Lecture 11 Rock Deformation - Movement of Earths tectonic plates creates stresses that deforms (change in volume or shape) - Ways

in which rocks are deformed varies: which style of particular rock mass adopts depends on the nature of the stress applied to it and its properties Types of deformation 1. Elastic- small deformations are elastic meaning the rock will return to its original shape when the stress is removed 2. Ductile and brittle- larger deformations, deformations that produce mountains faults are permanent. Ductile, if it doesnt return to its original form and brittle if the rock was really destroyed. Stress -The force applied to some body is the stress, not applied uniformly in all directions 2 kinds of stress: Uniform and differential stress Types of differential stress: 1. Tensional- hinihila; rocks are pulled apart 2. Compressional- iniipit; rocks are squeezed along the direction of stress 3. Shear- sinaslide; Strain- percent change in size and shape; the change of the body Ductile or Plastic deformation - Compressional stress may cause rocks o be deformed into a series of wrinkles or folds or joints Parts of a Fold Fold Axis line drawn along points of maximum curvature; line made by the length-wise intersection of the axial plane with beds in the fold Axial plane - imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as possible, one limb on each side Limbs 2 sides of a fold; correspond to the two sides of an anticline or syncline Plunge inclination of fold axis Types of folds: a. Plunging b. Symmetrical- symmetrical limbs a. Syncline

- Formed by downfolding - youngest rock is found at the center b. Anticline - Formed by upfolding - oldest rock is found at the center c. Asymmetrical d. Overturned e. Monocline Other landforms: Domes Basins Recumbent Measuring deformation in rocks: 1. Strike: intersection of plane with imaginary with respect to the horizontal plane; is the azimuth (degrees east of north) of the line formed by the intersection of a layer interface or bedding plane with the horizontal plane 2. Dip: angle plane is inclined relative to horizontal; angle between the layer interface or bedding plane and the horizontal measured perpendicular to the strike direction. Brittle Materials and Failure Rocks under surface conditions also deform plastically but once elastic limit is exceeded, the rocks will behave like a brittle solid and fracture (joints and faults) Brittle deformation Joint- breaks in rock mass in which sections on each side of the break do not move relative to each other Fault- breaks in rock mass in which sections on either side of the break move relative to each other Parts of a fault: -Hanging wall -Footwall Types of faults A. Dip-slip faults (upward and downward movement) 1. normal fault (foot wall rises relative to your hanging wall) 2. reverse fault ( hanging wall rises relative to your foot wall; thrust fault) B. Strike- slip fault (side to side) 1. right lateral (movement to the right)

2. left lateral (movement to the left, relative to the left for both hanging and foot wall) C. Obliqueslip (both) Fault zones 1. Philippine fault- left lateral strike-slip fault 2. Valley fault system (Marikina Fault)boundary between Taguig and Marikina Graben- because of the tensional force, a depression (e.g. Marikina) is formed 3. Lubang fault 4. Casigurann fault 5. Manila tench Importance of studying structural geology 1. structures are conduits for fluids (water, gas, oil) and control subsurface fluid transport(petroleum exploration; hydrology) 2. active faults are where earthquakes occur(natural hazards and risk analysis) 3. faults and veins are sites of ore deposits (mineral exploration) 4. structures create zones of weakness in rocks(buildings and infrastructure) 5geology1a1.wikispace.com/folds+and+faults+with+ccaption Lecture 12 Earthquake - Intense ground shaking caused by sudden release of energy - Can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions and sudden slippage along faults - A geological hazard for those living in earthquake-prone areas - Provides valuable information about the earths interior Seismology- study of behavior of seismic waves Seismometer- machine Seismograph- the graph itself Seismogram- recording of ground shaking from seismographs Fault - crack in Earth where slip occurs Focus (Earthquake focus/ Hypocenter) - fault slip location; the point at which an earthquake origin, not necessarily at the surface

Epicenter the geographical location of an area directly above the focus; used for locating the earthquake in a map Fault scarp - cliff from vertical slip on fault Aftershocks - small earthquakes that follow an initial earthquake in same vicinity Foreshocks - small earthquakes that sometimes precede a large one by few days - 95% of energy from earthquakes from thin zones (plate edges) - Some are quite deep (subduction zones) The Earthquake Source Elastic rebound theory Original position build-up strain (ductile deformation) rupture slippage release energy in the form of a wave (earthquake) Elastic Rebound Theory [H. F. Reid,1911] Tectonic stresses in some region of the Earth have accumulated to the point of exceeding the strength of the Suggests that rocks are being stretched and strained as they are subjected to deformation. Elastic energy is slowly being stored and accumulated. Eventually, rupture of faulting occurs. material, leading rapidly to fracture Solid state Phase changes for Deep Earthquakes Olivine transforms to a denser spinel structure Transformational faulting

Philippine Earthquake Generators Oblique convergence of two subducting oceanic plates Collision zones Active faults Types of seismic waves 1. Body Waves- travel in Earths interior; emanate from the focus and emanate in all directions through the Earths interior Types: P-waves (P for primary) Spring; compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature Pressure waves that are the initial set of waves produced by an earthquake

Can travel through any type of material and can travel at nearly twice the speed of S waves Pinaka-una, pinakamabilis Expansion/compression: push/pull motion

S-waves (S for secondary) - Transverse or like waves - Typically follow P waves during an earthquake and displace the ground perpendicular to the direction of propagation - Travel only through solids; liquids and gases do not support shear stresses - Shear: side-to-side motion 2. Surface Waves- travel on Earths surface; Travel along paths nearly parallel to the Earths surface but not through the interior (destructive waves); Expression of the body waves at the surface - Slowest; because of their low frequency, long duration and large amplitude, they can be the most destructive type of seismic wave Types: Rayleigh waves - up and down motion - ground roll, are surface waves that travel as ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves of the surface of the water Love waves - side to side motion; causes damage to infrastructure, most destructive - caused circular shearing of the ground - mas mabilis, mas malaking amplitude compared to Rayleigh energy= amplitude Intensity damage; degree of ground shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage Modified Mercalli Intensity scale Philippine Earthquake Intensity scale Magnitude- energy release; calculated from seismic records and estimates the amount of energy released at the source Richter scale Locating the epicenter of an earthquake Look at seismogram from at least 3 seismic stations determine difference in arrival time of P and S waves intersection of 3 circles = epicenter

Structural damage due to earthquake vibration depends on: - wave amplitudes - duration of vibration - nature of material upon which the structure rests - design of structure - soil type Other Effects: Tsunamis- displacement of water Landslides- destabilization of the soil Ground Subsidence- Liquefaction Fires Earthquake Prediction/ Monitoring Earthquake patterns of recurrence Ground deformation Seismic gaps Gas emissions Velocity anomalies Electrical anomalies/ Electromagnetic signal Radon Emissions Unusual animal behavior Increase in seismic tremors (mini-quakes) Lecture 13 Plate Tectonics- core of geology Plate Boundaries- volcanoes and earthquakes; faults, active tectonics, deformation, melting Continental Drift Theory Introduced by Alfred Lothar Wegener in his book The Origin of Continents and Oceans in 1915 - Drifting of continents Pangea the supercontinent which broke up during the late Permian = Gondwanaland + Laurasia Evidence for continental drift 1. Jigsaw puzzle fit 2. Fossils (e.g. Lystrosaurus, Cygnognathus, Mesosaurus, Glossopteris) Biogeoprahy- distribution of organisms Paleogeography- dead organisms 3. Matching mountain belts 4. Rock type and structural similarities - rocks found in one continent closely match (in age and type) those rocks found in the matching continent - matching mountain belts 5. Paleoclimatic evidence

layers of glacial deposits (same age) found in S. Africa and S. America, India and Australia coal forms under tropical climates

Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis -introduced by Harry Hess in the early 1960s - New material is being formed along midoceanic ridges - Wilson Cycle Development of the theory - Extensive mapping of ocean floor young age of ocean floor (130 m.y.); younger malapit sa divergence - Oldest rocks from continents billions of years old Wilson cycle- creation and destruction of plates; no expansion of the Earth Paleomagnetism - reversal of magnetic poles - fossil evidence of past magnetic poles Earths magnetic field: Declination- angle of difference between true north and magnetic north Inclination difference between the horizontal and the dip; varies from 0 (equator) to 90 (poles) Magnetic minerals in rocks align themselves in the direction of the existing magnetic field at the time they were formed Rocks formed at the same time record of magnetic field should be the same but Positions of ancient magnetic poles for continents do not coincide. Hence Continents moved! Seafloor spreading and geomagnetic reversals -magnetic stripes; alternating but parallel magnetic field due to seafloor spreading and geomagnetic reversals Magnetic field comes from liquid outer core Summary Continental drift Sea floor spreading Paleomagnetism * These old concepts give rise to the Plate Tectonics Concept. Plate Tectonics

Unifying theory of geology All geological features and processes are related Concepts were drawn together in 1968 Lithosphere- moderately rigid plates (may consist of oceanic or continental lithosphere) crust and upper mantle 7 Major Plates + some minor plates 1. Eurasian 8. Arabian 2. North American 9.Scotia 3. South American 10. Philippine 4. Pacific 11. Cocos 5. Antartic 12. Carribean 6. African 13. Nazca 7. Australian 14. Juan de Fuca Plate Boundaries 1. Transform- sliding - Plates past/ slides with each other - Los Angeles and San Fransisco 2. Divergent- pulling apart - Formation of new materials - Formation of mountain ridges (oceanic); rift valleys (continental) 3. Convergent- collision (oceanic- continental) volcanic arc, trench ex. Andes (continental-continental) mountain ranges ex. Himalayas range (oceanic- oceanic) island arcs, trench ex. Philippines, Japan, Indonesia There is no explanation to the movement. Driving mechanism for plate motion 1. Convection currents - Hot materials rise, cold materials sink - Movement due to the difference of temperature, and pressure a. Two-layer convection separated at depth of 660 kilometers b. Whole-mantle convection entire 2900-km mantle Evidence for Plate Tectonics Hot spots provide a frame of reference for tracing the direction of plate motion; nilalabasan ng magma na hindi located sa plate boundaries; ex. Hawaii volcanoes - Hot spots or the magma plumes are stable and does not move, but as continents move, there is creation of islands or chains of islands

Global Positioning System (lalabas sa finals) Philippine island arc system Philippines is an island arcs South China Sea/ West Philippine Sea Eastern subduction zone: East Luzon Trough (hindi sure kkung nagsusubduct) Philippine Trench Cotabato treng Philippine Sea Plate Philippine Mobile Belt Sundaland Manila Trench Negros Trench Sulu Trench (east has discontinuous subduction) Philippine Sea Subduction creates the Philippine Fault Zone Lecture 14 Historical Geology Deals with the origin of the Earth and its development through time. Strives to establish an orderly chronological arrangement of the physical and biological changes and events that have occurred in the geologic past. Geologic Time Previous estimates of the age of the Earth: Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord Kelvin, 1897): ~24 40 m.y. (did not account radioactive heat kaya underestimated)v Rate of delivery of salt to the oceans (John Joly, 1899-1901): ~90 100 m.y. Thickness of total sedimentary record divided by average sedimentation rates (1910): ~1.6 b.y. Oldest rocks on Earth found so far: 1. Acasta Gneisses in northwestern Canada near Great Slave Lake (4.03 Ga) (Ga= billion years_ 2. Isua Supracrustal rocks in West Greenland (3.7 to 3.8 Ga) 3. rocks found in the Minnesota River Valley and northern Michigan (3.5-3.7 billion years), in Swaziland (3.4-3.5 billion years), and in Western Australia (3.4-3.6 billion years)

(Not updated! May nahanap nan a 4.3 b.y, Hudson river, Quebec, Canada, Hindi lalabas sa exam) -study rocks in continents and metiorides Oldest materials to be found on Earth: 1. Zircon grains found in sedimentary rocks in west-central Australia = 4.4 b.y. - Oldest material in terrestrial origin - Enclosed in a metamorphosed sandstone conglomerate - (can say na may continents ka na) 70 well-dated meteorites using different dating methods (e.g. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Ar-Ar) = 4.4-4.6 b.y. (habang nabubuo yung, nabubuo yung planets) Iron meteorite (Canyon Diablo meteorite) = 4.54 b.y. 1. Most accepted age for the Earth and the rest of the solar system: ~4.55 b.y. old (+ ~1%) 2. Best age of the Universe: 14 17 b.y. Evidence: rate of evlution of stars and age of elements in the galaxy Two types of dating: Relative Dating (may point of reference) Putting rocks and events in their proper sequence of formation Dating of rocks and rock units with the use of fossils and correlation of different strata Does not require numerical ages of rocks or fossils or events Principles used in relative dating 1. Law/ Principle of Uniformitarianism Former changes of the earths surface may be explained by reference to causes in operation The history of the earth may be deciphered in terms of present observations, on the assumption that physical and chemical laws are invariant with time. The present is the key to the past Present processes are active in the past 2. Stenos Laws a. Law of Superposition - when examining an undistributed sequence of stratified rocks, the oldest strata would be at the bottom and the youngest strata will be on the top of the sequence b. Law of Original Horizontality (batas ng orihinal na pagkapatag)

- most layers are deposited horizontally - sedimentary beds which are inclined tan angle must have undergone deformation after they have been deposited c. Law of Lateral Continuity - sediments would spread out until they thin out at the edge of the depositional basin, stop at a depositional barrier or grade into another type of sediments (indicative of a change in the depositional environment) d. Cross-cutting relationships - when a fault or intrusion cuts through another rock, the fault or intrusion is younger that the rocks which it cuts 3. Inclusions - the rock mass containing the inclusion is younger than the rock that provides the inclusion 4. Unconformity - any significant break in time within a stratigraphic column - gaps in rock record representing: Rock deposition- a long period which deposition ceased, erosion previously formed rocks and the deposition resumed; (erosion; a period of non-deposiiton) Types of Unconformity Angular Unconformity - Tilted or folded sedimentary rocks that are overlain by younger, more flat-lying strata - Different orientation of the beds Disconformity/ Paraconformity - Beds above and below are parallel and the unconformity identified by some evidence such as erosional surface or lack of certain diagnostic zone fossils in some horizons Disconformity - May erosional surface Paraconformity- nalalaman dahil sa fossils Nonconformity - older metamorphic or igneous rocks are covered by younger sedimentary strata - metamorphic and igneous rocks are base rocks 5. Principle of Faunal Succession - fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order, thus any time period can be recognized by its fossil content 6.Correlation - demonstration of the equivalence if two or more geologic phenomena in different areas it may be lithologic or chronologic - based on similarity of lithologic and paleontologic features

- to show correspondence in character and in stratigraphic position (international stratigraphic guide) - To demonstrate correspondence between geographically separated parts of a geological unit (North American Stratigraphic Code) (Sequencing of Events lalabas sa exam) Fossils Remains or traces of prehistoric life preserved in sedimentary rocks Used to relatively date our rocks Important time indicator and play a key role in the correlation of rocks (recall proof of continental drift) Include both remains of organisms (bones or shells) and traces of organisms (trails, burrows or imprints) Requirements for preservation Rapid burial to prevent decomposition Presence of protective cover or preserving medium Possession of hard parts or durable tissues such as shells, bones, teeth and woody tissue Types of fossilization 1. Preservation of unaltered body parts: a. Hard parts usually shells, bone, teeth or pollen b. Soft tissue by mummification or freezing Processes for preservation: glacial deposition 2. Chemical alteration of hard parts: a. Carbonization soft tissues preserved as thin carbon film b. Recrystallization conversion of a mineral polymorph to another (e.g. aragonite calcite) c. Replacement dissolution of original material and precipitation of new mineral d. Permineralization porous material filled with secondary materials e. Petrification replacement of wood 3. Imprints of hard parts in sediment or trace fossils: a. Mold dissolution of shell b. Cast filling of mold c. Borings and burrows worms, clams and other invertebrates burrow into rocks and sediments d. Coprolites fossil excrement

e. Gastroliths smooth, polished stones found in the abdominal cavities of dinosaur skeletons Oldest fossils in the Philippines a. oldest human fossil - skull cap of the Tabon Man; ~22,000 y,ears old; discovered by Dr. Robert B. Fox, American anthropologist of the National Museum, inside Tabon Cave, Palawan, on May 28, 1962. b. fusulinids Permian; found in Calamian Islands, Palawan Uses of fossils tracing the evolutionary history of extinct as well as living organisms reconstructing paleoclimates and paleoenvironments providing the source of energy resources (e.g. oil, gas, coal) Absolute Dating (may numerical value) Numerical dating of rocks, minerals and fossils Utilizing radioactive isotopes Isotopes (parent-unstabledecaydaughterstable) Half-life- the length of time required for one-half of the nuclei of a radioactive isotope to decay Shortest is carbon-14: dating range: 100-70, 000 Radioactive Dating Most minerals which contain radioactive isotopes (except C14) are in igneous and metamorphic rocks. K40 is usually found in potassium feldspar, muscovite and amphibole. Uranium may be found in zircon, uraninite, apatite and sphere Geologic Time Scale The history of the earth is broken up into a hierarchical set of divisions for describing geologic time. Units of time include eon, era, period, epoch, age. (decreasing scale of units of time) (WAG NA DAW TOH) Early efforts to develop the time scale 1. Giovanni Arduino applied Stenos Laws and classified rocks in Italian mountain exposures into: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary groups 2. Abraham G. Werner saw similar transitions in Germany 3. William Smith saw same subdivisions in Great Britain

Modern Time Scale a. Carboniferous System (1822) coal-rich interval in Northern Europe b. Cretaceous System (1822) chalk-rich rocks in France (creta = chalk in Latin) c. Tertiary System (1831) subdivided by Charles Lyell based on % of fossil species still living today d. Cambrian System (1835) defined by Adam Sedgwick for the fossil-poor strata in NW Wales e. Silurian System (1835) defined by R.I. Murchison based on the rocks in SE Wales; contained fossils f. Ordovician System (1879) named by Charles Lapworth based on the presence of a distinct fossil assemblage g. Jurassic System (1839) named after the strata in the Jura Mountains in France and Switzerland h. Devonian System (1840) named after sandstones in Devonshire, SE England Relative Geologic Time Scale

Lecture 15 Global warming and Climate change Climate system - All that is on the surface and in the atmosphere are part - Humans are part - Water cycle, atmospheric cycle - Atmosphere, land surface, snow and ice, oceans and other bodies of water and living things Climate change - Described in terms of the mean and variability of T. - Precipitation and wind over a period of time - Evolves under the influence of its own internal dynamics and due to changes in external factors - External forcings include natural phenomena (volcanic eruption, solar variation) and human-induced changes in the atmosphere composition - Started on 1860, industrial age in Britain Disasters: - Destroyed agricultural crops and infrastructure - Studies suggest that the number of weather-related disasters have increased three-fold over the past thirty years - Affected two billion people - Disasters between 1992 and 2001 killed 622,000 people Observed trends in the country - No trend of tropical cyclones - Trend in the increase of temperature Highlights - Philippines is highly vulnerable to the impacts of tropical cyclones: floods, high winds, storms surges Global warming Climate Change- change in the climate Mitigation- reducing greenhouse gas emissions - Reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) - Reforestation and forest development - Inventory of carbon footprints - CH4 capture - Use of alternative energy sources

Adaptation- reducing the adversity impacts of climate change - Philippines focuses on adaptation because we have low carbon footprint (if we focus mitigation, we would not have a significant difference because we have low carbon production) Philippine adaptation: Risk assessment and hazard mapping Rigorous Meteorological and geological setting of the Philippines (Hindi lalabas sa FINAL; pwede sa third :P) Milankovitch cycle: a. Precession- wobble of the earths cycle b. Obliquity- (23.5) change of this; tilt of the earth c. Eccentricity- orbit of the Earth ; anong mas malapit sa sun Sun- main factor affecting the climate of the Earth (Subject to debate: Right now, we are in interglacial age or between two ice ages) Evolution of our Planet Molten planet (age of acresion)- time before solid rock was formed Water- from comets (made up of icy materials or ice) Precambrian Eon, Palaeozoic Eon First fossils- cyanobacteria