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Background / Starting point Definitions Levels of synchronization Digital transmission line Phase-locked loops for bitrate recovery Elastic store Interconnection of plesiochronous network elements Multiplexing of plesiochronous signals Switch synchronization Synchronization of constant length envelopes / ATM Synchronization of radio systems / GSM / WLAN / Satellite Scrambling and interleaving
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Codec
Codec
USER
USER/SERVICE PROVIDER
Coder og decoder must be synchronized to not loose speech samples or get pauses in playout of voice at receiver.
- A challenge since the signal passes through many links (multiplexing systems) and switches between coder and decoder.
Definitions:
(All of these are defined in a telecommunication context the same terms may be used with different meaning in other contexts). Synchronous:
A signal is only synchronous relative to another signal, i.e. this is not a characteristic of one signal. There is room for very small differences for corresponding pairs of significant instants (e.g. arrival of bits), but not for the average over a long period of time.
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Definitions (2)
Asynchronous (or non-synchronous): such that their corresponding significant instants do not necessarily occur at precisely the same average rate. A signal is only asynchronous relative to another signal, i.e. this is not a characteristic of one signal. There may be large deviations between both corresponding significant instants (e.g. arrival of bits) and between averages over a long time.
Definitions (3)
Plesiochronous (Almost synchronous):
such that their corresponding significant instants occur at nominally the same rate, any variation in rate being constrained within specified limits. (Note 1: Two signals having the same nominal
digital rate, but not stemming from the same clock or homochronous clocks, are usually plesiochronous. Note 2: There is no limit to the time relationship between significant instants).
A signal is only plesiochronous relative to another signal, i.e. this is not a characteristic of one signal. The signals are drifting relative to each other. Often the best we can achieve in a telecommunication network!
Definitions (4)
Isochronous: such that the time intervals between consecutive significant instants either have the same duration or durations that are integral multiples of the shortest duration (Note: In practice, variations in the time are constrained within specified limits). A signal is isochronous by itself, i.e. An inherent characteristic of one signal. Isochonous signals are often synchronous or plesiochonous relative to other signals in a network. The static multiplexing structures are examples of isochronous signals. Any digital signal with a constant rate is isochronous at the bit level. (NB! But not necessarily at higher abstraction levels).
Definitions (5)
Anisochronous (rarely used): such that the time intervals between consecutive significant instants do not necessarily have the same duration or durations that are integral multiples of the shortest duration. A signal is anisochronous by itself, i.e. an inherent characteristic of one signal. An anisochronous signal can not be synchronous or plesiochronous with any other signal. Example: Start/stopp-signals where the distance between to characters is random.
All events (i.e. bit level changes above) at time instants that are multiples of the bit period (in this case). For certain types of actual coding on a channel, the period may be different, e.g. twice the bit period for Manchester coding:
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Receiver Constant delays Clock/timing info
* Note: Adjustments at bit level may still be necessary, e.g. use of elastic store ()
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Excercise:
What about the effects from loss of information: - For a real-time speech conversation? - For a real-time video conversation? - For streaming video? - For transport of program code? - For backup of data, e.g. a database?
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Synchronization on many different levels in a network (3) Effects from loss of information: - for real-time services: a lost word from a speech or video coder must be replaced by something before playout, e.g. the previous word (often ok because of high autocorrelation in these streams) - for streaming services: same as above, but Forward Error Correction (FEC) could be used to increase quality. (Since buffering at receiver to handle delay variation - for general data services: retransmission (or FEC) necessary to recreate perfectly correct information at receiver.
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2: Envelopes of variable length: - Unique flag used to detect start of information unit, e.g. 01111110. - Transparency stuffing to avoid simulation of flag in information part. HDLC (High-level Data Link Control): extra zeros are inserted and removed dynamically, after five 1s.
Original:
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011111101011111110000010100011111100101101111110
Sender
Receiver
Network elements must either have the same (global) clock or have mechanisms to handle the fact that they are plesiochronous with regard to each other.
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Codec
Codec
USER
USER/SERVICE PROVIDER
Information units are stored only briefly (if needed) for switching inside the network. Storage time should be very close to constant, to maintain isochronism of signal. Synchronization challenges (overview, return to each ): a) User equipment: Can usually adjust to the clock of its local switch. b) Switches: May be plesiochronous relative to each other. c) Multiplex systems: Solved by using bitrate recovery.
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Coder
Transmission line
Clipper
Decoder
Bitrate recoverer
Constant bitlengths
Variable bitlengths
Multiple signals give an eyecurve and show variations in borders between bits
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Line signal
Control voltage
Line signal
Phase detector
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Elastic store
Example: Digital subscriber line. User must adjust to the bitrate of its local switch. Switch can not adjust its clock to the bitrate of the user. Signal from user must be adjusted to the internal clock of the switch before switching can be done => Elastic store.
Receiver
Phase align.
Bitrate recoverer
Transmission line
Sender
Phase align.
Recovered rate
Recovered rate
Switch
Phase align.
Transmission line
Bitrate recoverer
Sender
(Master)
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8 to 1 multiplexer
Databit out
Count down
Reset
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Grade of filling
Line signal in
Bitrate recoverer
Elastic store
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Switch
Transmission line
Switch
Transmission line
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Elastic store
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8 to 1 multiplexer
Databit out
Count down
Reset
Change in read-out position: ....33...3344...44555....5566... ..66777 (loss of word) 000...00111...112... etc.. Would be OK, we loose a whole word. But in reality, because of jitter: ...33...33434.. ..44555...5556566...66676....6777...77 (loss of word) 0 (Reads bits from previous frame:) 77000...etc. I.e. bits from two different words are mixed together. (But synchronism at word level is kept).
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Control bit
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Excercise
See any problems with the implementation on the previous foil? What happens if the Adjustment bit is wrong? What happens if the Control bit is wrong?
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One adjustmentbit pr. channel. Three controlbits pr. channel, distributed across the frame. Majority decision between controlbits.
4 adjustment bits Frame = 848 bits, of which 820 ordinary channel bits + 4 adjustment bits
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Rate/clock
Multiplexed signal
Rate/clock
Elastic store
Isochronism must be Rate/clock restored by use of an elastic store and Channel 2 phase-locked loop pr. channel.
Rate/clock
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Synchronisation of switches
Within the domain of one operator: - Most used solution: One ultra-stable master clock (Drift: 1 second in 10 000 years) and local good quality clocks synchronized to this in a master-slave fashion. An alternative solution: Phase-locked loops used between all master clocks. Would be more reliable, but difficult to make stable. Communication between switches belonging to different operators is normally between plesiochronous systems.
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(Shown earlier).
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candidate flag. b) Check if flag also at pos. + one frame. - If YES: repeat N times and then go to c). - If NO (in any of the N above): go to a). In Synch: c) Check flag in every frame. If NO flag M times, assume lost synch. and go to a).
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Receiver:
Unique word correlator can e.g. be a shift register with same length as UW. With +1 and -1 denoting the two possible binary states: Correlation is (UWbit*Candbit)
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Or: -1
-1
3?
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PLCP header
32 bits
Payload
variable
Synchronization: 0101010... Used to synch both carrier frequency and digital clock of receiver to the sender. Start frame delimeter is Unique Word (UW). Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) contains length of payload and data rate (1 Mbps or 2 Mbps). Payload contains the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
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Alternative: Block interleaving: Use buffer, write in data row by row, but read out column by column. => Delay.
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