Electrical Motors

Objectives:
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Describe types of electrical motors
State the working principle of DC motor, induction motor and synchronous
motor
Identifying the direction of force acting on current carrying conductor in the
magnetic field by using Flemings Left Hand Rule
Identifying a motor suits for a particular application
Introduction:
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. All electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic
fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. The
smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of
highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical
power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion
of ships, pipeline compressors, and water pumps with ratings in the millions of
watts.
Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal
construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
History:
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic
means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821.
In 1827, Hungarian physicist nyos Jedlik started experimenting with devices he
called "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for instructional
purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main
components of practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor and commutator.
The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning
machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.
Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made
with the intention of commercial use was built by Americans Emily and Thomas
Davenport and patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up to 600 rpm. Due to the
high cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery power, the motors were
commercially unsuccessful.
A prototype induction motor was demonstrated in Europe in 1885 by Galileo
Ferraris.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla patented the first practicable AC motor and with it the
polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor
in the years to follow at the Westinghouse Company.
Classification of electrical motors:
Electrical motors are broadly classified on the availability of type of supply. They
are,
DC motors
o With brush
DC shunt motor
DC series motor
DC compound motor
Separately excited DC motor
Permanent magnet DC
o Without brush
Brushless DC motor
Switched reluctance motor
Stepper motor
Coreless/ironless DC motor
Printed armature/Pancake DC motor
AC motors
o Synchronous
Permanent magnet synchronous motor
Switched reluctance synchronous motor
Hysteresis motor
o Asynchronous (Induction motors)
Three-phase induction motors
Squirrel cage
Slip-ring/wound rotor
Single-phase induction motors
Split phase induction motor
Capacitor start induction motor
Shaded pole induction motor
DC/AC motors
o Universal motor
Depending upon the applications, motors can be designed according to the desired
characteristics like,
Rotary
Linear
Servo
Spacecraft propeller
Generator

DC Motors:
Working principle of DC motor:
According to the Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a current
carrying conductor place in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. The direction of
force acting on the conductor is found by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
The concept of working principle of DC motor involves the interaction of magnetic
field and a current carrying conductor place in it. Let a straight conductor be
placed in the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. The interaction
between the magnetic field and current carrying conductor is explained as follows.








Figure 1. Right Hand Thumb Rule
When a current passes through a conductor, lines of magnetic force (flux) are
generated around the conductor. The direction of the flux is dependent on the
direction of the current flow. The magnetic field produced by the conductor is
shown in Figure 1. This can be found by using Right Hand Thumb Rule. This rule
states that If the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the curled
fingers show the direction of the magnetic field.

Figure 2(a). Conductor in a magnetic field, 2(b). Flux produced by current carrying conductor
Consider a conductor which is placed in a magnetic field (represented by flux lines
from N-Pole to S-Pole) and the direction of current is as shown in the Figure 2.
(Cross mark represents the direction of current through the conductor is into the
paper where as dot mark represents the direction of current outwards from the
paper). Due to presence of two magnetic fields simultaneously, an interaction
between them will take place as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3(a). Interaction of fluxes, (b). Force experienced by conductor
The flux lines produced by the magnet and the conductor are in the opposite
directions to each other at the right and hence cancel each other. Hence the
number of flux lines at the right will reduce as shown in Figure 3(a). At the left, the
individual fields are in the same direction, hence will add or strengthen each other.
Therefore the number of flux lines at the left side will increase as shown in Figure
3(a). The resultant pattern of the lines of force is shown in Figure 3(b).
Now mechanical force can exerts on the conductor from the high flux line area (left)
towards the low flux line area (right) as shown in Figure 3(b).

Figure 4. Force acting on current carrying conductor for different positions
Magnitude of force:
The magnitude of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor placed in
the magnetic field is given by,
F = B I l Newton
Where, B = Flux density (Wb)
I = Current flowing through the conductor (A)
l = Length of the conductor (m)

Direction of force:
The direction of force exerted on the
conductor is given by Flemings Left Hand
Rule.
Thumb indicates the direction of
force experienced by the conductor
Index finger represents direction of
magnetic field
Middle finger indicates direction of
current
The working principle of DC motor can be explained by considering one coil instead
of one conductor which is placed in a magnetic field provided by permanent
magnets. It is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Basic principle of DC motor
Consider the direction of current flowing through the conductor in two coil sides,
as from A to B in one side on the other side from C to D. The force acting on the
conductor side AB under North Pole can acts in downward direction, whereas on
Figure 5. Flemings Left Hand Rule
coil side CD under South Pole can acts in upward direction according to Flemings
Left hand Rule. So two forces can act simultaneously on the coil with same
magnitude but in opposite directions such that the coil can start rotating in
counter clock wise direction as shown in Figure 6. In this way, the coil starts
rotating. This is the basic operation of DC motor.
In order to provide supply to the coil, which is not stationary we required slip rings
and brush contacts. For constructing DC motor which can operates only on DC
supply, we need to convert DC into AC in the coil, which means slip rings are to be
replaced with spilt rings.
In conventional, split rings can be called as commutator, coil as armature and
magnets as field pole which are electromagnets.
Construction of DC motor:

Figure 7. Various parts of DC machine
DC machine (which can be used as generator or motor) consists of,
Magnetic frame or Yoke
Pole-cores and Pole shoes
Pole coils or field coils
Armature core
Armature windings or conductors
Commutator
Brushes and bearings
Yoke:
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose:
It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover
for the whole machine and
It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
Pole cores and pole shoes:
The field magnets consists of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two
purposes,
They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-
section, reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path
They support the exciting coils (or field coils).
Figure 8. Field Poles and Pole shoe
Pole coils:
The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire of strip, are former-wound
for the correct diemension. Then the former is removed and wound coil is put into
place over the core. When current is passed through these coils, they
electromagnetise the poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by
revolving armature conductors.
Armature core:
It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence
cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important
function is to provide a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the
armature from a N-pole to a S-pole.
Armature windings:
The armature windings are usually former-wound. These are first wound in the
form of flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil
puller. Various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The
conductors are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough insulating
material.

Figure 9. Rotor of DC motor
Figure 10. Armature winding, commutator and brushes assembly
Commutator:
The function of commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature
conductors in case of generator i.e. as rectifier and in case of motor which can
provide current to the armature conductors i.e. as an inverter.
Brushes and bearings:
The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator or to supply
current to commutator as in the case of generator and motor respectively, are
usually made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block.

Applications:
The following table gives the different applications of various types of DC motors.
Type of
motor
Characteristics Applications
Shunt Approximately constant speed
Adjustable speed
Medium starting torque
For driving constant speed line
shafting
Lathes
Centrifugal pumps
Machine tools
Blowers and fans
Reciprocating pumps
Series Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High starting torque
For traction work i.e.
Electric locomotives
Rapid transit systems
Trolley, cars etc.
Cranes and hoists
Conveyors
Cumulative
compound
Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High starting torque
For intermittent high torque
loads
For shears and punches
Elevators
Conveyors
Rolling mills, Ice machines,
Printing presses, Air
compressors


Induction motors:
The induction motors are basically AC motors i.e. they need an alternating voltage
for their operation.

Figure 11. Induction motor
An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied
to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction, rather than a commutator or
slip rings as in other types of motor. These motors are widely used in industrial
drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are rugged and have
no brushes. Single-phase versions are used in small appliances. Their speed is
determined by the frequency of the supply current, so they are most widely used in
constant-speed applications, although variable speed versions, using variable
frequency drives are becoming more common.
Construction:
A three-phase induction motor has two main parts: a stationary stator and a
revolving rotor. The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air gap.
Stator:
The stator frame is constructed from cast iron or rolled steel. Its purpose is to
provide mechanical protection and support for the stator laminated metal core,
windings and arrangements for ventilation.

Figure 12. Stator of induction motor
It is made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings.
The stator carries a three-phase winding and is fed from a three-phase supply. It is
wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles being determined
by the requirements of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and
vice versa. The stator windings when supplied with three-phase currents, produce
a magnetic flux, which is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at
synchronous speed (given by Ns = 120f/P, where f is the supply frequency and P
is the number poles on the stator). This revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. in
the rotor by mutual induction.
Rotor:
Based on the rotor construction induction motors are classified into two groups.
a) Squirrel cage induction motor, having squirrel cage rotor
b) Slip-ring induction motor, having phase-wound or wound rotor.
(a). Squirrel cage rotor:
Almost 90 percent of induction motors are squirrel cage type, because this type of
rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction. The rotor consists of a
cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors
which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consist of heavy bars of copper,
aluminium or alloys. The rotor bars are short-circuited at both the ends by the use
of end-rings.

Figure 13. Squirrel cage rotor
(b). Phase-wound Rotor:
This type of rotor is provided with three-phase, distributed windings. The rotor is
wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and the three windings are
star connected internally. The other end three terminals are brought out and
connected to three insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft. Through these slip
rings an external resistance can be added into the rotor part to improve the starting
torque produced by the motor.



Figure 14. Slip ring rotor
Working principle:
When the three-phase stator windings are fed by a three-phase supply then, a
magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at synchronous speed is set up.
The flux passes through the air-gap, sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the
rotor conductors which, as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between
the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, an e.m.f. is induced in the
conductors, according to Faradays laws of electro-magnetic induction. Its
magnitude is proportional to the relative velocity between the flux and the
conductors and its direction is given by Flemings Right Hand Rule. Since the rotor
bars or conductors form a closed circuit, rotor current is produced whose direction,
as given by Lenzs law, is such as to oppose the very cause producing it. In this
case, the cause which produces the rotor current is the relative velocity between
the rotating flux of the stator and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence, to reduce
the relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the flux
and tries to catch up with the rotating flux.
Slip:
In practice, the rotor never succeeds in catching up with the stator field. If it really
did so, then there would be no relative speed between the two, hence no rotor
e.m.f., no rotor current and so no torque to maintain rotation. That is why the rotor
runs at a speed which is always less than the speed of the stator field. The
difference in speeds depends upon the load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the actual speed N of the
rotor is known as slip. Though it may be expressed in so many revolutions/second,
yet it is usual to express it as a percentage of the synchronous speed. Actually, the
term slip is descriptive of the way in which the rotor slips back from
synchronism.
%slips =
N

N
N

100
Sometimes, Ns-N is called the slip-speed. Obviously, rotor (or motor) speed is:
N = N

(1-s)
It may be kept in mind that revolving flux is rotating synchronously, relative to the
stator (i.e. stationary space) but at slip speed relative to the rotor.
Advantages of induction motors over DC motors:
Because of some of the following advantages, the induction motors are replacing
the DC motors, in various applications. The advantages are:
Low maintenance requirement since the squirrel cage induction motor does
not use the commutators and brushes.
Ruggedness, smaller size and weight.
Low cost.
They can operate in dusty and explosive environments, because the brushes
are not being used. Therefore there is no possibility of sparking.
They can operate at higher speeds, of the order of 12,000 rpm. This is again
possible as the brushes are absent so no friction.
Its torque-speed characteristics are similar to DC shunt motor
characteristics. So it runs almost constant speed at all loads with the speed
decreasing slightly with increase in speed.
It can produce sufficient torque.
Speed control by using thyristors can give a range of speeds.
Disadvantages of Induction motors:
In induction motors the flux and armature (stator) current cannot be
controlled separately, as there is only stator winding and rotor is not
accessible for the user.
Low starting torque.
Lagging and low power factor.
Applications of Induction motors:
The applications areas for induction motors are as follows:
Fans,
Pumps,
Extruders,
Converyers,
Paper and sugar industries,
Chemical, textile, mines and traction etc.

Synchronous motor:
Synchronous motors are a special class of motors that provide features not found
in other motor types. As their name implies, synchronous motors operated at their
synchronous speed and not subject to the slip found in induction motors. One big
advantage of synchronous motors is that they actually improve power factor for the
location in which they are installed. Synchronous motors are generally used to
power large equipment such as compressors and pumps.


Figure 15. Synchronous motors
Construction:
Synchronous motor also consists of armature and field as that of DC motor. In case
of DC motor, the armature rotates and the field system is stationary, the
arrangement is synchronous motor is just reverse of it i.e. armature winding
mounted on a stationary element called stator and field windings on a rotating
element called rotor.
Figure 16. Stator and rotor parts of a synchronous motor
The stator is similar to as the case of induction motor, consists of a cast-iron
frame, which supports the armature core, having slots on its inner periphery for
housing the armature conductors.
The rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N and S poles fixed to its outer rim. The
magnetic poles are excited (or magnetised) from direct current supplied by a DC
source. In most cases, necessary exciting current is obtained from a small DC
generator which is belted or mounted on the shaft itself. Because the field magnets
are rotating, this current is supplied through two sliprings.

Figure 17. Construction of a synchronous motor
Working Principle:
Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When two
unlike poles are brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there exists a
tremendous force of attraction between those two poles. In such condition the two
magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
When rotor winding is excited with DC supply, the fixed magnetic poles will be
formed where as the stator three phase windings are excited with a three phase AC
supply, the magnetic poles will be formed on the stator. Now the situation of
magnetic locking will occur in between stator and rotor magnetic poles as shown in
Figure 18. But the flux produced by the three phase winding is always of rotating
type. Such a magnetic flux rotates in space at a speed called synchronous speed.
This magnetic field is called rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field
creates the effect similar to the physical rotation of magnets in space with a
synchronous speed. So because of magnetic locking now the rotor poles are also
will move in the same direction with the same speed such as synchronous speed of
stator poles. In this way the rotor (or motor) always runs at synchronous speed.

Figure 18. Magnetic locking between stator and rotor poles
Advantage of synchronous motor over other types of motor:
1. Easy control of power factor: an over excited synchronous motor drawing a
leading current from the bus bar may be used to raise the overall power
factor of the energy supplied by the system to the load.
2. Constant speed: The speed of a synchronous is constant and is
independent of load. The motor can be used to drive another alternator to
generate electricity at different frequency than the supply frequency.
Disadvantage:
Higher cost
Necessity of DC excitation source
Greater initial and maintenance cost
Applications:
Power factor correction
Constant-speed, constant-load drives
Voltage regulation
Sevro drives
Compressors, etc.

Generation and Distribution of Electrical Power
Objectives:
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Describe the various power generating plants
Describe the various levels of transmission and distribution of power
History of Electric Power Systems
In 1878, Thomas A. Edison began work on the electric light and formulated the
concept of a centrally located power station with distributed lighting serving a
surrounding area. He perfected his light by October 1879, and the opening of his
historic Pearl Street Station in New York City on September 4, 1882, marked the
beginning of the electric utility industry (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Milestones of the early electric utility industry
At Pearl Street, dc generators, then called dynamos, were driven by steam engines
to supply an initial load of 30 kW for 110-V incandescent lighting to 59 customers
in a one-square-mile (2.5-square-km) area. From this beginning in 1882 through
1972, the electric utility industry grew at a remarkable pacea growth based on
continuous reductions in the price of electricity due primarily to technological
acomplishment and creative engineering. The introduction of the practical dc motor
by Sprague Electric, as well as the growth of incandescent lighting, promoted the
expansion of Edisons dc systems. The development of three-wire 220-V dc systems
allowed load to increase somewhat, but as transmission distances and loads
continued to increase, voltage problems were encountered. These limitations of
maximum distance and load were overcome in 1885 by William Stanleys
development of a commercially practical transformer. Stanley installed an ac
distribution system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to supply 150 lamps. With
the transformer, the ability to transmit power at high voltage with corresponding
lower current and lower line-voltage drops made ac more attractive than dc. The
first single-phase ac line in the United States operated in 1889 in Oregon, between
Oregon City and Portland21 km at 4 kV. The growth of ac systems was further
encouraged in 1888 when Nikola Tesla presented a paper at a meeting of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers describing two-phase induction and
synchronous motors, which made evident the advantages of polyphase versus
single-phase systems. The first threephase line in Germany became operational in
1891, transmitting power 179 km at 12 kV.

Figure 2. Electrical power system
The first three-phase line in the United States (in California) became operational in
1893, transmitting power 12 km at 2.3 kV. The three-phase induction motor
conceived by Tesla went on to become the workhorse of the industry In the same
year that Edisons steam-driven generators were inaugurated, a waterwheel-driven
generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, most electric energy
has been generated in steam-powered and in waterpowered (called hydro) turbine
plants.
Introduction:
An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply,
transmit and use electric power. An example of an electric power system is the
network that supplies a region's homes and industry with power - for sizable
regions, this power system is known as the grid and can be broadly divided into the
generators that supply the power, the transmission system that carries the power
from the generating centres to the load centres and the distribution system that
feeds the power to nearby homes and industries.
Generation of Electrical Energy:
The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into electrical energy
is known as generation of electrical energy. Energy is available in various forms
from different natural sources such as pressure head of water, chemical energy of
fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances, sun and wind energy etc.
The energy sources are broadly categorized as conventional and non-conventional
energy sources.
Conventional Energy Sources:
Fossil fuels
Water power or energy stored in water
Nuclear power
Non-conventional Energy Sources:
Solar energy
Wind energy
Energy from Bio-mass and Bio-gas
Ocean thermal energy
Tidal energy
Geothermal energy
Hydrogen energy
Fuel energy
Magneto Hydro-Dynamo Generator
Thermionic converter
The energy sources are also classified as renewable and non-renewable energy
sources.
Renewable Energy Resources:
Solar, wind, hydropower, ocean energy and biomass, geothermal, tidal
energy
Non-renewable Energy Resources:
Fossil fuel and nuclear power
All these forms of energy can be converted into
electrical energy by the use of suitable
arrangements. The arrangement essentially
employs (Figure 3) an alternator coupled to a
prime mover. The prime mover is driven by the
energy obtained from various sources such as
burning of fuel, pressure of water, force of wind
etc. For example, chemical energy of a fuel (e.g.,
coal) can be used to produce steam at high temperature and pressure. The steam is
fed to a prime mover which may be a steam engine or a steam turbine. The turbine
converts heat energy of steam into mechanical energy which is further converted
into electrical energy by the alternator. Similarly, other forms of energy can be
converted into electrical energy by employing suitable machinery and equipment.
In this modern world, the dependence on electricity is so much that it has become
a part of our life. The ever increasing use of electric power for domestic, commercial
and industrial purposes necessitates to provide bulk electric power economically.
This achieved with the help of suitable power producing units, known as power
plants or electric power generating plants. The design of power plant should
incorporate two important aspects. Firstly, the selection and placing of necessary
power generating equipment should be such so that a maximum of return will
result from a minimum expenditure over the working life of the plant. Secondly, the
operation of the plant should be such so as to provide cheap, reliable and
continuous service.
Depending upon the form of energy converted into electrical energy, the generating
stations are classified as under:
Steam power stations (Thermal power stations)
o Coal based
o Gas based
o Diesel based
Hydroelectric power stations
Nuclear power stations
Solar power stations
Wind power stations
Tidal power stations
Geothermal power stations
Bio-mass plant
Steam Power station (Thermal station):
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an
electrical generator.

Figure 4. Thermal power plant
Hydro Power Plant:
Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the
production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or
flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Hydropower
plants harness water's energy and use simple mechanics to convert that energy
into electricity. Hydropower plants are actually based on a rather simple concept --
water flowing through a dam turns a turbine, which turns a generator.
Here are the basic components of a conventional hydropower plant:
Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a
large reservoir.
Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water through the penstock,
a pipeline that leads to the turbine. Water builds up pressure as it flows through
this pipe.


Figure 5. Hydro power plant
Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades of a turbine, which is
attached to a generator above it by way of a shaft.
Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series of magnets inside the
generator. Giant magnets rotate past copper coils, producing alternating current
(AC) by moving electrons.
Transformer - The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and converts it
to higher-voltage current.
Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires: the three phases of power
being produced simultaneously plus a neutral or ground common to all three.
Outflow - Used water is carried through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters
the river downstream.
Nuclear Power Plant:

Figure 6. Nuclear power plants
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a
nuclear reactor. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to
generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which
produces electricity.
Wind energy:
Wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical energy that can
be either used directly to run the machines or to run the generator to produce
electricity.

Figure 7. Wind power plant
Tidal energy:

Figure 8. Tidal power plant
Tides are generated primarily by the gravitational attraction between the earth and
the moon. They only arise twice a day in mid ocean. The tidal range is only a meter.
Basically in a tidal power station water at first is trapped in an artificial basin and
then allowed to escape to low tide. The escaping water is used to drive water
turbine which in turn drive electrical generators.
This tidal electricity generation works as the tide comes in and again when it goes
out. The turbines are driven by the power of the sea in both directions.
Solar energy:

Figure 9. Solar power plant
A brief history about solar energy reveals that
energy from the sun is called solar energy. The suns
energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction that
takes place deep in sun. Hydrogen nucleus fuses
into helium nucleus. The energy from the reactions
flows out from the sun and escapes from the sun
and escapes into space. Solar power is the
conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using
concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar
power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking
systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small
beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric
current using the photoelectric effect.
Transmission and Distribution of Electrical
Power:
The large network of conductors between the power
station and the consumers can be broadly divided
into two parts viz., transmission system and
distribution system. Each part can be further sub-
divided into twoprimary transmission and
secondary transmission and primary distribution
and secondary distribution. Figure 10, shows the
layout of a typical AC power supply scheme by a
single line diagram.
Figure 10. Layout of electric power
system
(i) Generating station: In Figure 10, G.S. represents the generating station where
electric power is produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual
generation voltage is 11 kV. For economy in the transmission of electric power, the
generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is stepped upto 132 kV (or **more) at the generating
station with the help of 3-phase transformers.
The transmission of electric power at high voltages has several advantages
including the saving of conductor material and high transmission efficiency. It may
appear advisable to use the highest possible voltage for transmission of electric
power to save conductor material and have other advantages. But there is a limit to
which this voltage can be increased. It is because increase in transmission voltage
introduces insulation problems as well as the cost of switchgear and transformer
equipment is increased. Therefore, the choice of proper transmission voltage is
essentially a question of economics. Generally the primary transmission is carried
at 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV or 400 kV.
(ii) Primary transmission: The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase,
3-wire overhead system to the outskirts of the city. This forms the primary
transmission.
(iii) Secondary transmission: The primary transmission line terminates at the
receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the outskirts of the city. At the receiving
station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-down transformers. From this
station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system
to various sub-stations (SS) located at the strategic points in the city. This forms
the secondary transmission.
(iv) Primary distribution: The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-
station (SS) where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The 11
kV lines run along the important road sides of the city. This forms the primary
distribution. It may be noted that big consumers (having demand more than 50
kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with their own sub-
stations.
(v) Secondary distribution: The electric power from primary distribution line (11
kV) is delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS). These sub-stations are located
near the consumers localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire
for secondary distribution. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase residential lighting load
is connected between any one phase and neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor
load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.

It may be 66 kV or even 33 kV in certain cases.
** Depending upon the length of transmission line and the amount of power to be transmitted.

Transformers
Objectives:
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Describe how a transformer operates.
Explain how transformers are rated.
Explain how transformers operate in a circuit.
Describe the differences between step-up, step-down, and isolation
transformers.
Describe how the ratio of the voltage, current, and number of turns are
related with a transformer.
Describe applications of a transformer.
Identify different types of transformers.
Transformers allow the transfer of an AC signal from one circuit to another. The
transfer may involve stepping up the voltage, stepping down the voltage, or passing
the voltage unchanged.
Electromagnetic Induction:
If two electrically isolated coils are placed next to each other and an AC voltage is
put across one coil, a changing magnetic field results. This changing magnetic field
induces a voltage into the second coil. This action is referred to as electromagnetic
induction. The device is called a transformer.
In a transformer, the coil containing the AC voltage is referred to as the primary
winding. The other coil, in which the voltage is induced, is referred to as the
secondary winding. The amount of voltage induced depends on the amount of
mutual induction between the two coils. The amount of mutual induction is
determined by the coefficient of coupling. The coefficient of coupling is a number
from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating that all the primary flux lines cut the secondary
windings and 0 indicating that none of the primary flux lines cut the windings.
The design of a transformer is determined by the frequency at which it will be used,
the power it must handle, and the voltage it must handle. For example, the
application of the transformer determines the type of core material that the coils
are wound on. For low-frequency applications, iron cores are used. For high-
frequency applications, air cores are used. Air cores are non-metallic cores used to
reduce losses associated with the higher frequencies.
Transformers are rated in volt-amperes (VA) rather than in power (watts). This is
because of the loads that can be placed on the secondary winding. If the load is a
pure capacitive load, the reactance could cause the current to be excessive. The
power rating has little meaning where a voltampere rating can identify the
maximum current the transformer can handle.

Figure 1. Transformer schematic symbol showing phase indication
Figure 1 shows the schematic symbol of a transformer. The direction of the primary
and secondary windings on the core determines the polarity of the induced voltage
in the secondary winding. The AC voltage can either be in phase or 180 degrees out
of phase with the induced voltage. Dots are used on the schematic symbol of the
transformer to indicate polarity. Transformers are wound with tapped secondaries
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. (a) transformers with a center-tapped secondary, (b) schematic symbol showing transformer
with a center-tapped secondary
A center-tapped secondary is the equivalent of two secondary windings, each with
half of the total voltage across them. The center tap is used for power supply to
convert AC voltages to DC voltages. A transformer may have taps on the primary to
compensate for line voltages that are too high or too low.
Mutual Inductance:
When a transformer is operated without a load (Figure 3(a)) there is no secondary
current flow. There is a primary current flow because the transformer is connected
across a voltage source. The amount of primary current depends on the size of the
primary windings.
Figure 3. (a) Transformer without a load, (b) with load on the secondary
The primary windings act like an inductor. Exciting current is the small amount of
primary current that flows. The exciting current overcomes the AC resistance of the
primary winding and supports the magnetic field of the core. Because of inductive
reactance, the exciting current lags behind the applied voltage. These conditions
change when a load is applied across the secondary.
When a load is connected across the secondary winding (Figure 3(b)) a current is
induced into the secondary. Transformers are wound with the secondary on top of
the primary. The magnetic field created by the primary current cuts the secondary
windings. The current in the secondary establishes a magnetic field of its own. The
expanding magnetic field in the secondary cuts the primary turns, inducing a
voltage back into the primary. This magnetic field expands in the same direction as
the current in the primary, aiding it and causing it to increase, with an effect called
mutual inductance. The primary induces a voltage into the secondary and the
secondary induces a voltage back into the primary.
Turns ratio:
The turns ratio of a transformer determines whether the transformer is used to
step up, step down, or pass voltage unchanged. The turns ratio is the number of
turns in the secondary winding divided by the number of turns in the primary
winding. This can be expressed as:
turns ratio =
N
S
N
P

where: N number of turns
A transformer with secondary voltage greater than its primary voltage is called a
step-up transformer. The amount the voltage is stepped up depends on the turns
ratio. The ratio of secondary to primary voltage is equal to the ratio of secondary to
primary turns.

Turns ratio is expressed as:
E
S
E
P
=
N
S
N
P

Thus the turns ratio of a step-up transformer is always greater than one.
Example: A transformer has 400 turns on the primary and 1200 turns on the
secondary. If 120 volts of AC current are applied across the primary, what voltage
is induced into the secondary? (Ans: 360 V)

Figure 4. Transformer basic principle
A transformer that produces a secondary voltage less than its primary voltage is
called a step-down transformer. The amount the voltage is stepped down is
determined by the turns ratio. In a step-down transformer the turns ratio is always
less than one.
Example 1: A transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary. If 120 volts AC are applied across the primary, what is the voltage
induced in the secondary? (Ans: 24 V)
Assuming no transformer losses, the power in the secondary must equal the power
in the primary. Although the transformer can step up voltage, it cannot step up
power. The power removed from the secondary can never be more than the power
supplied to the primary. Therefore, when a transformer steps up the voltage, it
steps down the current so the output power remains the same. This can be
expressed as:
P
P
= P
S

(I
P
)(E
P
) = (I
S
)(E
S
)
The current is inversely proportional to the turns ratio. This can be expressed as:
I
P
I
S
=
N
S
N
P

Example 2: A transformer has a 10:1 turns ratio. If the primary has a current of
100 mA, how much current flows in the secondary? (Ans: 1A)
An important application of transformers is in impedance matching. Maximum
power is transferred when the impedance of the load matches the impedance of the
source. When the impedance does not match, power is wasted. For example, if a
transistor amplifier can efficiently drive a 100-ohm amplifier, it will not efficiently
drive a 4-ohm speaker. A transformer used between the transistor amplifier and
speaker can make the impedance of the speaker appear to be in proportion. This is
accomplished by choosing the proper turns ratio. The impedance ratio is equal to
the turns ratio squared. This is expressed as:
Z
P
Z
S
= _
N
P
N
S
]
2

Example 3: What must the turns ratio of a transformer be to match a 4-ohm
speaker to a 100- ohm source? (Ans: 5:1)
Applications
Transformers have many applications. Among them are stepping up and stepping
down voltage and current, impedance matching, phase shifting, isolation, blocking
DC while passing AC, and producing several signals at various voltage levels.
Transmitting electrical power to homes and industry requires the use of
transformers. Power stations are located next to sources of energy, and electrical
power must often be transmitted over great distances. The wires used to carry the
power have resistance, which causes power loss during the transmission. The
power is equal to the current times the voltage:
P = IE
Ohms law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance:
I =
E
R

The amount of power lost, then, is proportional to the amount of resistance in the
line. The easiest way to reduce power losses is to keep the current low.
Example 5: A power station produces 8500 volts at 10 amperes. The power lines
have 100 ohms of resistance. What is the power loss of the lines? Using a
transformer to step the voltage upto 85,000 volts at 1 ampere, what is the power
loss? (Ans: 10kW, 100W)
How the transformer is wound determines whether it produces a phase shift or not.
The application determines how important the phase shift is (Figure 5).

Figure 5. A transformer can be used to generate a phase shift
NOTE: The phase can be shifted by simply reversing the leads to the load.

Figure 6. A transformer can be used to block DC voltage









Figure 7. Power transformer
If DC voltage is applied to a transformer, nothing occurs in the secondary once the
magnetic field is established. A changing current is necessary to induce a voltage in
the secondary. A transformer can be used to isolate the secondary from any DC
voltage in the primary (Figure 6).

Figure 8. An isolation transformer prevents electrical shock by isolating the equipment from ground
Transformers are used to isolate electronic equipment from 120-volts AC, 60-hertz
power while it is being tested (Figure 8). The reason for using a transformer is to
prevent shocks. Without the transformer, one side of the power source is connected
to the chassis. When the chassis is removed from the cabinet, the hot chassis
presents a shock hazard. This condition is more likely to occur if the power cord
can be plugged in either way. A transformer prevents connecting either side of the
equipment to ground. An isolation transformer does not step up or step down the
voltage. An autotransformer is a device used to step up or step down applied
voltage. It is a special type of transformer in which the primary and secondary
windings are both part of the same core.

Figure 9. An autotransformer is a special type of transformer used to step up or step down the voltage
Figure 9(a) shows an autotransformer stepping down a voltage. Because the
secondary consists of fewer turns, the voltage is stepped down. Figure 9(b) shows
an autotransformer stepping up a voltage. Because the secondary has more turns
than the primary, the voltage is stepped up. A disadvantage of the autotransformer
is that the secondary is not isolated from the primary. The advantage is that the
autotransformer is cheaper and easier to construct than a transformer.

Figure 10. Variable auto transformer
A special type of autotransformer is a variable autotransformer, in which the load
is connected to a movable arm and one side of the autotransformer (Figure 10).
Moving the arm varies the turns ratio, producing a change in the voltage across the
load. The output voltage can be varied from 0 to 130 VAC (from panel of Figure 10).


House Wiring and Safety Standards
Objectives:
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:
Get knowledge about electrical house wiring
Get information about safety standards of electrical equipments
House Wiring:
Electrical power is supplied to our homes through the main supply cables from
nearby substation. Every house has an electrical wiring system that supplies
electrical power to all electrical appliances in the house. There are two types of
wiring systems; single-phase wiring system and three-phase wiring system. Single-
phase wiring system is usually used in our homes because most consumers in
residential areas only need a low voltage, for example, 240 V, 50 Hz. The three-
phase wiring system is usually used in commercial and industrial areas where
there is a need for high voltage, for example, 450 V, 50 Hz.

Figure. 1. House wiring
Consider single phase house wiring, which is supplied by two conducting wires
from electrical pole which is placed near to house. Out of two wires, one will be
phase and another one is a neutral. Phase wire will be at 230 V potential where as
neutral wire is at zero potential has to provide return path for the phase current.
These wires can be taken into main switching board through energy meter. Main
switch board consists of main switch and fuse box. From main switch board, wiring
can be distributed throughout entire house by distribution boards. To ensure
safety from electrical shocks, one ground wire will also be distributed to all
distribution boards. Standard colour codes for wiring is shown below Figure 2.





















Figure 3. Electrical house wiring
The typical house wiring diagram is shown in Figure 3, which shows different
wiring connections for home appliances like lighting, heating and for sockets.
Safety Standards and Specifications:
Electrical equipment is part of our daily lives. How well we are protected from being
harmed by the electrical energy depends very much on the safety features built into
the equipment.
Figure 2. Colour code for wiring
Standardisation and Standard Specifications play an important part in the choice,
design, manufacture, and operation of any apparatus. Standardisation of
apparatus presents definite advantages over that made to order.
To the manufacturer, it means reduction in cost as economy results when a
number of objects are built at the same time. A planning, a production line can
thus be established.
To the designer, it means rigidity. The customer can not be given the whole benefit
of technical possibilities and up-to-date experience till the Standards are modified.
Published Standard Specifications:
In an effort to standardisation, all countries have established national rules whicvh
are revised as and when required. Such work is conducted by organisation, which
include representatives of manufacturers and user: in India by the Indian
Standards Institution (BIS-Bureau of Indian Standards); in Great Britain by the
British Standards Institution; in the U.S.A. by the American Standards Association.
Again International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) created jointly by various
countries publishes internationally-accepted recommendations so that a product
can be sold in other countries.
A few important Indian and IEC Standards related to design of transformers and
electrical machines are given below:
Indian Standards these are issued by Indian Standards Institution, Mank
Bhavan 9, Bahadur Shah Zafar Road, New Delhi-110 001.
1. IS 1271-1958: Classification of insulating materials for electrical machinery
and apparatus in relation to their thermal stability in service.
2. IS 1885 (Part XXVIII)-1973: Electrotechnical vocabulary Transformers.
3. IS 2026-1962: Power Transformers.
4. IS 1180-1972: Three-phase distribution transformers upto and including
100-kVA 11 kV outdoor type.
5. IS 3639-1966: Fittings and accessories for Power tansformer.
6. IS 4722-1968: Rotating electrical machines.
7. IS 1885 (Part XXXV)-1973: Electromechanical vocabulary- Rotating
machines.
8. IS 325-1970: Three-phase induction motors.
9. IS 4691-1968: Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for rotating
electrical machinery.
10. IS 6362-1971: Designation of methods of cooling for rotating electrical
machines.
11. IS 5422-1969: Turbine-type generators.
12. IS 1231-1974: Dimensions of three-phase foot-mount for rotating electrical
machines.
13. IS 3003 (Part I)-1966 and 3003 (Part II)-1969: Carbon brushes for electrical
machine.
14. IS 5571-1970: Guide for selection of electrical equipment for hazardous
areas.
15. IS 3682-1966: Flame-proof alternating current motors for use in mines.
16. IS 4800-1968: Specification for enameled round wires.
17. IS 6160-1971: Specification for rectangular conductors for electrical
machines
IEC Standards: These are issued by the International Electrotechnical
Commission, 1 Rue de Varembe, Geneva, Switzerland.
1. IEC 27-1971: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology, Part I-
General.
2. IEC 38-1975: IEC standard voltages.
3. IEC 50-1973 onwards: International electrotechnical vocabulary.
4. IEC 85-1957: Recommendations for the classification of materials for the
insulation of electrical machinery and apparatus in relation to their thermal
stability in service.
5. IEC 76-1976: Power transformers.
Specifications:
1. Transformer (IS 2026-1962 & 1180-1964): Important specifications are:
Volt-ampere (kVA or MVA); Voltage rartio (primary volt/secondary volt on no-
load); Currents (primary and secondary); Percentage impedance; Load loss at
75-C; Connections-H.V. and L.V. windings; Maximum temperature rise; Per-
cent- tappings; Vector group reference (for three-phase transformers).
2. Rotating machies (IS 4722-1968): Important specifications are:
a. Direct current machine: Generator or Motor; Type of field excitation;
Rated output power; Rated voltage; Rated current; Speed; Field
exciting voltage and current; Type of enclosure; Type of duty (for
motor continuous/intermittent/short-time).
b. Alternating current machines: Generator or Motor; Type
(Induction/Synchronous/Commutator); Frequency; Number of
phases; Connection (Star/Delta); Rated output power (kW/MW);
Rated voltage; Rated current; Speed; Type of rotor winding (for
induction motor-squirrel-cage/slip-ring); Method of starting (for
motor); Exciter rating (for synchronous machine); Type of duty; Type
of enclosure; Type of cooling.
Additional informations furnished may be: Short-circuit ratio and under-excited
kVAR/MVAR (for synchronous generator); Overspeed on throwing off full-load
governor not in operation (for large power system generator); Breakway torque (for
motor).