INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS AND DATA PRESENTATION

1.1 Meaning of Statistics Statistics has been defined in several ways because statistics has developed so fast that it covers many fields of endeavor. The study of statistics has grown enormously in such manner that the amounts of data in the form of taxes, population, births and deaths have increased beyond comprehension. From the data being collected, processed and disseminated, there is an increase in the quantitative approach employed in all sciences and in businesses, which in one way or another affect our lives. Several textbooks have been written in business statistics, educational statistics, medical statistics and others, but no agreement has been made as to how statistics will be defined. Some say that statistics is a science of handling data and others say that it is an art of handling data. However, there are some who define statistics as a body of methodology for the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of qualitative or quantitative data. Statistics can also be used in making correct decisions during the time of uncertainty. One may apply the different statistical methods so as to arrive at the correct result with appropriate critical judgment. 1.2 Origin The origin of statistics can be traced from two fields of interest, namely: the games of chance otherwise known as gambling and the second is political science. Even in the early periods, there were incomplete estimates of the population in the Philippines. Population estimates were based on church records, births, deaths and marriages. Another source of information about the population was the number of residence certificates issued every year. It is a 1

form of tax, compulsory to all citizens between 18 and 60 years old. But during the American time, a more systematic way of collecting data was established. Different statistical units were created such as the Bureau of Customs which collects, tabulates and disseminates statistics on imports and exports. Second, the Bureau of Agriculture which keeps records on the number of farms, the cultivated land as well as irrigated areas. Another is the Bureau of Labor which provides the government with the number of employed and unemployed citizens as well as the different problems inherent in the work. But the newest of all the units is the National Statistics Office, which undertakes the census of population and housing. A housing inventory was also taken to evaluate the housing condition of the population. It is noted that the collection of data on economic subjects such as population, production, trade, domestic and foreign were done for political purposes. The second origin of statistics was the game of chance such as dice, playing cards and toss coins. The early gamblers suspected that the occurrence of events in various game of chance follow certain laws, but being unschooled, they can not deduct the laws from it. It is the famous gambler in the name of Chevalier de Mere who proposed the well-known problem of points to a great mathematician Blaise Pascal. Pascal found the problem challenging and so he worked it out with Fermat, another mathematician. They used different methods and solutions to many problems, which became the origin of mathematics of probability upon which the theory of modern statistics is founded. 1.3 Uses of Statistics Statistics is very essential in education, government, business, psychology, economics, medicine, sociology, sports, banks and others. The youth is most familiar to the use of statistics in sports such as basketball. Every end of the quarter, the newscaster would report the scores of each team and who among the players are doing good which later becomes the basis of their pay. 2

Statistics is also vital and important in the field of education. Statistical tools are used to get information on enrollment, physical facilities and finance, which are important for an intelligent administration and management. Statistical tools are needed in the government to provide pertinent data for an effective management of the affairs of the state. A good record of population, cost of living, taxes, wages and other data are necessary for intelligent decisions and policy making. Psychologists understand better human individuals if they can systematize, analyze and interpret data on intelligence, personality traits and others. In sociology, statistics is very important in the study of the society in which man lives. Observations are properly analyzed and interpreted to have better effects for the improvement and development of society. In business and economics, statistics plays an important role in business forecasting, opening new business, market research as well as quality control. In forecasting, statistics is needed so that men can plan ahead correctly and can formulate policies with the existing conditions. Forecasting is the main function of the management but forecasting based on incorrect and unreliable data will cause the collapse of the business enterprise. However, statistics is also very badly needed in opening new business since there are several factors to consider before any business can start. To start a new business, the market must be considered so that the demand for the product can be determined. Availability of the materials to be used must also be taken into consideration so as to produce products of good qualities. The third factor any business should consider is the capital to be used. Will there be enough capital to meet the production of the product being demanded? The fourth factor is the labor which will include the manpower, equipment as well as the building. The last but not least is the competitor. A product should be able to compete in terms of quality and price. 3

Statistics is also used in market research. Businessmen should be able to explore new markets for his products because it will be used as guide to market expansion. The buying habits, the capacity of the consumer to buy goods as well as the income must be considered and carefully studied. The quality of a certain product must be maintained so it can command better price as well as steady market. The manufactured products or items need to be carefully inspected to determine the acceptability of the product to the consumer. This method is known as statistical quality control. Statistics is also important in banking institutions because they have research department, which gathers and analyzes statistical information concerning their operations. Statistics is vital in personnel relations. The business organizations, which employ a large number of employees wherein the executives have little chance to know their people, can delegate the responsibility to a personnel director or personnel officer/manager. The personnel director/manager utilizes all available data or information taken from the employees. For purposes of analysis, employees can be classified and evaluated so that there can be basis for promotion in rank/salaries as well as other benefits available in the organization. 1.4
1.

Types of Statistics Statistics is divided into two main areas. Descriptive statistics is the process of collecting, presenting, and organizing data in some manner that can easily and quickly describe the data. For example, the National Statistics Offices conducts surveys to determine the average age, income, and other characteristics of the Filipino nation.
2.

Inferential Statistics uses sample data to make inferences about a population. It consists of generalizing from samples to populations, performing hypothesis testing, 4 determining relationships among

variables, and making predictions. This kind of statistics uses the concept of probability the chance of an event to happen. In statistics, we commonly use the terms population and sample. A population is the complete and entire collection of elements to be studied. Sometimes a population is very large. To save time and money, statisticians may study only a part of the population. This is called a sample. A sample is a subset of a population. Closely related to the concepts of a population and a sample are the concepts of parameter and statistics. A parameter is a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of a sample. 1.5 Levels of Measurement Aside from being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can also be classified according to how they are categorized, counted or measured. 1. Nominal Level This is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. There is no criterion as to which values can be identified as greater than or less than other values. For example, in classifying the instructors in a university as male or female, no ranking can be placed on the data. Another example is classifying residents according to their area codes. Although, numbers are assigned as area codes, there is no meaningful order. In addition numbers may serve as labels to identify items such as the number carried at the back of the athletes. Similarly nominal level/scales may be used for a sample of people being studied and may be classified according to their religious beliefs/preference such as Protestant, Catholic and others. People may be classified on the basis of sex, eye 5

color or other organization membership. Simple statistics are used with nominal data such as proportion, percentage and others. 2. Ordinal Level This involves data that maybe arranged in some order, but differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless. An example is the grading system involving letter (A, B, C, D, E). An ordinal scale/level produces a distinct ordering or arrangement of data in which the observations may be ranked based on some criteria such as good, better and best. With nominal data, numbers can be ranked as for example a student is asked on how he will rank his professor in statistics with respect to knowledge of the subject matter (from 1 10). He can give a rank of 8 where the arithmetic differences between the numbers is meaningless. 3. Interval Level This is the same as the ordinal level, with an additional property that we can determine meaningful amounts of differences between data. Data at this level may lack an inherent zero starting point. For example, temperature is an interval measurement. There is a meaningful difference in one degree between each unit such as 80 and 81 degrees. But a zero degree temperature does not mean that there is no heat. Variables on an interval scale/level are measured numerically and like an ordinal data, it carries an inherent ranking or ordering. But unlike the ordinal data, the differences between the values are important.

4. Ratio Level This is an interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. The difference and ratios of data are meaningful. This is also the highest level of measurement. An example would be the measure of height, weight, or area. There is a meaning between values, and a true zero exists. Of the four levels of measurement, only the ratio scale is based on the number system in which zero becomes meaningful. Arithmetic operations such as multiplication and division take a rational interpretation. Ratio scale/level is used to measure several types of data found in business such as cost, profit and inventory. These variables are expressed in ratio measures. 1.6 Preliminary Steps in Statistical Study A. Define the problem. B. Determine the population/subject of the study. C. Devise the set of questions. D. Determine the sampling design. E. Prepare a manual of instruction. F. Organize and train personnel. The researcher should know what he aims to discover or establish. The researcher should state in a simple language what he wants to investigate. It can be in the form of a question. Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic There are guidelines or criteria in the selection of the research program to make it interesting and the research work more enjoyable to the researcher as well as to make sure that the study will be completed. 7

The following are the guidelines, which will help in the choice of the problem: 1. The research problem must be chosen by the researcher himself so that he will not make excuses for all the obstacles he will encounter. 2. The problem must be within the interest of the researcher so that he will give all the time and effort in the research work. 3. The problem must be within the specialization of the researcher. It will make the work easier for the researcher because he is familiar in the area and it will help him improve his specialization, skill and competence in his own area. 4. The research problem must be within the competence of the researcher. The researcher must know the procedures in making research and how to apply them. He must have a workable understanding of his study.
5.

The researcher must have the ability and capacity to finance the research problem to make sure that the study will be completed on the target time.

6. The research problem must be manageable. The data must be available or it must be within the capacity of the researcher to gather. The data must be accurate, objective and not biased. The data should help the researcher answer the question being investigated. 7. The research problem must be completed within the period set by the researcher.
8.

The research problem must be significant, important and relevant to the present time as well as to the future. This means that the research problem must have an impact to the situation and people it is intended for. The study must contribute to the human knowledge. The facts and knowledge must be a product of research.

9.

The results of the study must be practical and implementable.

B.

Population Before a researcher starts collecting the data, the population/subjects to

be considered in the study must be defined. The population to be considered should be in agreement with the objective and is properly identified. C. Devise the Set of Questions A researcher who may collect data by interview or by questionnaire should prepare a list of questions to be asked. On the other hand, the questionnaire may consist of one or two question sheets accompanied by a cover letter. Good questions give accurate responses. D. Sampling Design The extent of the population will depend on the nature of the problem. The census survey will require all individual in the population that is considered while the sample survey will consider a few representative of the population. In determining the sample applied is as follows: n where: n = sample size
N = population size

size, the formula which can be N 1 + Ne 2

e = desired margin for error (per cent allowance for non-precision because a sample is used)

Example 1 9

A researcher wants to make use of a student population of 3,000 for his study in the mathematical achievement test. If he allows a 5% margin of error, how many students must he take for his sample? Solution: The formula given can be used: n n n n n N 1 + Ne 2 3000 1 + 3000(0.05) 2 3000 1 + 3000(0.0025) 3000 1 + 7.5 3000 8.5

n 352.94 or 353 The questions to be asked among the respondents should be evaluated and it can be subjected to pretest by 5 or 10 percent of the desired sample size.

Sampling Techniques It is not necessary for the researcher to examine every member of the population to get the necessary information and data needed in the study. Cost as well as time constraints will prevent the researcher from studying the whole population. All the researcher needs is to draw sample units systematically or at random. Various sampling techniques or sample designs can be used by the researcher. The choice of what technique to be used will depend on the nature 10

of the problem at hand, the kind of population and in which sample results will be applied. The techniques can be grouped into how selection of items are made such as probability sampling and non-probability sampling. 1. Probability Sampling In probability sampling, the sample is a proportion of the population and such sample is selected from the population by means of systematic way in which every element of the population has a chance of being included in the sample. Types of Probability Sampling
a)

Pure Random Sampling or Simple Random Sampling This type of sampling is one in which every one in the population

of the study has an equal chance of being selected to be included in the sample. This is also called lottery sampling, which may be used if the population has no differentiated levels, sections or classes. This is carried out by assigning number to every member of the population. Usually this is done by getting a certain percentage of the population to be included in the study. Suppose there are 150 persons in the populations and 25% will be included in the study. Therefore approximately 38 persons must be taken from the population. Each member of the population will be assigned with a number and all these numbers will be placed in a container. Thirty eight (38) persons will be drawn from it and will be included in the sample. Drawing prizes through the raffle system follows the principle of random sampling. This technique is easy to understand and easy to apply also. This can be used with the help of the table of random numbers.

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Pure random sampling is also called unrestricted random sampling which means that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to be included in the sample. b) Systematic Sampling This is a technique of sampling in which every nth name in the list may be selected to be included in the sample. This is used when respondents in the study are arranged in some systematic or logical manner such as the alphabetical arrangement, residential or house arrays, geographical placement and etc. The process is done as follows: Suppose 20% of the population is the sample size. If 100% is divided by 20% then the result is 5. So every 5th name will be taken from the population but there must be a random start. Suppose the random start is 11. This is the first selection. The second respondent will be
11 + 5 = 16 , next will be 16 + 5 = 21 then, 21 + 5 = 26 and so on.

This technique of sampling is more convenient, faster and more economical than pure random sampling. The main disadvantage is that it becomes biased if the person in the list belongs to a class themselves whereas the investigation requires that all sectors of the population are involved. The systematic random sampling is a restricted random sampling because there are certain restrictions imposed upon it. c) Stratified Random Sampling It is a more efficient sampling procedure wherein the population is grouped into a more or less homogeneous classes or strata in order to avoid the possibility of drawing samples whose members come from one stratum. This method is used when the population of study has class 12

stratifications or groupings either horizontally or vertically. Examples of horizontal classification are courses in the same year in a university such as first year BSM, BSChem, BSA, BSCoE, BSIE and others or students in the same grade as male and female. An example of vertical classification are levels in the high school such as first year, second year, third year and fourth year or age of the students such as 10, 11, 12, 13, and so on. In stratified sampling, the distribution of sampling units will depend on the total number of units in each stratum. The bigger the population, the more sample units are drawn and the lesser the population, the smaller sample units are taken into consideration. d) Cluster Sampling It is sometimes called area sampling because it is applied on geographical basis. On this basis, districts or blocks of a municipality or city are selected. These districts or blocks comprise the clusters. This method is useful when the samples in a community are occupied by heterogeneous groups. Generally, a cluster sampling will give more precise results particularly when each cluster contains a more varied mixture and when one cluster is nearly like the other. This sampling is the reverse case of the stratified sampling where each stratum is internally as homogeneous as possible. At the same time, each stratum must be different from one another as much as possible. A cluster sampling gives a less precise estimate than a simple random sample of the same size. The use of cluster sampling will depend on the cost and administrative considerations. The cluster sample is advantageous because of its efficiency, but it is disadvantageous because of its reduced accuracy or representative

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ness on the account of the fact that in every stage there is a sampling error. Area sampling requires larger samples of elementary units that will be required in simple random sampling. The cost advantage in having the elementary units clustered in a number of locations is so great that the area sample is preferred when the study covers an extensive area. However, this does not mean that the use of one of the techniques described automatically excludes the use of the others at the same time. It is possible that combinations of one or two or even more sample designs can be used in a single survey. 2. Non-Probability Sampling In a non-probability sampling, the sample is not a proportion of the population and there is no system in selecting the sample. The selection depends on the situation. Types of Non-Probability Sampling The four types of non-probability sampling are accidental sampling, quota sampling, convenience sampling and purposive sampling. a) Accidental Sampling In this type of sampling, there is no system of selection but only those whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance are included in the sample. This type of sampling lacks representative ness where the sample may be biased. If the interviewer goes to a business section, most people who will be interviewed are likely from the business and probably rich people hence the respondents will be from well-to-do people. But if the interviewer stays in a slum area, then it is possible that 14

the respondents are poor people. In a research, every section of the population must be equally represented in the sample. This method is being used when there is no alternative. b) Quota Sampling In this type of sampling, specified number of persons of certain types is included in the sample. Suppose the reactions of the people for a particular issue, such as the effects of drug addiction in a certain locality, can be decided from a sample that constitutes 10 doctors, 9 lawmakers, 15 parents and 20 drug addicts. In quota sampling, many sectors of the population are represented. However, the representation is doubtful because there is no proportional representation since there are no guidelines in the selection of the respondents. Anyone who is selected to participate will do. Quota sampling may be used only when any of the more desirable types of sampling will not do. c) Convenience Sampling Convenience sampling is a process of picking out people in the most convenient and fastest way to get reactions immediately. This method can be done by telephone interview to get the immediate reactions of a certain group of sample for a certain issue. This kind of method is biased and not representative. This is quite different from gathering data by interview whereby the interview can be done through the telephone. In the interview method, people who are interviewed through the telephone are properly selected to be included in the sample. d) Purposive Sampling It is based on certain criteria laid down by the researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. Purposive sampling is 15

determining the target population of those who will be taken for the study. The respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the information desired. If the research will be on the methods and techniques in teaching Mathematics, then teachers in Math must be chosen. If the research will be on the history of a particular place, then the people of the place must be considered. If a certain circular of the Central Bank is the subject of the study then executives of some big banks in the country may be considered in the study. Of course the answers obtained through this procedure are not representative of the entire population. However the actual selection of respondents is done either by pure random sampling or systematic random sampling. Advantages of Sampling Listed below are reasons for using sampling rather than complete enumeration or census: 1. More economical. Expenses will be less if data is obtained from only a part of an aggregate than if census is conducted. If the interview method will be used in collecting data from the respondents, then fewer interviewers will be needed and trained in a sample survey than in a complete enumeration. 2. Accomplished faster. In sampling, small part of the population will be considered hence, data can be collected and presented more quickly. 3. Wider scope. Scope refers to the amount of information and data that will be obtained from the respondents. In census survey, because of the great 16

number of respondents, a researcher will not have all the time and money to ask many questions within the specified time. In sampling, using the same time and money, the researcher can ask more questions and get more information from the respondents thus, the scope will be broadened. 4. More accurate. In a sample survey, the information gathered are often more accurate because with the number of respondents to be asked and using the same resources, the researcher can hire the services of few but qualified selected personnel. Mistakes and errors can be minimized because there can be a better control and supervision in the sample survey. 5. Sampling makes possible the study of a large, heterogeneous population. This is so because small portion may be involved thus, enabling the researcher to reach all through this small portion of the population. E. Preparation of Manual of Instruction An exact and complete manual of instruction contains the instructions and directions which will be observed and followed by the personnel in getting the necessary information as well as the respondents who will answer the questions. The manual will serve as guide for the field personnel as well as the respondents. F. Organize and Train Field Personnel The field personnel will include data gatherers or enumerators as well as supervisors. The group of enumerators should work as a team. The work

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should be coordinated and supervised by the area supervisor.

The survey

workers should have a rigid training before they are sent out to the field. 1.7 Main Steps in Statistical Study A. Collection of Data B. Presentation of Data C. Analysis of Data D. Interpretation of Data A. Collection of Data The first step in a statistical study is the collection of data. Data are the values that the variables can assume. Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random variables. These data can be used in different ways. There are two types of variables qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative variables are words or codes that represent a class or category. On the other hand, quantitative variables are numbers that represent an amount or a count. The data, which are collected, must be correct and reliable because when wrong data are used, no statistical technique can correct the result so it will be a waste of time and effort. Collection of data is considered to be the most expensive (in terms of money and time) phase of the statistical study. There are two sources of statistical data namely: the original or direct source and secondary source. Data, which are taken from the original or direct source are called primary. The primary data are considered relevant because the researchers are directly involved in the process. While data, which are taken from a secondary source is called secondary data. The primary data most often gives detailed definition of terms, which are used in the statistical survey. Most often the secondary data contains little or no explanation. The primary data contains a copy of the procedures used in the collection of data. The primary data are classified into small subgroups.

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Methods in the Collection Data 1. Direct or Interview Method The direct method is an effective method of collecting data because there is the personal presence of the interviewer and the interviewee. The interview method gives consistent and reliable data. Questions can be modified so that the respondents can understand the questions better. There is a high proportion of responses because respondents prefer to respond to surveys. The interviewer can clarify any misinterpretation of the respondents and the interviewer can observe the respondents reactions, which are pertinent as supplementary information. The interview method is considered the most expensive way of collecting data because it needs more time and money in conducting it. It is possible that the interviewer can influence the interviewee in their responses. 2. The Indirect or Questionnaire Method The indirect method of collecting data is the most widely used because it is considered the cheapest method and it can cover wider area in a short span of time. A questionnaire is a set of questions, which is intended for the problem to be answered by the respondents. This is usually accompanied by clear and concise directions, which are sent to the respondent by mail or hand carried. This method is relatively simple and inexpensive for it requires small staff to handle it. A standard set of questions can be prepared and the respondents may feel a greater sense of freedom to express views and opinions because their identities are not known. The possibility of influence by the researcher on the respondents replies can be avoided. The respondents can answer the questionnaire with privacy at their own convenience. Confidential questions can be asked without affecting the respondents.

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The questionnaire method has some limitations. It is inconvenient to some illiterates thus, it reduces the proportion of responses. There are questions which are not easily understood so these might not be answered by the respondents or the respondents may give incorrect information which can not be corrected at once. 3. The Registration Method This method of collecting data is commonly enforced by certain laws, ordinances or standard practices. This method is very practical and inexpensive method of gathering data. Examples of data, which can be secured through registration are: registration of births, deaths, motor vehicles, marriages and licenses. In this method, information is kept systematized and available to all because of the requirement of the law.

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Exercise 1.1 I. Indicate whether each of the following statements is a descriptive or inferential statistics.
______________1.

Last school year, the ages of students at Philippine Science High School is 11 to 16 years old. Based on the survey conducted by the National Statistics Office, it is estimated that 29% of unemployed people are men.

______________2.

______________3.

A survey says that 5 out of 100 Filipinos is a member of a fitness center. Cigarettes were associated with a 35% of the 5,200 civilian fire deaths in 2008.

______________4.

______________5. A recent study showed that eating garlic can lower blood pressure. II. Indicate which of the following examples refer to population or sample.
______________1.

a group of 35 BS Math students selected to test a new teaching technique a total machines produced by a factory in 1 month the monthly expenditures on food for 25 families the ages of employees of all companies in Southern Luzon the number of globe subscribers

______________2. ______________3. ______________4.

______________5.

III. Classify each variable as quantitative or qualitative.

______________1. ______________2. ______________3.

the height of students in UST the religious affiliation of the people in the USA favorite dance 21

______________4.

the weekly intake of chocolates the days absent from office civil status the monthly electric bill the number of students who passed

______________5. gender
______________6. ______________7.

______________8. the number of cars owned

______________9. ______________10.

IV.

Classify each as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio-level data.

______________1. ______________2. ______________3.

student identification number the total annual income for a sample of families number of enrollees in BA Statistics the salaries of employees

______________4. the ranking of chess players

______________5.

V.

Classify each sample as random, stratified, systematic, or cluster.

______________1.

Every 4th customer entering SM shopping mall is asked to select his or her favorite store. In PUP College of Science, all professors are interviewed to determine whether they believe the students have higher grades now than in previous years.

______________2.

______________3.

Company supervisors are selected using random numbers in order to determine annual salaries. A teacher writes the name of each student in a card, shuffles the cards, and then draws ten (10) names. A head nurse selects 15 patients from each floor of a hospital. 22

______________4.

______________5.

VI.

True or False ______________1. Probability is the foundations of statistics. ______________2. Pure random sampling is sometimes called lottery method. ______________3. Statistics plays an important role in business forecasting and opening new business.
______________4.

Sampling does not allow the study of large heterogeneous group.

______________5. The research problem must be chosen by anybody even if they are not involved in the research. ______________6. Questions should call for one answer only. ______________7. In quota sampling, a specified number of subjects are considered in the sample. ______________8. Census survey considers only a part of the whole population (subject of the study) under consideration in the study. ______________9. The interview method is the most convenient and cheapest way of collecting data. ______________10. Probability sampling is a type of sampling techniques which is a proportion of the population and uses a system in selecting the sample. VII. Enumeration 1 6. Give the preliminary steps in making a statistical study/research. 1. 2. 3. 4. 23

5. 6. 7 10 Methods of Collecting Data 7. 8. 9. 10.

11 14 Types of Probability Sampling Techniques 11. 12. 13. 14. 15 23 Guidelines in choosing a research problem. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24 27 Main steps in making a statistical research 24. 25. 24

26. 27. 28 30 Three types of questions commonly used 28. 29. 30.

B.

Presentation of Data Collected data must be accurate but most often; they are not as accurate

as they appear. There are many sources in gathering the data. Take for example in management or administrative decisions, data of high precision is not required. It is enough that the order of magnitude be known so that management can draw relationship and make useful comparisons. But other types of work like in accounting, data should be carried to the last centavo or other last unit in order that the review of computational and clerical operations can be conducted. Statistical data result in either counting or measuring. When distinct objects exist such as persons, vehicles or things and a physical count can be conducted then the result is a whole number which is called discrete variable. For instance, the number of students in a Math class in the first year is 43, that 43 is exact or discrete quantity. It is a result of counting whereas the result of measurement is called a continuous variable. A continuous variable is a magnitude which can take any value within a specific interval. The exact value can not be taken because of the accuracy of the measuring device used will only be for a certain degree. Furthermore the users of the measuring device or instruments have some limitations in the ability to see, hear, detect and even discriminate. For instance, take a bag of rice which contains 5 kilograms. This implies that the correct weight of that particular bag of rice will be 4.5 kilograms 25

to 5.5 kilograms. If the device can measure to the nearest tenth of a kilogram, then it is possible that the weight will be between 4.55 kilograms to 5.55 kilograms. Another example, 2 people who have different watches may have difference in the time that they have. It is clear that the measure taken is always a rounded number which indicates a range of values rather than an exact value. No matter how accurate is the instrument used to obtain the measure, the range of values can not be reduced to zero. Thus, the results of measurements are always rounded numbers. For convenience in presentation as well as in analysis of most business and economic data, results of counting are always given in rounded form especially if the data lack complete accuracy. Data can be presented in the form of textual, tabular and graphical. 1. Textual Presentation The textual presentation combines text and figures in a statistical report. This is usually news items in business, finance, economics or industries which are published in the business trade or finance sections of local periodicals. In the presentation of the text, the researcher or writer can emphasize the importance of some figures. This method of presentation of data is not particularly effective since it takes dull reading and may not give a good grasp of the meaning of the quantitative relationship indicated in any particular report. The data are presented in textual method so as to direct the readers attention to some data which need particular emphasis as well as to some important comparisons and to supplement the narrative account with a table or chart. 2. Tabular Presentation Statistical tables present numerical data in a systematic way. Tabulation is the process of condensing classified data and arranging 26

them in a table.

Tables are constructed to facilitate analysis of

relationship. Tables are made possible by the orderly arrangement of numerical facts in columns and rows. Each class or subclass is given certain column or row. Through this process data can be readily understood and comparisons are made easy. However data have to be classified before it can be tabulated and interpreted. Classification is the process of putting together similar items. Each item of information should fall in one class only. The classification should be designed such that the number of cases falling under each category should be small or classes should account for every case. Classification should adopt all classes which are necessary for the study or investigation. Coding is the process of presenting the observations or information with symbols which are entered in the schedule so as to facilitate tabulation. This is very important process for statistical surveys in which there is the possibility of many varied observations. Coding should be done with care to make it distinct and clear. Advantages of Tabular over Textual Presentation 1. Statistical tables are concise and convenient because data are systematically arranged. 2. They are brief and reduce explanatory matter to the minimum. 3. Tables give the whole information without combining text with figures. Tables are constructed such that the ideas are easily understood even without reading the textual presentation. 4. Data are easily read and readily understood because of the systematic and logical arrangement into columns and rows.

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5. The arrangement of data into columns and rows makes comparison easier. It makes the reader easily understand and interpret the data accurately and see the relationship of data at once. The use of table can facilitate the study and interpretation of data, as well as making of inferences and implications of the relationship of statistical data. 3. Graphical Presentation Graph is the most effective way to present results in a study since it shows the statistical values and relationship in a pictorial or diagrammatic form. When data are shown in terms of visual representations, the reader sees essential facts and relationships and grasps significant proportions, differences, similarities or even trends. The purpose of the graph is to present variations and relationship of data in an effective and convincing way. Most people find visual representations to be useful in highlighting information obtained from sample observations. The information presented in a frequency distribution table can be more easily grasped if it is presented in a graphical format. Absolute, relative or cumulative frequencies can be represented in the graphs, depending on the particular objectives for creating the graph. There are various graphical means to visualize a frequency distribution: bar charts, histograms, pie charts and frequency polygons/ogives are among the most popular. Advantages of the Graphical Method The graphs have the following advantages:
1.

It attracts attention more effectively than tables and is less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip table but pause to look at graphs or charts.

2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list figures in business reports more meaningful. 28

3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a line exerts a more powerful effect on the readers mind than the tabulated data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place. 4. Graphs enable the busy executives of a business concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not readily seen from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph. Illustrations including attractive charts and graphs are now considered by most businessmen as indispensable accomplishments to good business reports. 5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation of numerical data. (Bacani, 1968) Disadvantages in the use of Graphic Method Some of the disadvantages are the following: 1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables. 2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do. 3. Charts require more skill and time and cost to prepare than tables. 4. Graphs can not be quoted in the same way as tabulated data. 5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated. Types of Graphs Graphs are designed to meet the needs for which they are constructed. The following are the different kinds of graphs: 1. Bar Graphs The bar graph is the most commonly used graphic presentation. It is used for comparing magnitudes. Each bar is drawn to a height (length) proportional to the quantity it represents. a) Single Bar Graph 29

b) Grouped (Multiple Bar Graph) c) Duo-Directional Bar Graph d) Subdivided Bar Graph e) Histogram A bar chart graphs the frequency distribution of the data on an xy coordinate system. The class intervals are plotted on the x-axis, the absolute (or relative) frequencies on the y-axis. Each interval is represented by a rectangle whose base corresponds to a class interval and whose height is equal to the frequency associated with the class interval.
Bar Graph
30 25

Frequency

20 15 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Age

Class Boundary

A histogram is similar to a bar chart but the base of the rectangle has a length exactly equal to the class width of the corresponding interval. As the rectangle is centered on the average of the lower and upper class limits, intervals there are no spaces between rectangles.
Histogram

the

rectangles of a class interval are adjacent to the rectangles of adjoining class

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3 2
Frequency

0 5 0 5 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 A g e

2 1 1

Class Boundary 2.

Linear Graph The linear graph is a practical and effective device to show changes in values over successive period of time. Variations in the data are indicated by the changes and differences in the movement of the linear curves. The linear graph shows data as a continuous line thus its effect is continuous. At a glance, the reader can tell the trend as shown in the linear graph. It is easier to prepare thus it requires less time and skill. a) Time Series chart b) Frequency polygon c) Composite line chart d) Ogive A frequency polygon plots (x,y) pairs on the x-y coordinate system, where x is the average of the lower and upper class limits of the interval and y is the absolute (or relative) frequency associated with class intervals. These (x,y) points are connected by straight lines; the polygon is then formed by plotting points corresponding to two additional class intervals, with frequency 0, at each end of the frequency distribution. As these two additional points will be plotted on the x-axis, they will form a polygon with the continuous set of line segments joining the (x,y) pairs.

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3 5 3 0 2 5
Frequency

2 0 1 5 1 0 5 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0
Class Boundary

g e

A frequency ogive is a frequency polygon that uses the cumulative frequencies of the frequency distribution (as opposed to absolute or relative frequencies) as the values plotted on the y-axis. Since the cumulative frequency is a non-decreasing function, ie., the value of the cumulative frequency increases (or remains the same) as the upper class limit of the interval increases, the graph of the frequency ogive will also be non-decreasing as the value of the x-coordinate increases.

6 5
Frequency

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 1 3 1 8 2 3 2 8 c u m c u m . f < . f >

4 3 2 1

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3. Hundred Percent charts One hundred percent charts are used to show the relative sizes of the component parts to make up the whole. This is useful when the component parts are compared among themselves. a) Subdivided Bar or Rectangular chart b) Pie chart A pie chart displays the absolute (or relative) frequencies of the class intervals as sectors of a circle. Each sector in a pie chart corresponds to a class interval; the ratio of the area of the sector to the area of the circle (i.e., the ratio of the measure of the sectors central angle to 360) is equal to the relative frequency of the class interval.
3 % 1 3 % 3 1 %

2 6 %

1 1

6 %

The pie chart is used to show percent distribution of a whole into its component parts. This is effective in presenting financial data. Every 1% corresponds to 3.6% of the circumference of the circle. 33

4. Statistical Maps Statistical Maps are used to show geographical distribution of magnitudes in which shades, bars or dots may be used to indicate variation in magnitude in different areas. Shading or cross-hatching indicate the varying relative magnitude in different areas. The darkest shade indicates the highest magnitude while the shade becomes lighter and lighter as its magnitude decreases.

5. Pictograms Pictograms are usually called pictograph. These are effective device in showing data by pictures or symbols. Pictogram does not attempt to show details but it facilitates comparison of approximate quantities. It can easily attract the readers attention and see important relationship better and faster than any type of graph.

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3 3 2 2 1 1 5 0

5 0 5 0 5 0

The symbols or pictures should suggest the nature of the data being presented. The symbols should be self-explanatory. Larger quantities should be presented by more symbols or pictures of the same size and not be bigger symbols. 6. Ratio Charts Ratio charts are widely used in the analysis of data. It is also used in comparing relative changes. If the study deals in the absolute magnitude of changes, an arithmetic-scaled graph should be used. Ratio charts cannot show zero or negative value.

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Exercise 1.2 I. Fill in the blanks ______________1. is a part of the table which explains the meaning of entries in the table which are not fully understood. ______________2. is the process of putting similar items/ideas together. ______________3. numerals are used to number the tables. ______________4. is a special type of the hundred percent graph that is used in financial budgets and reports. ______________5. is a dull way of presenting data because it combines text with figures. ______________6. is a kind of variable which resulted from measurements. ______________7. is a part of the table which simplifies or explains the title of the table. ______________8. is a method of presenting data that can not show data as accurately as tables do. ______________9. is a method of presenting data that make use of column and row arrangement. ______________10. is a part of the table that shows the origin of the table. II. Enumeration 1 5 Give the importance of the source note in a table. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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6 10 Give 5 advantages of the tabular presentation over the textual presentation of data. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11 15 Give the disadvantages of the graphical presentation of data. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16 20 Give at least 5 kinds of graph used in presenting data. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. III. Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.
______________1. ______________2. ______________3.

the number of metals manufactured each month the air temperature in Baguio City today the monthly income of couples living in Baguio City

______________4. the weights of newborn infants ______________5. the capacity (in gallons) of water in an overhead tank

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