12.

1 Electron Configuration
12.1.1 Explain how evidence from first ionization energies across periods accounts for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms. Lets first define First Ionization Energy First Ionization Energy is the amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in the gaseous state, measured in kJmol-1. Ok , now we have to consider how first ionization energies across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms. Main energy levels is something you probably learned in GCSE (or equivalent). Basically, in lithium, there are 2 main energy levels, one with 2 electrons, the other with 1 Hence, the electronic configuration of lithium would be 2,1. However, thats not the point. We want to use the idea of first ionization energies to prove the existence of main energy levels. Ok. Lets cheat a bit here and presume that we already know that there are main energy levels (heheh). We know that lithium and helium are in two completely different levels. Now, lets take a look at the first ionization energies of both helium and lithium. Helium = 2372 kJmol-1 Lithium = 520 kJmol-1 Helium and Lithium are only 1 atomic number apart. But their first ionization energies differ quite drastically. Now, why is that? We have to attribute this to the existence of main energy levels. Yeah, it looks like Im concluding after the introduction, but the elaboration goes below: How does main energy levels affect first ionization energy? A higher main energy level means that the outer electrons are further from the nucleus. Therefore, as the outer electrons are further from the nucleus, the electrostatic strength attracting the protons with the electrons decrease. Therefore, less energy is required to remove one outer electron. As a result, this difference in first ionization energies can be attributed to difference in energy levels. An element at a higher energy level will likely have a lower ionization energy, and the vice-versa also holds true. Now, on to periods. We should learn that 12.1.2 Explain how successive ionization energy data is related to the electron configuration of an atom. Sometimes you might be given some data about ionization energies and then explain a trend according to the atoms electron configuration. E.g. Here is a table of ionization energies of elements, Element Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium 1st Ionization Energy (kJmol-1) 1314 1681 2081 496

The question asks you to explain the sudden drop in 1st ionization energy from neon to sodium?

To answer this question, we have to consider electron configuration of the elements presented above. The electron configurations of the elements above are of the following: Oxygen : 2,6 Fluroine: 2,7 Neon: 2,8 Sodium: 2,8,1 From the data above, we see that the ionization energy increases quite steadily. However, when we reach sodium, the first ionization energy suddenly has a drastic decrease. Why is this? Refer back to the electron configurations of the elements above. Oxygen, fluorine and neon all exist in the same energy level , 2. Therefore, the only factor that might affect first ionization energy is a change in the group it belongs in. As neon has 8 outer electrons, that means it also has 8 protons, which attracts to the electrons with more force as opposed to oxygen and fluorine. Therefore, the energy required to remove an electron from neon is higher than that required to remove an electron from oxygen and fluorine. However, when you go to sodium, we add another electron shell. This increases the distance from the nucleus to the outer-most electron. Hence, the attraction between the protons and electrons are considerably weaker than fluorine, neon. This results in a lower ionization energy. In conclusion, this drop in ionization energy is caused by the addition of an extra electron shell- which increases the distance between the nucleus and the outer-most electron, and as a result, decreases the first ionization energy. Sometimes, you might be given the first, second and third, nth ionization energies, and describe any trends that you notice. An example can be found below: Ionization Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Ionization Energy/kJmol-1 100 500 2000 8000 14000 20000 26000 32000 38000 44000 175000 190000

This is for magnesium, and the first, second, all the way up to 12th ionization energy. A typical question may ask you something like: 1. 2. Why is there a general increase in successive ionization energies? Why is there such as drastic increase between the 10th and 11th ionization energy?

Of course, the answer is fairly straightforward, you juts need a strong grasp of the concepts and mechanisms behind ionization energies. 1. As you remove one electron, the remaining electrons are more strongly attracted to the protons in the nucleus, which do not change in quantity. Think about playing tug of war, 5 a team. If you lose one member, provided everyone is of the same strength, the other side will obviously have an advantage. The same concept can be applied here. Losing an electron means that the remaining electrons are more strongly attracted to the protons if you didnt like the tug of war example, you can simply say the electrostatic attraction increases . When a question asks why the ionization between nth and n+1th increases so significantly, you can attribute that to one factor a change in energy level. As we established earlier, the higher the energy level an ion/atom is in, the lower the ionization energy. This is because as the distance between the protons in the nucleus and the outer-electrons increases, the electrostatic attraction decreases, hence resulting in a lower ionization energy. In this case, up to ionization no 11, magnesium ions was in energy level =2, but at ionization no 11, the energy level =1.

2.

12.1.3 State the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy level. This one can be solved simply by memorizing the list below: Energy levels: s<d<p<f 12.1.4 State the maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level. Again, another question you can easily gain full marks in if you memorize what I present below: s: 1, d:3, p:5, f:7 12.1.5 Draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals.

The shapes of the orbitals above are : 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz o s-oribtals are spherical

p-atomic orbitals have a dumbbell shape.

12.1.6 Apply the Aufbau principle, Hunds rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 54. Each section of the periodic table is assigned a block, s,p, d, and f, as shown below:

Before we continue, lets define some terminology. Aufbau Principle The Aufbau Principle is basically a German translated principle which means Building /construction principle. What it means is that electrons fill up its orbitals from the lowest energy state before progressing to filling orbitals of higher energy state. Therefore, 1s will be filled before 2s, and so on. Hunds Rule This rule states that every sub-shell in an orbital is singly occupied before any orbitals are allowed to be filled (doubly occupied). Paulis Exclusion Principle This states that each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, each of which has an opposite spin. We have to represent elements up to Z=54 in terms of s,d and p orbitals, with the external assistance of the three rules above. Z = atomic number Lets take an element, Z= 20 (Calcium) as an example. Lets find the full electron configuration for calcium. Solution: Z= 20

Lets start from the beginning of the periodic table. It covers, hydrogen and helium, so the first s block is filled. We call this: 1s2 The 1 basically means we filled the first row of the s-block. The 2 indicates that weve filled in both elements of the s-block in the first row. Next, we move on to the next row on the s-block, Lithium and Beryllium We will those in, and now we call this: 2s2 For similar reasons as described above. Now, we move along atomic numbers, and we arrive at the p-block, which contain six-elements (Boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon). We fill these in, and we call this 2p6 Again, the 2 because were in the second row. p because were in the p-block, and 6 because there are sixelements that are filled in. Next, we move on to the third row and we get: 3s2 Then, move on to next p-block to arrive at : 3p6 You might ask, when do we stop. Well, the answer is, pretty much now. We stop when we arrive at our desired Z =, which in this case is 20, calcium. So, we can move on to the s-block on the 4th row, but we stop there, because weve arrived at calcium. So the last orbital which is filled is: 4s2 Combine all these together according to the building principle, and youll receive the full electron configuration of calcium. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 Sometimes for convenience, we can take a shortcut and write the electron-configuration only for the shells AFTER the closest noble gas, which in this case, is Argon. So, alternatively, we can write calcium as: [Ar] 4s2 However, sometimes examiners want you write the full electron configuration, which in that case, tough luck. Exception: Theres an exception to the building concept described above.