966-784-18-7 Book 2: Part 7: Environmental Building Economics: E2700 1,990/35 9966-784-45-4Book 2: Part 8: Advanced Past Examination Papers: 2008: E2800 1,990/35 9966-784-46-2Book 2: Part 9: Advanced Thesis Index: 2008: E2900 1,990/35 Book 2: Part 10: Advanced Sustainable Architecture Studio: 2008: Book 2: Part 10: Section 1: Advanced Studio 1: 2008: Book 2: Part 10: Section 2: Advanced Studio 2: 2008: Book 2: Part 10: Section 3: Advanced Studio 3: 2008: E21000 E21010 1,990/E21020 1,990/E21030 1,990/35 35 35
Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes: E3000 9966-784-19-5 Book 3: Part 1: Appropriate Roofing and Energy Considerations for Warm-Humid Climates: E3100 1,990/35 9966-784-20-9 Book 3: Part 2: Daylighting Performance of Building Elements: E3200 1,990/35 (With Specific Application to Museums under Tropical Conditions). 9966-784-21-7 Book 3: Part 3: The Power of Deceit: A Dilemma of an Architect. E3300 (An Autobiography of Yusuf Ebrahim). 9966-784-22-5 Book 3: Part 4: Patenting software in Kenya: Problems and Myths Demystified. E3400 Book 3: Part 5: Pictures Talk: Virtually Recreating Dr. James Orloff. E3500 Book 3: Part 6: Pictures Talk: Virtually Recreating Mr. Atma Singh Hazara Singh. E3600 Book 3: Part 7: The Changing Face of Mrs. Lilian Lela Orloff Ebrahim. E3700 Book 3: Part 8: The Changing Face of Mr. Ebrahim Atma Singh Hazara Singh. E3800 Book 3: Part 9: The Greats in Environmental Design: From Geiger to Muneer. Book 3: Part 10: S.V. Szokolay Memoirs: 9966-784-33-0 Book 3: Part 10: Section 1: 1965 Works: 9966-784-35-7 Book 3: Part 10: Section 2: Current Works: Book 3: Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code: 9966-784-37-3 Book 3: Part 11: Section 1: Thermal Design: 9966-784-51-9 Book 3: Part 11: Section 2: Lighting Design: 9966-784-52-7 Book 3: Part 11: Section 3: Acoustic Design: 9966-784-56-X Book 3: Part 11: Section 4: Tropical Design: E3110 E3111 1,990/E3112 1,990/E3120 E3121 E3122 E3123 E3124 1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/E3900 35 35 35 35 35 35
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Building Science Text Book Series: Book 4: Short Papers: E4000 9966-784-23-3 Book 4: Part 1: Essays in Environmental Design: E4100 1,990/35 Essay 1: Thermal Roof Design for Tropical Provided Housing: E4110 Essay 2: Environmental Considerations Shaping the Hospital Building and Governing its Space: E4120 Essay 3: Low Energy House in Cool Climates: E4130 Essay 4: Transfer of Technology in Vernacular Architecture: E4140 Essay 5: Low Energy Strategy in Speculative Atrium Office Buildings: E4150 9966-784-47-0Book 4: Part 2: Essays in Environmental Design: 6-10: E4200 1,990/35 Essay 6: Sustainable Materials and Construction Technology: E4210 Essay 7: Use of Environmental Laboratory in the Built Environment: E4220 Essay 8: Sensual Architecture: Revitalizing your Survival Instincts: E4230 Essay 9: Developing of Appropriate Intermediary Software for a Developing Tropical Country: Ebenergy 2007: E4240 Essay 10: Urban Environmental Degradation: Assessment using Analogue and Digital Techniques: E4250 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 6: Investigative & Exploratory Studies: E6000 Book 6: Part 1: Digital & Analogue Presentation Techniques: E6100 9966-784-34-9 Book 6: Part 2: e-Learning Methods: E6200 Book 6: Part 3: Universities Channel: E6300 9966-784-36-5 Book 6: Part 4: Early Warning, Monitoring & Mitigating Techniques for Sustainable Development: E6400 Book 6: Part 5: Experimental Research Methods: E6500 9966-784-38-1 Book 6: Part 6: Laboratory & On-site Techniques in Environmental Studies: E6600 9966-784-39-X Book 6: Part 7: Model Studies: Analogue & Digital Techniques: E6700 9966-784-40-3 Book 6: Part 8: Genesis of Nairobi: E6800 9966-784-41-1 Book 6: Part 9: Material Culture Project: E6900 9966-784-42-X Book 6: Part 10: Relationship between Propagation of AIDS and Comfort Criteria: E61000 9966-784-43-8 Book 6: Part 11: Setting up of an Institute of Environmental Studies as a Constituent Institute of a University: E61100 9966-784-44-6 Book 6: Part 12: Use of Environmental Laboratory Equipment & Apparatus: E61200 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 7: Marketing for Other Authors: E7000 Book 7: Part 1: Prof. Erich F. Meffert: E7100 1980: Hygrothermal Comfort in Lamu Town: A Building-density Settlement in the Warm-humid Climate of the Kenyan Coast. University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture, Environmental Science Paper No.6. E7110 Book 7: Part 2: Rukwaro, Robert & Maina, Sylvester J.M. E7200 2006: Transformation of Maasai Art and Architecture. Applied Research Training Services (ARTS), Nairobi. E7210
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Book 7: Part 3: Kenya Literature Bureau Publications: E7300 2005: Secondary Physics: Students Book Four. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Third Edition. E7310 Ghaidan, Usam (1992): Lamu: A Study of the Swahili Town. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Third Edition.
E7310
Building Science Text Book Series: Book 8: Joint Authorship with Others: E8000 Book 8: Part 1: Jointly with Dr. Robert Rukwaro: E8100 2007: History of Environmental Design in Kenya Communities: E8110 2007: Climate Culture Encyclopedia: E8120 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 9: Conference and Seminar Papers: E9000 Book 9: Part 1: Sustainable Materials and Construction Technology. AAK Mombasa Chapter: Seminar at Royal Court Hotel, Mombasa: 16th November 2006. E9100 1,990/35 Book 9: Part 2: Culture, Environmental and Sustainability Issues in the City of Nairobi. 3rd Year Seminar Series: Department of Architecture & Building Science, ADD Space 108, E9200 1,990/35 University of Nairobi: 30th November 2006. Book 9: Part 3: End-user Sensitization Workshop: Ebenergy Pro 2007 Special: Ebenergy Enterprises. Final Year Students, Undergraduate Course, E9300 1,990/35 Dept. Of Arch & BSc, UON: 14th February 2007. Book 9: Part 4: Sensual Architecture: Reviving & Revitalizing your Survival Instincts. 2nd Year Studio Lectures Series: 20th March 2007. E9400 1,990/35 Book 9: Part 5: Use of Environmental Laboratory in the Built Environment. Department of Architecture & Building Science (2nd Year) in collaboration with Department of Real Estate & Construction Management (1st Year), University of Nairobi: ADD Space 108: 4th April 2007. Guest Speakers: Yusuf Ebrahim & Njambi Kinyungu. E9500 1,990/35 Book 9: Part 6: Development of Appropriate Intermediary Software for a Developing Tropical Country: Ebenergy 2007. Conference Paper, Atlanta Conference on Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 2007: Challenges and Opportunities for Innovation in the Changing Global Economy. Presenter: Yusuf Ebrahim, Lecturer, University of Nairobi, Kenya. Venue: The Global Learning Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Georgia, USA. Date: Friday 19 October 2007. Time: 5 6.30 PM. E9600 1,990/35 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 10: Ongoing Work at Institute of Environmental Studies: E10000 9966-784-50-0 Book 10: Part 1: Recyclable Architecture: E10100 Book 10: Part 2: Environmental Documentaries: E10200 Book 10: Part 3: Cinema Production: E10300 Book 10: Part 4: Publishing & Micro-printing Techniques: E10400 Book 10: Part 5: Digital Library Services: E10500 Book 10: Part 6: Climate Watch: E10600
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Book 10: Part 7: Reprinting Classical Environmental Books: E10700 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 11: Building Typologies: E11000 9966-784-57-8 Book 11: Part 1: Residential Architecture: E11100 9966-784-58-6 Book 11: Part 2: Housing Architecture: E11200 9966-784-59-4 Book 11: Part 3: Coastal (Warm-humid Climate) Architecture: E11300 9966-784-60-8 Book 11: Part 4: Touristic Accommodation & Ecological Architecture: E11400 9966-784-61-6 Book 11: Part 5: Medical Architecture: E11500 9966-784-62-4 Book 11: Part 6: Religious Architecture: E11600 9966-784-63-2 Book 11: Part 7: Commercial Architecture: E11700 9966-784-64-0 Book 11: Part 8: Planning Architecture: E11800 9966-784-65-9 Book 11: Part 9: Interior Architecture: E11900 9966-784-66-7 Book 11: Part 10: Educational Architecture: E111000 9966-784-67-5 Book 11: Part 11: Competitions in Architecture: E111100 9966-784-68-3 Book 11: Part 12: International Organizations Architecture: E111200 9966-784-69-1 Book 11: Part 13: Banks Architecture: E111300 9966-784-70-5 Book 11: Part 14: Sustainable Development and Environmental Design: E111400 9966-784-71-3 Book 11: Part 15: Bioclimatic Architecture: E111500 9966-784-72-1 Book 11: Part 16: Regional Typologies Architecture: E111600 9966-784-73-X Book 11: Part 17: Research Institutions Architecture: E111700 9966-784-74-8 Book 11: Part 18: Appropriate Technology Architecture: E111800 9966-784-75-6 Book 11: Part 19: Industrial Architecture: E111900 9966-784-76-4 Book 11: Part 20: Office Architecture: E112000 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 12: Architectural & Environmental Design Consultants Office Practice Notes: E12000 9966-784-77-2 Book 12: Part 1: Office Manual: E12100 9966-784-78-0 Book 12: Part 2: Typical Contracts and Documents: E12200 9966-784-79-9 Book 12: Part 3: Curriculum Vitae and Company Profiles: E12300 9966-784-80-2 Book 12: Part 4: Competitions: Competitor & Juror Compendium: E12400 9966-784-81-0 Book 12: Part 5: Contract Administration: E12500 9966-784-82-9 Book 12: Part 6: Design & Development: E12500 9966-784-83-7 Book 12: Part 7: Typical Details: E12700 E12800 9966-784-84-5 Book 12: Part 8: Drawing Standards: 9966-784-85-3 Book 12: Part 9: Technical Drawings: E12900 9966-784-86-1 Book 12: Part 10: Presentation Techniques: E121000 9966-784-87-X Book 12: Part 11: Marketing Techniques E121100 9966-784-88-8 Book 12: Part 12: Continuous Professional Development (CPD): E121200 9966-784-89-6 Book 12: Part 13: Associated Offices and Companies: E121300 9966-784-90-X Book 12: Part 14: Consortiums: E121400 9966-784-91-8 Book 12: Part 15: Project Management and Construction: E121500 9966-784-92-6 Book 12: Part 16: Environmental Design Consultancy: E121600 9966-784-93-4 Book 12: Part 17: Interior Architects and Product Designers: E121700 9966-784-94-2 Book 12: Part 18: Landscape Architecture: E121800 9966-784-95-0 Book 12: Part 19: Urban Planners and Architects: E121900 9966-784-96-9 Book 12: Part 20: Environmental and Architectural Journalism: E122000
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Building Science Text Book Series: Book 13: Office Practice Documents & Software: E13000 9966-784-97-7 Book 13: Part 1: Ebbank Software: Financial Management Package: E13100 9966-784-98-5 Book 13: Part 2: Ebfees Software: Invoicing & Receipts Management Package: E13200 9966-784-99-3 Book 13: Part 3: Ebbq Software: Mini-BQ, Valuations, Certification & Payment Advices: E13300 Book 13: Part 4: Ebpvouchers Software: Payment Management Package: E13400 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 14: Dictionaries, Reference and Common Names: E14000 Book 14: Part 1: Dictionary and Reference Book: 2008: E14100 1,990/- 35 Building Science Text Book Series: Book 15: Fact Folders: Book 15: Part 1: Whos Who: 2008: Book 15: Part 2: Whats What: 2008: Book 15: Part 3: Hows How: 2008: Book 15: Part 4: Whens When: 2008: E15000 E15100 E15200 E15300 E15400 1,990/1,990/1,990/1,990/35 35 35 35
Building Science Text Book Series: Book 5: Software & Manuals: E5000 9966-784-24-1 Book 5: Part 1: Ebenergy Software: E5100 9966-784-25-X Book 5: Part 2: Ebacoustics Software: E5200 9966-784-26-8 Book 5: Part 3: Eblighting Software: E5300 9966-784-27-6 Book 5: Part 4: Ebtemp Software: E5400 9966-784-28-4 Book 5: Part 5: Ebvent Software: E5500 9966-784-29-2 Book 5: Part 6: Ebeia Software: E5600 9966-784-30-6 Book 5: Part 7: Ebeim Software: E5600 9966-784-31-4 Book 5: Part 8: Ebsustain Software: E5800 9966-784-32-2 Book 5: Part 9: Ebclimo Software: E5900 Product EE: Within Kenya ISBN: Name: Code: Kshs. Building Science Text Book Series: Book 5: Software & Manuals: E5000 9966-784-24-1 Book 5: Part 1: Ebenergy Software: E5100 Economy: Pro Det: Individual Annual License Classification: E5110 2,000/Standard: Aca Det: Individual Annual License Classification: E5120 5,000/Prestige: Res Det: Individual Annual License Classification: E5130 10,000/9966-784-25-X Book 5: Part 2: Ebacoustics Software: Economy: Pro Det: Individual Annual License Classification: Standard: Aca Det: Individual Annual License Classification: Prestige: Res Det: Individual Annual License Classification: E5200 E5210 2,000/E5220 5,000/E5230 10,000/Abroad: US $ 50 125 250 50 125 250
Building Science Text Book Series: Book 13: Office Practice Documents & Software: E13000 9966-784-97-7 Book 13: Part 1: Ebbank Software:
Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Financial Management Package: E13100 5,000/125 9966-784-98-5 Book 13: Part 2: Ebfees Software: Invoicing & Receipts Management Package: E13200 5,000/125 9966-784-99-3 Book 13: Part 3: Ebbq Software: Mini-BQ, Valuations, Certification & Payment Advices: E13300 5,000/125 Book 13: Part 4: Ebpvouchers Software: Payment Management Package: E13400 5,000/125 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Note: 1. These prices are provisional and subject to change without notice and do not represent a commitment on the part of Ebenergy Enterprises. 2. License expires after due date and product should be discarded environmentally safely or renewed for a discounted latest version. 3. Student License: 1 Pac maximum (Single User). 4. Individual License: 1 Pac Maximum (Single User). 5. Academic Institutional License: 30 Pac Maximum (Multiple User): 50% Discount on the group software price. 6. Corporate License: 30 Pac Maximum (Multiple User): 25% Discount on the group software price. 7. Students are entitled to a discount of 50% of the cover price of books (Only) on presentation of their student card. A Copy of the same may be sent with the order form. 8. Allow for 2 Weeks for delivery nationally. 9. Allow for 1 Month for delivery outside Kenya (Abroad). Add: Postage charges (Per product): Within Kenya: Within East Africa: Kshs. 150/US $ 9
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First Name: Surname:.Address: Postcode: City: Country: Tel: Email: Name & Address of Sender: First Name: Surname:.. Address: Postcode: City: Country: . Tel: Email: . Retail Price Guide: EE: Product Within Kenya Abroad: Code: Name: Kshs. US $ Add: Postage: Kshs. US $ Total Amount: Kshs. US $ We attach Cheque No: for Kshs. ..or US $ . in the name of EBENERGY ENTERPRISES. Bank details: EBENERGY ENTERPRISES, CFC BANK, CFC Centre, Chiromo Road, P.O. Box 72833 00200, Nairobi, Kenya. Account No: 0000128821. STERLING POUND (GBP) BANK TRANSFERS: Remitter to transfer funds through: LLOYDS TSB BANK PLC, 71 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, EC3P 3BS, UK. Telex: 888301 Swift: LOYD GB 2L Fax No: 020 7661 4790 GBP A/C NO: 01004108 For further credit to: Account No: 0000128821 of EBENERGY ENTERPRISES, With: CFC BANK, CFC Centre, Chiromo Road Branch, Swift Code: CFCNKENA UNITED STATES DOLLAR (USD) BANK TRANSFERS: Remitter to transfer funds through: AMERICAN EXPRESS BANK LTD, NEW YORK AGENCY, P.O. BOX 740, NEW YORK, NY 10008, U.S.A. ABA/FEDWIRE: 124071889 Swift: AEIBUS33 USD A/C NO: For further credit to: Account No: 0000128821 of EBENERGY ENTERPRISES, With: CFC BANK, CFC Centre, Chiromo Road Branch, Swift Code: CFCNKENA (For CFC Bank Ltd). Yusuf H. Ebrahim can be contacted: Address: Ebenergy Enterprises, Unit 1, Ebrahim House, 4th Avenue Parklands, P.O. Box 34838, 00100 GPO Nairobi, Kenya. Website: www.ebenergy.net Email: info@ebenergy.net or yusuf@ebenergy.net or ebrahim@wananchi.com Email: ebrahim@uonbi.ac.ke Tel: +254 020 3751239 Mobile: +254 722513617.
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Part 11: E.F. Mefferts Environmental Design Code : Section 3: Acoustic Design : Code: E3123 _____________________________________________________________________________________________ BRIEF OF AUTHOR: Yusuf H. Ebrahim, BArch. Hons. (NBI), MPhil (CANTAB), MAAK., is a lecturer in the Department of Architecture and Building Science (University of Nairobi) with interests in sustainable architecture and planning. He has taught for over 10 years both at the professional and academic circles. He has acted as an external examiner in another local university and served in various capacities on numerous education boards. He started his architectural career as an apprentice with Dalgliesh Marshall in 1979 and eventually rose up the ranks to Junior Partner level of the same. He has won numerous design competitions and seen buildings of different complexities from start to finish and eventually to maintenance. In 1992 he set up Ebrahim Consultants, a multi-disciplinary firm with emphasis with environmental design consultancy. Under her, he has done work on different jobs in Sustainable, Lighting, Thermal, Solar, Acoustic and Ventilation. He prefers to use Passive Systems where applicable and only brings in Active Systems to supplement the same. With others, he has developed different simulation techniques and recently developed softwares using the Excel Format. He is currently undertaking his doctorate degree programme at the University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture and Building Science. With others, he is currently writing books on sustainable architecture and recording his experiences in both the professional and academic world.
EE: Price Guide: BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES: Code: Kshs. US $ BOOK 3: TOPICAL THEMES: E3000 PART 11: E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE: E3120 SECTION 3: ACOUSTIC DESIGN: E3123 1,990/- 35 Abstract: Professor Meffert was at the University of Nairobi from about 1975 to 1989, where he served in different capacities, which culminated with The Chairman of The Architecture Department. He lectured the Editor of this works from 1980 to 1986 and was his Thesis Tutor for the final year of his Bachelor of Architecture Degree program and provided valuable information and advice for his masters. This works contain 20 Environmental Science Notes in their original state and attempts to provide a platform for future research works and discourse. Over a 100 Original diagrams are included in their unedited and not modified form. The Editor writes a forward on the author and on this works. ISBN: 9966-784-52-7 Yusuf H. Ebrahim can be contacted: Address: Ebenergy Enterprises, Unit 1, Ebrahim House, 4th Avenue Parklands, P.O. Box 34838, 00100 GPO Nairobi, Kenya. Website: www.ebenergy.net or yusuf@ebenergy.net Email: info@ebenergy.net or ebrahim@wananchi.com Email: ebrahim@uonbi.ac.ke Tel: +254 020 3751239 Mobile: +254 722513617.

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Part 11: E.F.

BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES:

Mefferts Code: Acoustics

BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES:

TOPICAL THEMES: E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE: ACOUSTIC DESIGN:

Yusuf Hazara Ebrahim.

Code: E3123 ISBN: 9966-784-52-7

Ebenergy Enterprises: Code: E3123 ISBN: 9966-784-52-7

BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES:

BOOK 3: TOPICAL THEMES: PART 11:

E.F. MEFFERTS ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN CODE:

Professor Erich F. Meffert: (University of Nairobi: 1975 1989)

Introduction of this Section by the Editor: Section 3: Acoustic Design:

ES Note 9: ES Note 10:

ES Note 18: ES Note 19:

Appendix: ADDENDUM: GLOSSORY: Added by the editor. Added by the editor.

Building Science Text Book Series: Book 3: Topical Themes:

BUILDING SCIENCE TEXT BOOK SERIES:

1.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 1:

One has to differentiate between Objective Sound and Subjective Sound.

1.1 PROPERTIES OF SOUND:

1.2 Objective and Subjective Sound:

1.5 Human Ear Sensitivity:

1.6 Sound Pressure:

1.8 Threshold of Audibility:

1.10 Inverse Square Law:

1.11 Acoustical Sensation:

Showing Sound, Decibels and Acoustical Sensation Relationship.

2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 2:

2.3 Equal Loudness Contours:

2.4 The Phon Scale:

2.5 The Sone and Phon Scales:

Log10S = 0.03P 1.2

2.6 Equal Loudness Contours:

Figure 2.1: Equal Loudness Contours.

2.9 Sound and Distance The Inverse Square Law:

2.10 Sound Pressure and Loudness:

2.11 The Decibel Scale:

2.12 Sound Intensity:

2.13 Sound Power:

SWL = 10log10W/Wo (dB)

2.18 Sound Pressure Level and NR Curves:

Figure 2.2: Noise Criteria (NC) Curves.

Figure 2.3: Noise Reduction (NR) Curves.

2.19 Addition of Decibels:

Basic Outdoor Criterion25 for Residential Areas:

2.20 Recommended Acoustic Standards:

2.22 Effects of Noise:

2.23 Recommended Background Noise or Noise Criteria:

Ref: L.L. Doelle, Environmental Acoustics, New York 1972.

2.24 Sound Pressure Level (S.P.L.) of different NC-Curves at Particular Frequencies:

Designated according to SPL values in the 1200 2400 Hz frequency band.

3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE NOTE 3:

3.1 BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND: 3.2 Sound Reflection and Absorption:

3.2.1 Surface Treatments: 3.2.2 Room Contents:

Of walls, floors and ceilings;

As the audience, draperies, upholstered seats, and carpets;

3.2.3 Air Volume:

3.3 Sound Absorption Co-efficient:

3.5 Sound Diffusion and Diffraction:

Diffusion of sound can be created in several ways:

3.6 Sound Diffusion: