Dr Mary Kelly-Quinn mary.kelly-quinn@ucd.

ie Freshwater Biodiversity, Ecology & Fisheries Research Group School of Biology & Environmental Science, University College Dublin With contributions from Drs Hugh Feeley & Maria Callanan and Mr Diarmuid Ryan B.Sc. M.Sc. & Ms Pamela Maher B.Sc.

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A considerable amount of macroinvertebrate sampling has been undertaken in small streams in Ireland but these are generally in the context of assessing land-use impacts. Only one study by Callanan (2009) was specifically focussed on headwaters and in particular potential reference conditions. A number of papers have been published from this work (e.g. Callanan, Baars & KellyQuinn, 2008 & 2012). Nevertheless, the available datasets contribute to the knowledge base on such systems. Some of the key datasets held by the freshwater research group are given in Slide 2. Datasets held by other institutes should be identified and a consolidated database constructed for further analysis.

Slide 2

Most of the sampling of small streams has been concentrated in coastal areas with few midland sites (see examples in Slide 3 below).

Slide 3

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Slide 4

Slide 5

Just over 2000 macroinvertebrate species have been identified in Irish freshwaters to date but this number is expected to increase. The majority of these are insects. Most groups are represented by fairly low numbers of species, apart from the Diptera (Slide 5). One might expect somewhere in the region of 400 non-dipteran macroinvertebrates to occur in lotic systems in Ireland.

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Slide 6

Slide 6 shows the taxon richness recorded in small streams across a number of studies. Just over 300 taxa have been associated with small streams to date. This figure would be expected to increase if lowland, alkaline streams were included. The fauna is typically dominated by Trichoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera.

Slide 7

Typically over half of the macroinvertebrate species occur in less than 5% of sites and less than 10 taxa are common to all sites. In other words small streams exhibit high heterogeneity in terms of their species compliment (Slide 7).

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Slide 8

Furthermore, taxon richness at any one site is typically between 40 and 60 (Slide 8), the higher value associated with more alkaline streams. Therefore, protection of biodiversity in small streams needs to target as much of the headwater network as possible.

Slide 9

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Slide 10

Callanan, Baars & Kelly-Quinn (2012) identified four types of headwater streams based on macroinvertebrate communities (Slide 10). The groups identified are largely grouped according to conductivity, pH and substrate. Group 1 sites drained sedimentary geology with non-peaty soils, yielding a higher conductivity and total hardness than sites in any other group. Group 2 had a similar geology and again drained mainly non-peaty soils but had lower conductivity levels than Group 1 and the highest representation of cobble/pebble substrates. Group 3 sites drained mainly siliceous geology with peaty soils and were characterized by predominately bedrock and boulder substrates. Finally, Group 4 sites drained siliceous geology with peaty soils and were located at the highest elevations and had the lowest pH. Low elevation sites were underrepresented in this study, largely because no clean-water sites could be located and so may be considered as a potential fifth grouping.

Slide 11

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Slide 12

Callanan (2009) examined longitudinal variation in the composition of macroinvertebrate communities. Sampling started at the stream sources and was undertaken at 2, 4, 7 and 10km further downstream.

Slide 13

Taxon richness increased substantially between the source and 2.5km but increased little thereafter (Slide 13). The study by Callanan (2009) showed 17% of the macroinvertebrates to be unique to headwaters, i.e the first 2.5km from source (Slide 13). A higher figure of 29% was reported from the Killarney area by Feeley & Kelly-Quinn (2012). This emphasises the important contribution of small streams to catchment biodiversity.

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Slide 14

Slide 15

Feeley & Kelly-Quinn (2012) studies small streams in two potentially species-rich areas in Ireland, Killarney and Slieve Blooms (Slide 15).

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Slide 16

The local richness and diversity was found to be low, with high heterogeneity among sites sampled. However, regional richness and diversity were high among several groups (Slide 16), indicating the importance of both regions. The authors suggested that protection of these regions may be extremely important in providing refuge populations in the future from which surrounding areas can be re-populated, facilitating ecological recovery as required by the Water Framework Directive.

Slide 17

Productivity may be expressed in terms of abundances, biomass or production. No whole community production figures exist for macroinvertebrates in small streams in Ireland. In fact, few quantitative abundance data are available. Most studies are based on semi-quantitative sampling that allows some comparisons between sites but no real measure of invertebrate productivity.

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Slide 18

Based on semi-quantitative sampling the study of Callanan (2009) showed that overall less than 10% of species accounted for over half the total macroinvertebrate abundances at sites. The number of taxa contributing to 80% of the total abundances was higher nearer the sources. A smaller number of species dominate the downstream sites. This may mean that fish in small streams may have access to a wider food base. Macroinvertebrate abundances typically increase with distance from the stream source but it is unknown what proportion of these are available for fish feeding.

Slide 19

The limited available quantitative data reports macroinvertebrate densities ranging from 128 9825/m (Kelly-Quinn, Tierney, Coyle & Bracken 1997). Clearly further research is needed to quantify secondary production in small streams. Research by Diarmuid Ryan (UCD) on the River Slaney shows density values within this range and highlights a lower density within shaded reaches (Slide 19). However, trout in the same stream seem to compensate for lower abundances of macroinvertebrates in shades areas by consuming a higher proportion of terrestrial invertebrates (Slide 20).
2

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Slide 20

Slide 21

Key anthropogenic impacts on small streams include organic pollution/eutrophication (largely from diffuse agriculture sources), acidification and culverting.

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Slide 22

Ongoing research on macroinvertebrate communities in streams draining agricultural areas by Pamela Maher (UCD) as part of the PATHWAYS project (http://www.qub.ac.uk/researchcentres/eerc/UsefulLinks/Pathways-EPASTRIVEProject/) shows temporal variation in water quality as represented by the EPA Q-value. Values drop during the summer months and show some recovery from autumn through to spring (Slide 22).

Slide 23

Forest-mediated acidification is still an issue for small streams in acid sensitive catchments where the risk of impact increases with increasing catchment forest cover. Currently the main drivers of episodic acidity are DOC and base cation dilution. Anthropogenic inputs of sulphate are less significant than in the 1990s (see Feeley et al. 2012a).

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Slide 24

Results of a study by Feeley (2012) on small streams with varying catchment forest cover in three regions, indicate that episodically low pH (<6) and high inorganic aluminium (>150 Al-1) recorded in many forested streams is maintaining periods of ecological impact. Seasonal loss of sensitive macroinvertebrate populations, especially Baetis sp., and changes in macroinvertebrate communities was shown to be most profound in highly forested sites (HF) in spring-time. However, in summer (July 2010), HF sites in all three regions had improvements in numbers of acid-sensitive taxa. Moreover, the highest AWICsp (Acid Water Indicator Community) scores were recorded in late summer (July 2010), with little or no forest cover differences, especially in the south and west on sedimentary and metamorphic geologies, respectively. So impact seems to be seasonal and influences by the number and severity of acid episodes.

Slide 25

Another study by Feeley et al. (2011) demonstrated that in the small streams examined, recovery from acidification impact, both in terms of taxon richness and ephemeropteran richness, occurred within 2 to 2.5 km from its source (Slide 25). Loss of taxa even within relatively short reaches has implications for overall biodiversity especially given the high contribution of headwaters to catchment biodiversity.

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Slide 26

Slide 27

Land-use changes, even within short time scales, can significantly alter the composition and structure of macroinvertebrate communities in small streams. Few studies are available from Ireland. The data in Slide 27 show the response of the macroinvertebrate community in a forested stream to two periods of felling (indicated by the green arrows). The felling of dense conifers from the riparian zone and the subsequent increase in light resulted in an increase in algal production and a switch to a grazer dominated community. We need to understand how future land-use changes may impact macroinvertebrate community structure and production and the consequences for fish production.

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Slide 28

Land-use within the riparian zone and surface water quality may also impact hyporheic invertebrates. A study by Kibichii (2009) showed that hyporheic invertebrates of the agriculturally intensive south-eastern region of Ireland were affected by a combination of surface water pollution and the degradation of riparian zones. There were reductions in invertebrate abundance and taxon richness in polluted streams with and without riparian woodland, although substantially more in polluted stream sites without riparian woodland. Slide 29

Climate change may impact macroinvertebrates in streams through alterations in both temperature and precipitation amounts and patterns. Few data are available to predict consequences for small streams in Ireland.

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Slide 30

Catastrophic flooding of the type described by Feeley et al. (2012b) has potential implications for regional biodiversity, particularly if such events are as spatially widespread and were to become a more common occurrence as predicted due to climate change. The flooding resulted in reductions in richness and particularly in total abundances of macroinvertebrates (Slide 31). Such reductions would have implications for salmonid feeding. Slide 31

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Slide 32

Fewer data are available on stream water temperature in Ireland and influencers of local environmental conditions such as riparian cover.

Slide 33

Small streams are particularly vulnerable to changes in temperatures due to their shallow depth and small water volume. An ongoing study by Diarmuid Ryan in association with Mary Kelly-Quinn (UCD) is investigation the potential for management of riparian shading to buffer any temperature increases predicted due to climate change. The temperature differential across a 300m reach is illustrated in Slide 33. Further study is required in this area given the importance of small streams as salmonid spawning and nursery areas.

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Slide 34

Small streams require extensive sampling to keep track of water quality. A study by Feeley et al. (2012c) showed that 20-second kick samples can be used to assess the ecological health of headwater streams, provided that adequate replication is adopted (Slide 35). The added benefit is a significant reduction in effort, cost and time savings and ultimately allowing sampling of a larger number of sites.

Slide 35

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Slide 36

Slide 37

Spring and summer datasets from clean headwater streams were used to test the performance of biotic metrics with respect to season in assessing the ecological quality of small streams. The least amount of variability between seasons was obtained using the ASPT and the SSRS risk assessment system (Slide 37). The highly heterogeneous communities of small headwater streams seem to have too few taxa present in the summer to reliably determine the ecological quality of the stream using the available indices.

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References Bradley, C. (2001) The Macroinvertebrate Communities of Reference Rivers in Ireland. A thesis presented to the School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. Callanan, M. Baars, J-R & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2008) Critical influence of seasonal sampling on the ecological quality assessment of small headwater streams. Hydrobiologia 610, 1, 245-255. Callanan, M. (2009) An Investigation of the Macroinvertebrate Communities of Irish Headwater Streams. A thesis presented to the School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. Callanan, M., Baars, J-R & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2012) A typological classification of Irish rivers Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy DOI: 103318/BIOE.2012.11. Feeley, H. (2012) The Impact of Mature Conifer Forest Plantations on the Hydrochemical and Ecological Quality of Headwater Streams in Ireland, with Particular Reference to Episodic Acidification. A thesis presented to the School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree. Feeley, H.B., Kerrigan, C., Fanning, P., Hannigan, E. and Kelly-Quinn, M. (2011) Longitudinal extent of acidification effects of plantation forest on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in soft water streams: evidence for localised impact and temporal ecological recovery. Hydrobiologia 671, 217226. Feeley, H.B. & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2012) An evaluation of local and regional diversity of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in two small regions of Ireland and their potential as localised refugia for certain taxonomic groups Biology and Environment: Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 112B, 1-9. Feeley, H.B., Bruen, M., Blacklocke, S. Baars & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2012a) Significant changes in the hydrochemistry and drivers of episodic acidity in headwater streams draining plantation forest in Ireland: increasing role of organic acidity with the reduction of anthropogenic deposition. Science of the Total Environment (IN PRESS) Feeley, H.B., M. Woods, M., Baars, J-R & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2012c). Refining a kick sampling strategy for the bioassessment of benthic macroinvertebrates in headwater streams. Hydrobiologia 683: 5368. Feeley, H.B., Davis, Stephen, Bruen, M. Blacklocke, M. & Kelly-Quinn, M. (2012b) The impact of a catastrophic storm event on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in upland headwater streams and potential implications for ecological diversity and assessment of ecological status. Journal of PDF (2), 309-318. Limnology, 71 Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com

Kelly-Quinn, M., Tierney, D., Coyle, S. & Bracken, J.J. (1997) A study of the effects of Stream Hydrology and Water Quality in Forested Catchments on Fish and Invertebrates. Stream Chemistry, Hydrology and Biota, Wicklow Region. Aquafor Report 3, University College Dublin. 92pp. Kelly-Quinn, M. Bradley, C., Dodkins, I., Harrington, T.J., NiChathain, B., OConnor, M., Rippey, B. & Trigg, D. (2005) Water Framework Directive Characterisation of Reference Conditions and Testing of Typology of Rivers. EPA, Dublin. Kelly-Quinn, M., Cruikshanks, R., Johnson, J., Matson, R., Baars, J-R & Bruen, M. (2008) Forestry and Surface Water Acidification (FORWATER). Report produced for the Western River Basin District. Kibichii, S. (2009) The Invertebrate Biodiversity of the Hyporheic Zones of Selected Irish Rivers. A thesis presented to the School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University College Dublin, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Ph.D. Zoology degree.

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