THE PROBABILISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BED LOAD

TRANSPORT IN ALLUVIAL CHANNELS

A TRESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
BY
AMREEK SINGH PAINTAL
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
JUNE 1969

List. of l.tions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
ii
List. Cf Syr.:bols
. ..
i..,
viii
I IN:,?CDUcrlOi'I
II
O:? LITERATURE
?orees Actin.: on a. Pc!.ct.icle
.. . . . . . . . . . .
1
s
5
Variat.ion of Forces on a. Particle
9
Conce?t. of Critical Condition
III
3ed
..
11
19
21
Statist.ical Ana.lysis of Particle Movement
IV COLLEC7ION O? DATA
12
ZY.;:leri::ental Set-Up
;!a.ter'..zl Used .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v PRSSE:?i'ATIOfr t:.::n ANAL!SIS OF DA:'A
::i'::ect of the 71une
Ens=gy
300 Shear
46
49
49
50
50
'IT
of Data
Critical Shear Force Cor..cepts
cmrCLUSTIONS
. .
53
55
59
3ib110graphy.
Photos Figures . '
. . . . . . . . . .
60
Ap?endix - i::xperi:nental Data 61
ACKNOIflSDGMENTS
The author considers it. a fine privilco'.l t.o express his deep
aense of grat.itude to his faculty adivser, Dr. Alvin G. Anderson,
Professor in Civil Engineering, University of Minnesota, for his un-
failing exhortation, encouragement, and many contributions during
the discussions of this investigation. The author takes this oppor-
tunity -to thank Professor Edward Sllberman, Director, St. Anthony
Falls Hydraulic Laboratory. for providing a rich experience in the
process of working on various projects in the Laboratory.
Thanks are also due to those who were directly or indirectly
assoicated with the a u t h ~ during this investigation.
Financial assistance for the investigation was provided by the
Highway Research Board. This is gratefully acknOWledged.
i
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
1 Shields for Critical Shear Stress--Variation
of Critical Shear Stress
v
2 ihite's Bed Embedment !todel for the Evaluation of
Critical Shear Stress
An exposed C:i.'ain SUbject. to Hydrodynamic Forces
3
4 Bed Embedment Hodel .... . .... ....
..
...
5 Ge"'!lletrical Picture of Probability of --Triple
Integral - E(;r. 33 .
6 Variation of Probability of Move;nent p with
less Instantaneous Bed Shear T..
7 Variation of Probability of Hovement (mean) Po with
Dinensionlcss l1ean Bed Shear Stress T0*
8 Geometrical for Elvaluating the Arrival of
Particles at a Certain Cross Section
9 Variation of Bed Load Transport Pa....""allleter qs* with
Dimensionless Shear Stress T0*
10 Size Distribution 01' Bed Material used 1.."1 the Present
Investigation
11 Velocity Profiles in the Vertical at Various Stations
Showing Growth of Boundary !ayer
12 The Bed and the Water Surface Profiles ".long the Lengt..h
of the Flume
13 Variat1o:l of Bed Ioad Transport p,,+..,. lls with Bed Shear
T 0 for the Various Bed !1a.terials
14 Variation of Bed Load Trar.sport Ra.te Para..neter qs* at
Lo:l Shear Values with T0*
15 ';a.:!"iation of Bed Load Transport Parameter lls* at high
Valucs T
O
* . . . . . . .
16 Variatio" )f qs* with
and B .. l!4. 60Y
11
T
O
* (Evaluation of Constants A
. . . . . . ... . ..
Figure
17 COMparison with other Bed Load Formulations
18 Critica1 Tractive Force as determined by Shields t
Method.
19 Variation of Critical Shear Stress
of Bed Mater1a.l d
ill
T
C
with size
. . . .
LIST OF SYMBOLS
the coefficient. of lift
the bed width
constants in bed load formula
Froude number of n"ou
a sediment particle
drag on the sediment particle
ma....imum dra.g on the sediment particle
constants in the bed load
With respect. to walls and bed; respect-
ively
diamoter of sediment particles
diameter of sediment particle (50% is
finer than this diameter size by weight)
depth of nOIl
density function of instantaneous dimension-
less shear
density function of mean dimen-
siouless shear
random variable for particle's exposure
density function of particle step lengths 'f
density function of travel length of a sedi-
ment particle
mean density function of travel length of a
sediment particle
distribution function of Y
rela.tive expoS'
acceleration due to g:t:avity
joint ciensity function of el' e
2
, and e)
joint density funct10n of el' and e
2
A, At. ,
"z, A),
A
w
'

13
B.
Be
CL
d
d
SO
D
D
r
D
max
e,
el'
e
2
,
e)
El
f (T.)
foe '111)
f (y/
f (s)
foeS)
F (y)
Fr
g
g(e
l
, e
2
,
e)
g(e;L' e
2
)
iv
,
N
n
p
p
q
R
r
s
density function of e
2
distribution function of E
fUnctional relationship between el' e
2,
and
e3
Nikuradse' s sand grain roughness
a number. an interval
lift force on a sediment particle
number of grains
a number
Manning's coefficient of walls and
bed, respectively
probability of movement
mean probability of movement
probability of an event not occurring
probability of movement per second
pressure difference
pressure
of water per unit width
per second
bed load transport per unit width per second
water discharge in cubic feet per
hydraulic mean radius
hydraulic mean radius with respect to bed
hydraulic mean radius with respect to walls
hydraulic mean radius with respect to rough-
ness of grains
radius of a cylinder
distance traveled by a particle
slope of the bed
8
e
8
t
u
u'
u
v'
fJ
P
Ps
11
T
TC
T
D
water surface slope
energy slope
specific gravity of the sediment particles
dummy variable
time of movement and rest (one cycle)
time of rest of a sediment particle
time of movement of a. sediment particle
ratio of maximum drag and submerged weight
local velocity
velocity fluctuation of u due to turbulence
mean velocity of -fIou
shear velocity
velocity fluctuation in the vertical direct-
ion due to turbulence
angle of escape of particle
specific weight of water
specific weight of sddiment
mass density of water
mass density of sediment
kinematic viscosity of water
packing coefficient due to White
instantaneous bed shear
critical shear force for a sediment particle
dimensionless instantaneous bed shear
mean bed shear
dimensionless mean bed shear
total bed shear
bed shear pertaining to bed 1rrf!gularities
vi
Einsteins bed load parameters
dimensionless step length
step length
characteristic fUnction
Gamma function (probability distribution
function)
. vii
,
,A3S?RACT
The between the bed load trar.sport rate and the
cha.-acteristics has received a great deal of attention by re-
searchers in transport, and a number of er.-
pirical and seiJier.pi-"'"ical equat.Lonz have been prollosed. :'!ost of
these bed load tra.'ls:Port relations.'lips are based on the concept of
incipient that is supposed to be governed by de-
finable critical condatiens. However, tone present experiJr.cnts ha.ve
shcxn that the motion of sediment rarticles on the bed is highly
U-'lsteady and nonuniformly over the bed area, so a dis-
tinct condition for the initiation of motion does not exist.
It is a well-established fa.ct that the flow generates forces
of li:ft and. drag on a solid ;:article resting on the bed of a streaul.
The of trse ferces fluctuates with time, a. phenomenon
strongly associa-::ec. turbuler.ee. t."le larger t."le ex-
posure of the particle, the is the intensity of forces. A
a:';. the bed aoves ,lhen the hyd...""Odynat1i.e forces overco::e its
submerged ;:eight. ':'he ?=oeability of movement of ... sediment 1J2.r'ticle
is governed by its exposure to flow, the position it happens to occupy
at the red and the nature of forces to which it is sub-
jected. The lIlOver::er.t of a !=3.-..-ticle is in qUick steps loo"ith inter-
l:l1tte:lt periods of rest. Both the stell Lengtha and the rest periods
are :-andon va-'"iables. 3ased on these concepts, an ana.lytical expres-
sion has been developed for rate of bed load transport as it is
by the flow, the and the sediment
viii
The experimental data have been obtained in a laboratory
flume in which lot-r shear values can be generated. At low shear
values in the proximity of so-called critical shear, the bed load
transport rate has a 16th power correlation With the shear stress,
which seems consistent With the concept of incipient shear. Along
with these data, the publ1shed data of Gilbert (11), the United
States Waterways Experiment Station (22), and Casey(131have been
used to substantiate the analytical work.
I. INTRODUCTION
The movement of sediment along the beds of alluvial rivers
has long been one of the most perplexing and challenging problems
to those tlho have tried to explain it. In the past few decades, be-
ccuse of rapid expansion of activity in the field of river valley
development, the importance of this problem has been gravely felt.
One of the most difficult problems encountered in alluvial channel
hydraulics is the determination of rate of movement of bed material
by nowing water.
The movement of bed load has been studied principally in lab-
oratory channels where suspension of sediment w.s neglected. Re-
searchers have tried to develop expressions to describe bed load
transport based on the analysis of experimental data. The earliest
concept regarding the pattern of movement was that the loose bed
slides in layers under the action of now above , The top layer of
the bed is set into motion by the tractive force or shear when this
force is larger than the force resisting the motion. The rate of
transport was found to be a function of the difference between these
two forces. These expressions were based on the concept of initial
movement that is supposed to be governed by a certain definable crit-
ical condition. The concept of a critical tractive force was intro-
duced by Shields (22]*, Kramer [16] , and others. Shields defined it
as the value of shear stress for zero sediment transport obtained
by extrapo!d.ting to zero a graph of observed sediment versus shear
s t r e s ~ .
*Nwnbers in brackets refer to the bibliography.
2
Kramer (l6J studied the problem of sediment movement in flumes
with the objective of selecting sediment for use in moveable - boundary
hydrauliC models. He defined three rates of I;lovement which he termed:
(1) weak movement, (2) medlull1 :novement, and (3) general movement.
The Task Committee on Preparation of Sedimentation Manual (21]
observes that Kramer's 'weak' movement corresponds most closely to
the beginning of movement. But the United States Waterways Experi-
ment Station (23) defines the critical tractive farce as the shear
stress that brings about the general movement of sediment particles
a.t the bed. It has been proposed [2:3) that the shearing stress that
causes bed load movement of 1 lb/ft/hr be called the critical tract-
ive force. This definition is for sand--it cannot be used for gravel
beca.use of the fact that the movement of a few isolated stones may
satisfy this requirement even when the movement is not at all general.
As such the definition of the critical condition is rather indefinite
qualitatively as well as quantihtively.
A., examination of experinents on bed load movement reveals
that a distinct condition for the initiation of movement does not
exist. There is no single flow condition below which not a single
particle will move and above which all narticles of that size Will
move. The observations show that t!.", motion of sediment grains at
the bed is unsteady and nonuniformly dis\.ributed over the bed , In
the proximity of the so-called ' critical condition' the movement of
particles occurs in small areas scattered over the bed. The in-
cidence of movement seems to be random in both time and space.
The boundaries of an alluvial stream are composed of discrete
particles. The distortion of flon field around a solid particle
generates forces that can set the particle into motion. Few invest-
:3
ig.ators have considered the nature of these forces which remove the
particle from its position. In many cases the shearing stress has
been considered to be the only disturbing force. The possibility
of a lift force was seldom considered. The force of lift is caused
by the velocity gradient in the flow and the possibillty of stagnation
pressure under the particle. For any given material there is no
single value of hydrodynamic force beloti which not a single particle
will move a.nd above which all the particles of the same size will
move. First, the forces acting on the particle are not constant,
but fluctuate about some average value, a phenomenon closely asso-
ciated with turbulence, as suggested by Einstein (7] and Kallnske
[14]. Secondly, the forces tendirlz to move the particle depend on
the position which the particle heppens to occupy and how much in-
fluence its neighbors exert. Particles which project above the mean
bed level may be expected to have a 101ler 'critical' force than those
imbedded in the surace layers. If this critical force is exceeded
at any instant, the particle moves with a rolling or sliding motion.
Once in motion, the chance of a particle's being redeposited is not
the same at all points on the bed, but depends upon the local flow
conditions and the amount of protection which the particle receives
trom its new neighbors. Mter being redeposited, further movement
depends on its nen location and the flow conditions around it, but
not on its previous history. Thus bed load movement may be considered
to be the motion of bed particles in quick steps With periods of
rest between.
In. this investigation, attempts have been made to derive ex-
pressior. for the bed load transport rate. The probability of move-
4
ment of particles has been assumed to be governed by the exposure
of the particles to the now and to the nuctuations of the hydro-
dynamic forces acting on them. The distance traveled by a particle
before coming to rest and the duration of the rest periods have been
considered random variables.
An abundance of bed load transport data above the so-called
critical now condition is available. so it was felt unn;.:.:essary to
conduct more experiments in this region. The experimental data in
the proximity of so-called critical shear have been obtained in a
laboratory flume in which l O ~ l shear values could be generated.
The objectives of this study were (1) to make a thorough re-
view of literature concerning the various aspects of bed load trans-
port which mifiht be applicable to the proble&1, (2) to formulate an
analytical description of the problem. (3) to experimentally observe
the movement of the bed particles in the vicinity of the so-called
critical condition. and (4) to develop an expression for the bed load
transport rate as it is governed by the now, the fluid, and the
sediment characteristics.
II. REVIErI OF LITERATURE
A number of attempts--empir1cal and semi-empirical aa well as
analYtlcal--have been made to selve the numerous problems of alluvial
channel hydraulics. The works of major importance in the area of
bed load transportation are reviewed 1n brief 1n this chapter.
Forces Acting on a Particle.
The boundaries of an alluvial stream are composed of discrete
particles which as a result of forces arising from the flon over them
can be set in motion. Surprisingly few writers ~ v e engaged in spe-
culation about the nature of forces which remove particles from the
bed, being satisfied with the concept of a shearing stress as the
only important quantity upon whicl ;0 base their analysis. The shear-
ing stress has been considered to be a steady force derivable by
applying the principles of statics to a prism of flowing fluid moving
at a constant velocity. The magnitude of this force 1s given by
where T .. sheadng stress in Ibs/sq. ft,
y .. density of fluid in Ibs/cu. ft,
Se .. slope of total energy line,
R '"' hydraulic radius in ft.
(1)
The possibility of lift forces acting on the particle has seldom
been considered. Lift forces My arise due to the existence of a
velocity gradient in the flow and the possibil1'tY of a stagnation
pressure existing under the grains. L1ft forces must contribute sub-
stantially to the ease with which a given drag force can remove a
7
pressure difference betwep"l the top and the bottom of the hemisphere was
2.85 times the lift. If this "scaling factor" is correct, the value of CL
based on the work of Einstein and El-samni should be.O 624, a value
slightly smaller than the value determined by Chepil.
The investigations of Chepil, and Einstein and El-samni were
conducted with hemispheres glued to the bed of the channel. These hemispheres
were considered ac idealised sediments. In contrast to hemispheres, the
natural sedimerrt particles are irregular in three different ways: 1. The
shape of individual particle Le irregular, 2. The size and the shape of
the particles are different frolD one another, and J. The location of the
different particles with respect to theoretical wall is irregular. When a
flat sediment particle is placed on the channel bed with its flat face
sloping upward in the direction of flow, there is a force acting downward e:tu.! te
deflection of stream lines. On the downstream side there is a tendency for
lowered pz-es sure to form clue to the curvature of stream lines which causes
an additional force acting d' .mwards. These forces keep the particle in
place. These forces cause the negative lift. Ent if the flat face of the
particle is sloping down in the downstream direction, the direction of
fo"'ce would be reversed, there would be an upward force on the lower side
that would turn to overturn the sediment particle. Thus the lift may
change its direction and magnitude depending on the positior. which the
particle happens to occupy on the bed with respect to other particles.
Einstein and El-samni measured the dynamic lift on the bed
particle by a similar method to that used in the studies with the
hemispheres. The mean value of coefficient of lift obtained in the case
of natu::-al material agreed very well with the one obtained in case of
hemispheres.
8
The coefficients of lift and drag be different depending
upon the position which the particle happens to occupy on the channel
bed - the exposure of the particle itself and its neighbors to the now.
For the sake of simplicity, it would be assumed that the ratio of forces
of lift and drag is independent of
icle on the bed.
the relative position of the pq.rt-
It is possible to estilnate the ratio of lift and drag forces
on a particle. The distribution on such a Loundary is given
by:
= 2.5 loge -f
s
+ 8.5
(J)
where u is the local velocity at a distance s' from the theoretical
wall (bed), k
s
is Nikuradse's sand grain roughness, and 0* is the
shear velocity. The coefficient of lift, of a hemisphere lying on
the bed is.C 68 with its velocity rnaesured at a distance 0.35 particle
diameter away from the bed. Therefore,
Lift
Drag
2
0.5 CL A p u
=
A p 0;
(4)
The va1.ue of Nikuradse's sand grain roughness, k
s'
may be taken
equal to the diameter of the particle composing the bed. Eq. 4
becomes
Lift
Drag
= 1.207
Thus based on the Prandtl-Karman velocity distribution law and
experimental results, the ratio of lift and drag forces is 1.207.
As a result of the review presented above it may be
concluded that a particle lying on a bed experiences the forces of lift
and drag, which may be considered equal in magnitude.
9
Variation of Forces on a Particle
.
The forces to which a particle is subjected are variable and
may fluctuate about their mean values. These fluctuations are caused
by two conditions: First, the small eddies which are generated be-
hind the particles cause the fluctuation of the hydrodynamic forces.
Second, the main flott strean may be turbulent and this will cause
the fluid velocity acting on any individual particle to vary con-
siderably th time.
(14, 151 demonstrated that the velocity fluctuations
in rivers are distributed according to the normal probability dis-
tribution, the density function of which is given by
feu') 1
2TT
and rf(u') due = 1
-00
where f(u') is the density function. u'
2
is the standard devi-
at10n of u', u' is the fluctuation of velocity about the mean and
eJP is the base of llaperian logarithms. The quantity r(u.) du' in-
dicates the prC1J?ortion of the time that the velocity fluctuation u'
lies between the magnitude of u' and u' + du",
In the concept of monentum eXchange in turbulent flow, it has
been shoan that the unit shear at any point is equal to P U'V'1 that
ls, the correlation of u' (the horizontal component) and v' (the
vertical component). Slnce the longitudinal component is in general
proportional to the transverse component, the correlation u'v' may
10
be taken as proportional to It may be assumed also that the
fluctuations of the bed shear stress can be described statistically by
the normal probability distribution whose density function is given by:
=
1
exp (-(
(6)

Nhere T the
'I" the
and a
O
= the

local intensity of shear stress at any instant,
mean intensity of shear stress,
standard deviation of T
In 1959 Che?il and Siddowy (4) devised a strain gauge anemo_
meter for measuring turbulence near the bed. e.r using a system of strain
gauges mounted on a sediment particle, a record of instantaneous values
of lift and drag was obtained. Oscillogram obtained with this instrument
indicated that both lift and drag are distributed statistically to a
"some skew normal law". The ratio of maximum to mean lift and drag was
found to be approximately 2.7. It seems that the frequency response of
the instrument was not perfect to pick up very high values of instant-
aneous drag and lift. Hence from a statistical point of view, the maximum
lift and drag has no definit'3 limit.
The maximum recorded pressure was by the expression
; + JJF2 and the ratio (P + J./ p2 )/ P (where P is the mean
pressure and.J p2 is the standard deviation of p) was termed as
turbulence factor. It was found to have the value of approximately 2.7,
which is the value used by and Kalinske(14) in their theoretical
treatments of drag forces on a sediment particle. This would give the value
of the standard deviation as 0.57 F. Einstein and El-samni determined
the value of standard deviation of turbulent fluctuations of 4p to be
0.5P. Therefore, it may be concluded that the fluctuations of lift and
drag due to turbulence can be approximated by a normal distribut
11
ion whose standard deviation is 0.5 TO' The distribution is not strictly
normal as it is referred to have an lowe:- li'llit of zero.
Concept of Critical Condition
In 1929 Jeffrey [121 presented a theoretical solution for the
problem of grain motion based upon the stabilit7 ot a long cylender of
rlidius l' resting on the nat bed of a deep stream with its axis perpen-
dicular to the now. If the upward force acting on the cylender exceeds the
submerged weight of the cylender, it will be lifted up into the now. For
a sand and water complex, the result was expressed as follows:
u2 > 1.19 gr
where U is the free stream velocity and g is acceleration due to gravity.
This model, of course, gives the correct answer if there is sufficient
justification for describing the dynamic effects in a real fluid by
irrotational theory. Jeffrey's answer to this question is affirmative. He
claimed that during the initial stage, when a particle is just dropped on
the bed of a stream, the theory is applicable because the flow around the
particle has not yet been modified by viscosity. Even if the validity of
this argument is accepted, this model fails to recognise the erratic fashion
in which particles move on the bed. At tha same time, this theory assumes
that the now responsible for the forces induced on the particle is
uniform and steady. Therefore, a particle that has once started moving
would never stop at the bed anywhere. This is inconsistent with the form
of motion actually observed.
The two best known and most widely accepted results are those of
Shields (22] and White (241. By considering the disturbing forces to be
restricted to shear, each author derived an expression for a critical
shear stress which if exceeded would cause motion. Shields (221 developed
the relation:
12
(8)
where T is the value of shear stress under which the motion of a
. . c
particle begins, 'Ysand 'Y are the specific weights of sediment
grains and water, respectively, d is the size of particle, U* = ~ T c 7 p
is the so-called shear velocity, P is the mass density of fluid,
and 11 is its kinematic viscosity. Sh1.eldss results in which he de-
termined the function f(U*d/lI) are sheen in Fig. 1. In his original
paper Shields did not show a. curve for the function, but indicated it
.by a shaded area, The curve shown in the figure was introduced by
Rouse [20 J. Shields I s data were obtained from flume experiments
With fully turbulent flow over artifica.lly flattened sediment beds.
He found in experiments Wit.lt different bed stresses that were just
above the critical, that small rates of bed load transport occurred.
The fUnction betlieen the shear and bed load transport was extrapolated
in the direction of decreasing shear stress to the point where bed
load transport was zero. The corresponding shear stress of this point
was called the critical shear stress.
White (241 determined the critical shear stress for several
sediments under conditions of completely developed laminar flow, lami-
nar boundary layer flo.:, and. turbulent boundary layer flow. Figure 2
shows the embedment model. White argued that bed shear is transmitted
from the fluid to the bed throUfjh the surface grains so that each Will
2
x:eceive a drag force equal to T ~ 1 J where "is a packing coef-
ficient reflecting the spacing of the surface grains on the bed. A
grain would :r..a:rt to nove by rolling over a point of contact Wit.'1 a
do:mstream particle. The point of contact 'IIould 11e on a line passing
through the center of gravity of two particles at angle {j With the
1)
vertical. The force causing movement is drag and the force resist-
ing movement is submerged ;leight.
~ e r (16) studied the entrainJaent problem in flumes with fully
developed velocity profiles With the object of selecting sediment for
use in movable bed hydraulic models. His definitions of rates of bed
load movement are as follo'lls:
1. 'None" refers to that condition where there is no sediment
movement.
2. 'Weak' movement indicates that a. considerable number of
particles are in motion at isolated spots on the bed.
). 'Nedium' movement refers to that condition under lIhich quite
a large number of particles are in motion at many places
on the bed.
4. 'General' means that condition in which there is an appre-
ciable amount of movement everywhere on the bed. The motion
is general in character.
The U5:lES (2)1 defined the critic:aJ. tractive force as that
trac-vive force which brings about. the general movement of bed material.
The state of general lJlo.rement is obtained lIhen both the following
cc:nditions are satisfied:
1. The material in transportation is reasonably similar in
character to material composing the bed.
2. The rate of movement 1s equal or exceeds one pound per foot
width per hour.
The definition is applicable only to sand less than 0.6 IlIIlI in size.
This definition cannot be applied to gravel or small stone mi:xtures
due to the fact that the movement of only a few isolated stones might
be sufficient to satiSy the one-pound requirement, even though the
,
14
movement was not general in character. For gravel mixtures the St.
Anthcny Falls Hydraulic laboratory Ll) has defined critical tractive
force as that force uhich removes J'J"; of the surface particles every
hour. As such the concept of critical tractive force 1s only qual-
itative in character and it has not been possible to define it 1n
terms of bed load transport on a universal basis.
Bed Load Formulations
Several investigators have developed relationships for the bed
load transport rate based on analytical evaluations of the behavior
of sediment particles on the bed of an alluvial stream. Different
types of models have been proposed, and the transport relationships
were based on the magnitude of forces acting on the bed. The trans-
port phenomenon has a high degree of randomness. The grains vary
among themselves in shape and size as well as in their exposure to
the nou. In addition, because of nuid turbulence the nOlf exhibits
strong variations in time and space.
The first and the oldest approach to a bed load f ~ ' r m u l a is based
on the principles promulgated by DuBojs (quoted 11) (I?] ). This prin-
ciple 1s based on the concept that the boundary shear force on the
bed causes successive layers of sediment to slide one upon the other.
The top layer of the bed is set into motion by the shear force when
it becomes larger than the force resisting motion. The rate of bed
load transport dete-"'lIlined experimentally was found to be a function
of the difference of the two forces. No effort llaS aade to develop
this theory to explain the actual mechanism of the interaction be-
tween the solid particles and the fio;: field. The theory assuned
that the disturbin6 force of shear has an average constant value and
does not vary ,11th time and space. It i:mplies that all particles

15
should start moving on the bed whenever the average shear is larger
than the so-called critical shear. This, of course, is contrary to
the well-established fact that motion near the bed takes place in
the form of sudden movements by individual particles alternating with
rather long periods of rest.
Recently two bed load equations based on stoehastic models,
which may be termed theoretical, have been proposed. Kalinske (14J
and Einstein t 7) both derived, from different sets of explicit assump-
tions, tranSJlort relationships which allow a prediction of bed load
to be made. They considered the stability of the individual particle
subjected to hydrodynamic forces that vary rapidly with time due to
nuid turbulence. Kalinske [14] trea.ted. these variations by assuming
that velocity nuctuations follow nomal distribution law. 'l'he number
of particles in motion was equated to the number of particles at the
bed, wzU.ch iJaplies that rega.rdless of the transport rate the number
of particles in motion is constant. The particle velocity was assumed
to be related to nuid velocity; i.e., the shear velocity. Apart-
icle that has been set into motion would keep on moving w i t ~ a con-
stant speed depending upon the now conditions. Observations by the
writer of grain motion in a laborato-ry nume showed these concepts
to be unrealistic. Based on these assumptions Kalinske [14) gave the
folloldng expression for the bed load transport:
is a function of T /r
C 0
Einstein (7) postulated that a given particle size moves in a
series of steps ~ n d that a Biven particle does not stay in ~ o t i o n con-
16
tinuosly, but is deposited on the bed after a few steps. The mean
length and the frequency of these steps are assumed to be functions
of f:ize. This implies that the particles have a relatively
constant velocity of movement. The particle moves whenever the hy-
draulic lift exceeds its submerged weight. A normal distribution
function ,,-as assumed for the variation of hydraulic liftl this allows
infinitely high lift forces on the particle. The prol:ability of move-
ment p would then be simply the probability of lift exceeding the
submerged weight of the particle and is expressed as follows:
p = 1
1
..In
dt
(10)
lfhere " and & are u"'1iversal constants and 'It * is a shear stress
function. The end result of Einstein's analysis is the relationship
(lla)
where
= qs
Fed 3/2
and
The above relationship is based on the experimental cl.a.ta from
Zurich and the data by Gilbert. In 1950. Einstein (8) modified his
theory and redefined the bed load transport rate parameter in the
folloni.ng form:
17
and gave the analy-t;ical result
where 4 and ET are constants and were evaluated frOI'\ the exper-
imental data. The fUnctional relationship was developed analy-t;ically
and based on "!he original assur.lptions.
Both Einstein (0) and Kal1nske tl4.) failed to consider the effec1
of the particle's exposure and the position it happens to occupy at
the bed on its novement. A particle which is protruding into the flow
is SUbjected to a larger force than one completely imbedrled in the
surface layer of the bed. Mercer (18) introduced the concept of 're-
lative exposure' and developed a bed embedment model. The probability
of novenent., p, of a particle was evaluated by statistically anaIyz-
ing the randomness of rela.tive exposures of dti"ferent particles at
the bed. The she3J:i.ng stress \las considered as the ma.in disturbing
force. and the effect of turbulence was ignored.
The Meyer-Peter (19] formula. flaS developed at the Hydraulic Ia.b-
atory in Zl.U'ich, Sldtzerland, and has been used quite extensively ~
Europe. Using the Froude lal.. of similarity as a guide. it was pub-
lished as folious:
p
The effects of.sediment density and the separation of the form re-
s1stance from -the total resistance were also considered. In the above
2/3 1/2 2/3
equation q = UD. ~ '" Uf ( ~ s ), k
b'
.. U / ( ~

18
A and B are constants, and qb is the sediment transport rate
measured as dry weight per unit width per unit time. The total re-
s ~ n c e was divided into grain resistance and :form resistance by
holding R
b
constant and dividing the energy slope into a part de-
pendent on grain resistance ~ and a part dependent upon :form re-
sistance sb".
Chien t61 has shown that eq. l2a. can be mod1ied to express
the :following relationship between q ~ and T 0* -- the same parameters
introduced by Einstein (8 J in his bed load fUnction
311.
qs* .. (4 TO * - 0.188)
(12b)
The bed load equa.tions o:f Einstein (8) Meyer-Peter (19) and
Kall.nske (l4] have been plotted in Fig. 15. All t.l'" equations are sim-
ilar at lOll transport rates, but at high transport rates they diverge
frOlll each other.
,
III. IINALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
When water f10lfS over a flat surface of loose sediment particles,
a. fey grains here and there move with the water because of the forces
exerted by the flow. The moving grains are sUbject to a weight force
which opposes their movement and a tangential force which tends to
maintain the forward motion. There are also shear stresses between
the grains in motion and those forming the stationary boundary, the
fluid between them taking part in shearing. Figure:3 shows an assem-
blage of discrete particles forming the bed of a channel in which the
water is flolling. In general there will exist near the bed a Dean
velocity profile u =fey). The velocity profile represents the tem-
poral mean velocity at each point in the vertical and shows the de-
crease in velocity as the bed is approached. Superimposed upon this
temporal llIean velocity may be turbui.,,:lt f'luctuations. These temporal
mean fluctuations mayor may not cause local instantaneous modifi-"
cations of velocity field. As the flow passes the particle, the
streamlines are deflected upward around the particle. The more ex-
posed particles shed eddies and a wake is formed dOl!!lstream. The
size of the wake depends upon the size, the shape of the particle,
and the point of of the boundary layer formed on the pa.."'t-
icle. The point of separation is dependent on the particle shap<:! and
the local Reynolds nUlllber of the no!"!.
Tha hydrodynamic forces exerted on the particle may be resolved
into two components--one parallel to the direction of aean flow, called
the drag, and the other normal to it, called the lift. The drag is
composed of a surface d....-ag and a fom drag and is caused by the pres-
sure difference in front and behind the particle. The point of appli-
cation of the drag forces with respect to the center of gravity of
,
20
the particle is not fixed and depends on the relative magnitude of
the lift and the drag forces. which in turn depends on the local
Reynolds number. the shape, and the position that the particle happens
to occupy at the bed.
The lift is similar to the form drag and is the resultant of
the pressure difference above and below the particle. On the upper
side the pressure is reduced below the static pressure by virtue of
the curvature of the streamlines and the increased velocity around the
particle. Underneath the particle the interstitial velocity is re-
latively very small, and the pressure approaches static pressure.
Both the lift and the drag are fluctuating quantities in magnitUde.
point of application, and direction due to the turbulence. In fact,
it is conceivable that in certain instances one or both might be re-
versed in directior..
Opposing these hydrodj'Ilarnic forces is the submerged weight of
the particle plus any constraining force caused by contact with the
other particles in the bed. The submerged weight depends upon the
size, the shape, and the density of the p&-""1;icle. Consequently, the
force system that the motion of the particles is a complex
:f\lnction of time, space, and distribution of physical properties of
the system.
These two sets of forces--the hydxodyna.mic and the resisting
forces--tend to dislodge the particle in one of the following ways.
The possible 1nltial motions of the particle are limited by the part-
icle's contact with its neighbors. The type of motion requiring least
hydrodynar.dc force is a rolling motion with the particle pivoting
about its point of contact with its immediate downstream neighbor.
When the noment of the resultant of lift and drag about the point of
21
contact is greater than the moment of submerged weight about the same
point, the particle will be rolled from its initial position to some
point dOlmstrea.m, Hhere the combination of forces. including its own
momentUIII, is such that it is more stable. If the lift force at any
instant becomes larger than the submerged weight. the particle will
be lited bodily 'rom the bed. The drag force acting on the particle
may also tend to move it dotmstream. so that its motion will be in
the nature of a hop. A simpler type of motion which is easier to
analyze and which requires only a slightly higher force is a linear
translation of the particle parallel to the plane of contact with its
immediate dOlll1stream neighbor particle.
Because of the possible variation of the forces generated by
the water flOWing about the typical particle, the instant of movement
is indeterminate. Considering the assemblage of particles as a whole,
particles will moveWhenever and ~ r h e r e v e r the hydrodynamic forces over-
come the forces resisting motion.
The funda.l!lental variables associated with low rates of transport
would be the variation in the exposure of the particles and the var-
iation of the hydrodynan1c forces caused by turbulence.
Bed Embedment Hodel
Figure 4 shows a longitudinal section of a bed consisting of
spherical particles of uniform size d. These particles are supposed
to be randol:l1y oriented relative to a mean bed level, which is defined
as a line drawn tangent to the bottom of those particles which have
the g:reatest exposure to the flow. The relative exposure "e" is
the projection of a particle above the mean bed line measured dimen-
sionlessly in terms of grain diameter. Particle 2 has the ma.xiJnum
22
exposure to nOlI in com:P<lXison With its neighbors. U 1s subjected
to higher velocities, and hence to larger forces. This particle also
has a smaller angle of escape. Therefore it is most likely to 1II0ve.
\/hen this particle having the maximum exposure is removed, the par-
ticle underneath becomes the least exposed particle on the surface.
Us upper edge projects a little above the bed level. The probability
of movement of this particle will be very small. Therefore, the pro-
bability of movement should be based on the statistical analysis of
the particle exposures, as suggested by Mercer t18 ). In other words,
the probability of a randomly selected surface particle having a given
relative exposure should be determined.
The distribution function of particle exposure E should be a
continuous fUnction, as no single value has a non-zero probability.
U has a derivative at each point. The derivative of the distribution
function ~ ( e ) is called the probability density function of the
distribution and is denoted by g( e) :
gee) c -S (G(e = d P.rob. (E ~ e)
de de
dC(e) c g(e)de (14)
This differential of probablli.ty (E <. e) can be used, for small de,
to approximate an increment in probability <E(, e) corresponding
to an increment in e from e to e +de:
g(e)de = P.rob. (E ~ e + de) - P.rob. (El ~ e)
=
P.rob. (e <. E ~ e +de)
Onc of the properties of a function nhich is differentiable,
is that it is the integral of its derivative.
(16)
"
From. this it follows that
f
ez
Probab. (0 <E ~ 9
2
).. g(e)de
o
The determination of the probability that a particle would move
requires some assUl'llptions about the method of dislodgement and the
forces causing it. The forces acting on a particle are:
.1.. SUbmerged weight, ti, of the particle, acting vertically
dowmmrd;
2. the fluid drag D
r
acting in the direction of flow; and
3. the hydraulic 11ft L on the particle acting upward normal
to the flow.
The possible in!tial movements of a particle are liJnited by the par-
tic.1.e's contact with neighboring particles. Every particle is supposed
to be in contact with a.t least two other particles--one upstream and
one downstrea.ll. Its points of contact with these two particles lie
in the plane of the figure. The plane along which the particle is
supposed to escape is nomal to the plane of the figure and t a ~ n t i a l
to the particle and its point of contact with 1ts downstream neighbor.
The condition favoring escape exists, then, when the follonng
force inequa11ty is satisfied:
D
r
>(it - L) tan 8
where (1 is the angle of escape.
(18)
Three of the parameters, D
r,
L, and tan {3, are functions of
the exposure of particles. 'fhe hydrodynamic forces acting on the par-
ticle have been assuraed to depend upon the amount of exposure (Mercer
us) ) which the particle has in comparison with the upstream particle.
Assuming a linear relationship between the forces and the particle ex-
posure, the following expression can be written:
Pr .. D
max
(e
2
- e
1
)
L .. L
max
(e2 - e
1)
where D
max
and L
max
are maximum drag and maximum lift on a cOTolpletely
exposed particle (e
2
=1, e
l
.. 0, e) .. 0) at any instant in time.
The angle of escape of particle 2, a , may be shown to be geo-
metricaly related to the exposure of particles 2 and 3 by the expression
The inequality 18 may be expressed in terms of particle exposure
by substituting the values of L, D, and tan a
The forces of lift and drag on the particle have been assumed to be
equal in magnitude. Denoting Dmax/W .. T, the inequality 19 may
be rea...-rora,nged in the following form:
or
25
~ 1 -(e2 - eJP
(e2 - ell
e2 - eJ
>
0
T
[ '(1 -C.. - '3)'
J
(20)
-I +
e
2
- eJ
H(el' e2, e
J) <
C (21)
where H represents the functional relationship and C is a constant.
N o ~ the density function g(e2) may be expressed as:
g(e
z
) = Jf g (el. e2' eJ) del de
J
H(el,eZ,e
J
) > C
0.-, e l ~ 1
O ~ e 3 ~ 1
where g(el' e2' ElJ) is the joint. density funct.ion of the pa-"'ticlEl
expoSl:res el' e
2
ann. e3. The :particle exposures have values ranging
between zero and one. For a function to be a valid probabilit.y density
function it should satisfy the follOWing relationship:
t j
o 0
(23)
The above relation can be solved to give,
(24)
26
Substituting the value of g(el' e
2
, e
J
) -- joint density function
--in Eq.22.
g(e
2)
is the density function of those exposures of particle 2 when
it is at the brink of movelJent. Therefore, the probability of move:nent.pI
where e2' is given by the folloing expression assuming e
l
and e
J
equal to zero in the inequality 20:
y(l -e 2 ~
(e2' -I- V( 1 - e2*
2
)J
The physical interpretation of e2* is that it is the minimum ex-
psoure for particle 2 to escape when e
1
and e
J
i.e., the ex-
psoures of its neighboring particles, are zero. For particle 2 to
be in an incipient state the inequality may be put in the folloing form:
(28)
27
If el' e
2,
and e
3
are represented by three axes of a three-dim-
ensional domain, the expression represents the equation of a surface.
The values of particle exposures lie betlleen zero and one, and thus
the three-dimensional domain is a cube: 0 e
l
1, 0 e
2
1, and
o e
3
1. The surface and the three-dimensional domain are shown
geometrically in Fig. 5. The volume of the domain being a cube is
unity, The volume contained between the surfaces H(e
1
, e
2
, 'e,) .. C,
e
1
.. 0, e
3
= 0, and e
2
.. 1 represents the probability of movement
of particle 2. A.ll values of el' e
2,
and e
3
that pertain to the
movement of particle 2 lie in this region of the domain. The triple
integral Eq. 2E evaluates the volume of this region.
If the exposures of particles 1 and 2 are known, the
exposure o! particle :3 would have a certain maximum value in accordance
with Fq. 20 for the dislodgement of particle 2. This maximum value
of e:y is by:
1

where
D
T :: :ax
Now the probability that particle 2 will move is the probability that
83 will lie between zero and 83*':
28
(30)
,
This probability is actually the probability density that particle 2
will move out if e
l
and e
2
are fixed and e
3
is random. Now, if
the exposure of particle 2 is fixed, there is a maximum value of the
exposure of particle 1 for the movement of particle 2. This maximum
value of el' e
l
*, is given by the folloWing expression:
* ..J( 1 - el.)
el .. e - 6.,.-;
2 T ( e
2
+ (1 - e
2
J )
(31)
The above equation is obtained by putting e
3
equal to zero in Eq. 20.
That particle 2 will be dislodged is the probability that e
l
will lie between zero and e
l
* ! This probability is the probability
density if e
2
is fixed and el and e
3
are random.
_1_
2Vf!
+_1__
2*
(32)
For movement, the particle 2 should have a c e r t a ~ . n minimum exposure
to the now. This minimum exposure e2* is g1ven by the J' ollowing
expression:
~ - ~ - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - -
29
2
"(1 - e ~ )
e2* ..
The rane;e of values of e
2
would be between e2* and one for 'the
dislodgement of particle Z. Now the probab1.lity that. particle 2 will
have the given exposure for the movement iSI
"'[1 - L - .1 e
3
+ L a.
2
]
:3 2T:3 2T
_ 1 [11
4T T::
-1 TT ] [ 2 2 V( 2)
+ Sin e ~ - _ + 1 1 - 62* + 62* 1 - e2*
2 lIT
- 1 (4 e_
16 c.--
- 1 [ (2 T - 1) Sinh-
1
(IT-I) -J(ZT - 1)2 + 1 ]
4' "JZ Tt
30
1
+ 4'f2 T
2
{(2T e2* - 1) Sinh-
l
(21 e2* -l)yzr e2* - 1) 2 + l}
+ 1 1 1 [ Sinh-
l
(2T - 1) - Sinh-
l
(2T e2* - 1)] (33)
8V2 T
2
The probability of movement of' particle 2 has been computed :trom the
knoim probabilities associated with individual particle exposures.
Each of' these particles has exposures independent of the others.
The parameter T is obtained by dividing the maximum drag (the
drag experienced by a completely exposed particle, i.e., el C 0,
e3 .. 0, and e2 =1) by the submerged weight.
T .. D
max
-W-
Tr 2
4d T
.. .2
2
T ..
()4)
The functional relationship for p with T" ( .. j T) is plotted in
Fie. 6. T.. is the dimensionless instantaneous bed shear.
In order to incOI'lJOrate the effect of' time variation on pro-
bability of' movement, the variation of' the bed shear should be con-
Sidered. The fluctuations of the dimensionless bed shear can be des-
cribed statistically by a. normal distribution function, the density
function of which is given by:
31
where a is the standard deviation and has been taken equal to 0.5 T
O
*
and T 0. is the dimensionless mean bed shear intensity. The male-
imum value of instantaneous shear to which a particle is subjected
has been found to be 2.5 times the Statistically, the values
of T0* range between 0 & 00 , The density funct.Ion g1ven by Eq. 35
has been normalized. In its final form it can be put as follows:
(36)
The average value of the probability of movement, Po' 1s given by:
P f (T* )d
T
*
o
On simpllfications Eq. (32) 1s reduced to the form
(J8)
_t
2
! 2
e dt
1 JCo
__ pe
Po .. '2 TT -
pr
where t is a dUIDrny variable and is equal to (T* -TO*) / C1. The
above integral may be evaluated with the help of FiZ. 6 and standard
mathematical tables. Fig, 7 shOllS t.he variation of mean

)2
of movement with dimensionless bed shean 'T .' At lower values of T. 'P
o 0, 0
approached the variation. with the fourth power of To With the increase
in fluid shear Le. 'To.' the probability of movement increases. According
to Fig 7 the fraction of particles that are in motion is less than 0.68
even for very high values of shear. This limiting value of probability is
inherent in the model chosen and does not neccessarily represents any limit
in the real phenomenon. It may be speculated that as the number of particles
in motion increases, collision between moving particles may become more
frequent and their effects cannot be The particle collision give
to an additional shear resistance due to the momentum transferred by
the particles. This shear resistance would be in addition to the forces
considered in this investigation. Therefore, the present model does not cover
this situation.
Once the particle is set into motion, the hydrodynamic
forces of lift and drag vary throughout its path of movement both in magni-
tude and direction. The probability of the particle's coming to rest is not
equal at all the points on the bed. It depends upon the amount of shielding
that the particle gets from its new neighbors.Once the particle is redepo-
sited it may move again when it is re-exposed to the flow due to the move-
ment of its neighbors. Thus the movement of sediment particle consists of
steps and periods of rest. The distance traveled by the particle before
coming to rest - the step length - depends upon the angle of escape of
particle and the characteristics of the flow, the fluid and the sediment.
Statistical Analysis of Particle movement
Consider a particle at rest at a point after which it makes a
movement to another point. Consider the particle's coming to rest as an
event. The distribution of the random interval between two consecutive
events is determined as follows:
JJ
Let Pr be the probability that the particle does not come
to rest between y and y + h. This probability is independent of
events ~ c c u r i n g outside of the interval
I
y t h
J
and is uniform along the axis of movement. It depends only upon h.
Thus it is only a function of a single v.ariable h and is designated
Pr (h). consider two consecutive intervals 1 and J between the
points y and y+h: and y+h and y4h+k, respectively. The pro-
babllity that the particle does not Come to rest in (y, y+h+k). the
union of two adjoint intervals I and J may be written in the follow-
1ng fom:
Probabilities: Pr(h + k) '" Pr (h). Pr(k)
In order to write the above expression the independence between the
events in rand J has been considered. This relation which holds
for every value of hand k is a distinctive feature of exponential
fUnctions. It means that:
t
(40)
1I1thA> 0 and 0< 1) ~ l
-0
Let . E
i
and E
H l
be two points where the particle rests-consecutive
steps. The distance Y betlleen E
i
and E
i
+1 is the length of the
step initiated from Si and is a random variable.
34
Probability of no events
Prob (Y> y).. in (Yo. Yo + Y)
(41)
Let F(y) be the distribution function of Y.
F (y) = P.rob (0 < Y ~ y) c l-Prob (Y > y)
The density function of the interval (E
i
E
H l).
i.e., Y, is:
f (y) c s, F(y) 1 e-r{Po>"
dy .. Po>" (43)
The random distance (interval) between two successive points on the
axis of particle movement l!l2.y be taken as following the negative ex-
ponential distribution. It satisfies the following conditions:
1. The probability of making a zero displacement 1s finite.
2. The probability of making a travel (displacement) of in-
finite length is zero.
3. The function exists and is finite at all points between
zero and inf1nity
and 4. The area between the function and axis of y is unity.
The mean step length is PoA. where Po is the probability of
movement and >.. is a constant and is the mean length of the step when
the probability of movement is one.
The density function of the step length, Y, has been taken
to be negative e>'1'onential, i.e., Camma distribution, Yl' The
35
successive steps of the particlE" Yn. Y
n+1
Yn+2, are independ-
ent of each other. The total distance trave1ed by a particle between
the ll0ints Ezt and E"n+k is the SUlll of k independent steps. of
random length.

A
Now
Ezt+1
(Em. E
m
+
l
) .. Y
m
for m" (n, n+l. n+k)
~ + k
These steps are independent lengths. Each of them follows negative
exponential distribution. Finally the total distance,s, trave1ed by
a particle is the sum of k independent random lengths with the same
distribution function Y l'
The characteristic function of the negative exponential distribution
is given by:
.r
00
it
tp (t) DJ_ e Y' f (y) d.y
o
The characteristic function of the sum of independent random variables
possesses a11 i.Ill!JOrt&nt factorization property. The characteristic
function of any finite sum of independent random variables is the
product of their respective characteristic functions.
)6
The characteristic function of s:
.. 'P
n
(t) 'Pn+l (t) .....
'" ['P(t)] k (46)
where <pn(t) is the characteristic function of Y
n
Therefore. the
characteristic function of s:
1
This ls the characteristic function of Gamma. (k) distribution. The
density function of s is given by:
:Let us consider the particle on a. channel bed that has probability of
movement Po depending upon the now and nuid characteristics. Suppose
that this particle has been set into motion at a certain polnt A.
It undergoes a displAcement Yl and stops at a. poin't El' The density
function of displacement (s a Y) ls:
-slAP
e 0
It aay again aove and can have another displacement 1
2,
and thus the de-
sity function of distance s (a Y
l
+ Y
2)
is:
and so on,
1
AP
o
-sAp
e 0
(...!L)
'APo
1!
E2
E
~ n + 1 A
El
n
I
,
2 n n + 1
Probability of movement 1
Po Po Po Po
2 n-1 n n n + 1
Probability of staying 0
I-po
Po-Po Po - Po Po - Po
Density Funotion of
distance trave1ed
o
38
Considering the density function of distance traveled by a
particle as a random variable, let us now find the mean density function
of f(s):
E (f(s .. (l-p )....L e-si.. Po + P (l-p) 1 e -s lAPo
o A Po 0 0 AP(j
(p
n-l p n)
o - 0 ..0
+ Cl
1
- .
APO
Therefore, the mean density function of distance s traveled by a par-
ticle has the following form:
..,
....
s::
S
:t
Gl
s::
0
l-
x

c
Flow
Fig. 8
(SO)
39
Figure 8 shows the cross section and the rectangle with unit
Width and semi-infinite length where all particles start their move-
ment ~ h i c h together form the number of particles N in motion. The
number of particles per second that cross 1:."16 Une labeled "section"
must be equal to the number of particles starting to travel a variable
length in one second that is long enough 'to cross the line. The nua-
ber of particles per unit width beginning to move in one second fron
the differential area, which is at a distance x from the line, is
given by (Einstein (7)):
in which Ps is the probability that the particle will sta-..-t moving
in one second, d is the d1alneter ofthe particle, and ~ d 2 is the
area that the grain covers at the bed. The probability thata par-
ticle will cross the line is designated by Px (s ~ x}, It is given
by:
The total number of particles beginning movement that are large enough
to reach or cross the line per unit width:
_5 ",
PsPo A
(53)
40
A. has the dimensions of length and may be termed the mean distance
traveled by a. particle if the probability of movement is unity.
TransposJ.llg
(54)
Noli', assuming that ~ , the mean step length, is equal to hod, ho
being dimensionless,
PoPsA.o
"'---
I-po (55)
In order to make the right-hand side dimensionless, Ps must be multi-
plied by a given time tol to must be a characteristic time which
in some way is representative of the behavior of a particle in the
fluid under the given flo\! conditions. In fact, to is the time
through which the forces act on the particle and the' particle moves
from its position of rest to occupy a new position of deposit. By
this definition to may be llritten as
(56)
where t
l
is thepart of the time to during which the particle is at
rest (between two consecutive excursions) and t
2
is the part during
which the particle is in motion. When the particle is subjected to
hydrodynatlic forces, the particle vibrates and tries to free itself
from the surrou.,ding particles before a. new journey. At low shear values
the movies have sholm that in general, for coarse particles and steady
mean fiotls, t
z
(time of travel) is much smaller than t
l
(tiJ:le of
rest). !heefore, for all practical purposes it may be assumed that
to := t
l"
This time should be dependent upon the flow and sediment
characf.oristics. The s1mplest time pa.raIIIeter having the right di-
41..
mensions is the time required to move a particle through a distance d
w1th the shear velocity U* The time through which the hydrodynamic
forces should act on apartlcle to move it,would also be proportional
to the probability of movement, Po' of the particle. A particle ha.ving
a large value of Po would require less time than a particle having
a smaller value of Po' Considering these arguments, the follottl.ng
expression may be
where A
3
is the constant of proportionality.
As
transposing
Po .. Ps x t
Substituting the value of Ps in Eq.(55) yields:
P 3 AU
HAd'" 0 o.
1 (58)
Not.ing that qs" NYS"2d3 mere qs is sediment transport rate and
Azd
3
is the volume of a particle
1.
2
>0 p/
AlA) d I-po
Two sides can be grouped into two dimens10nless groups:
t

42
Calling the left-hand side, qs*' the dillIensionless sediment transport,
the above equation 1s reduced to the form
where A .. At oIA
1Aj
and Func ('&) represents the relationship
1/2 *
bei...csn T 0* po'J/(l-po) and T0*.
Because Eq. J8 was derived for spherical particles, another con-
stant B is introduced to account the variation in particle's shape. Now
equation may be put in the following form:
q .. A Func(B T )
s. Olf
(60)
The :function has been determined analytically with B .. 1. Tho variation
of q with T (when A;; B:= 1) is shown in Fig. 9. The parameter
S* ~
qs. is similar to Einstein's bed load function and T ~ is the in-
verse of 'It.
IV. COLIECTION OF DATA
The science of sediment transport relies on the analysis of
obser..red- data. This is particularly true owing to the complexity of
the natural phenomena and the fact that a purely analytical approach
would lead nowhere. As there is available an abundance of flume data
on bed. load transport above the so-called 'critica1 condition'. it. seemed
unnecessary ;;0 conduct more experiments in this region. An eXJleri-
Illental progran was u-"ldertaken to collect bed load data below and in
the proximity of tre so-called 'critica1 condition.'
Collection of Data
The fiu,":Ie data from previous studies which are utilized in the
present investigation are those of Gilbert [13] Casey (13). and the
United States Waterways Experiment Station [131. The details are given
in Table r,
Experir:!ental Set-U'D
All the present bed load experiments were conducted in a tilting
f1U1'1e. The water was taken from the Mississippi River through the
labora1tory supply system to the entrance of the flume stil1ing chamber.
Flume:
The flume itself. illustrated in Photo 1. is a steel structure
with painted side walls forming a hydraulica.1ly smooth surfa.ce. The
value of Manning's rugosity coofficient for the inside surface was found
'to be 0.00923. The flume is rectangular in cross section Its approx-
1.ma.to inside dimensions are: length. 50 it; width. J ft; and depth.
1.25 rt. It is supported by two I-beams which in turn are supported
at midpoints on horizontal pin and at ends through a mechanism of jack
TABLE I
Type of Spec1fio Classification
S. No. Designation of Material Material Gravity of Mixture Particles Mean Size
lIlJ1l.
1 Gilbert river 2.69 un1-granular sUb-e.n6\1lar .305
sand .506
11
"
sub-rounded 1.71
3.17
4.93
7.011
2 U.S. Waterways Experi- river 2.65 un1-granular sub-angular .691
ment Stat10n sand angular
.97
6
sub-rounded 4.07
to sub-an-
gular
Casey sand 2.70 unl-grenular sUb-angular 2.45
to
rounded
45
screws. Through an electrically operated arrangement of jack screws
can be ma.nipulated to set the flUJ;1e to any desired slope.
The water was admitted from the main channel through a l2-in.
pipe controlled by a hydraulic valve. This_pipe is provided with a
Pitot cylinder at its entrance section to measure the flow rate in terms
of deflection of a differential manometer. This Pitot cylinder was
ealibrated by means of weighing tanks. The pipe diseharges water into
the inlet tank of the flume. This tank is equipped with baffles which
effeetive1y still the flow before it is allowed to enter the main portion
of the flume.
The elevation of the water surface in the flume is controlled by
manipulating a tail gate hinged to the bottom of the flume a.t the dosn-
stream end. After being discharged over the tail gate, the water flowed
to the Mississippi river througha channel under the floor.
The position of the water surface and the bed was measured with
point ga\18es which could be read to 0.001 ft by means of Vernier scales.
The point gauge ~ i a S mounted on a carriage whieh moved along the flume
on level tracks. These tracks, one on each side of the flume, are
supported on steel framework resting on the floor. An adjustment screw
a.t each support. made a.ccurate leveling of the track possible. For mea-
suring the position of tIE bed a 2-10. -diameter circular plate was attached
to the pointer.
The measti:rement of the rate of movement of sand and gravel under
the test was made possible by the sand trap provided at the downstream
end of the flume. This trap consists of a suddenly enlarged section
about 5 inches deeper than the bed. This trap was found to be satisfac-
tory, as the material was coarse and the transport rate was small.
46
Material Used
The purpose of these experiments llaS to obtain bed load transport
data at low shear values in the proximity of the so-called critical
tract.ive force. In order to calculate shear accurately the depth of
flow and slope should not be of a small order of magnitude. The sedi-
Clent transport rate shotl.1d also be measurable. These condit10ns ilIIposed
a lower ~ 1 m i t on the particle size that could be used. Based on these
req'.:.lrements. three uniform materials and two milCtures were selected.
Before being tested mthe flume a small representative sample
of the material was subjected to a complete size and shape analysis.
The size analysis was conducted in a sieve shaker. For shape analysis
all three axes of the particle were measured with a micrometer screw
gauge in order to calculate the sphericity coefficient. The results of
size and shape ana.lysis are sumrrarized in Table 11. Figure 10 shows
the sieve analysis results graphically.
Procedure of Exnerimentation
Before placement in the flume each o ~ the sediments was thoroughly
washed to remove all traces of silt, clay, and other extraneo\ls material.
The flume was adjusted to the desired slope by regulation of jack screws.
The carr1a.ge track wa.s checked by a level at 2-t intervals along the
rails.
All experiments were made with a uniform layer of sediment on
1lhe bed of about J or 5 inches thickness. The gravel surface was molded
to the exact slope b:r means of a vertical template so constructed as to
slide along the side rails of the flume. At the upper and lower ends
of the flume, wooden sills had previously been placed to the same depth.
The bott-o:;! edge of the te!llJ'la.te was adjusted to the elevation of wooden
TAELE II
Series Bed material Size Standard Deviation Sphericlty Shape Specific
No. coefficient gravity
A I 22.2 mm 1.07 .4 sub-rounded 2.65
to sub-angular
B II 22.2 mm 1.57 .42
"
2.65
C III 22.2 mm 2.7 .44
"
2.65
D IV 7.95 mm 1.1 .41
"
2.65
E V 2.5 mm 1.08 .45
"
2.65
------------------------------
48
sills and then was back and forth over until a plane
surface of uniform slope was obtained. Care was taken that no isolated
large,particle remain on the surface.
To start a run the fll.<lJle was flooded In order to provide
infiltration into the bed and displacement of as much air as possible.
After the entire bed was under water the discharge was increased to
the desired value in a relatively short time and the tail gate was
manipulated until uniforJll depth prevailed throughout. The bed load
collected during this time in the trap was removed and was not considered
a part of the bed load transport. The water surface elevations were
recorded along the center line of the flume at one-foot intervals.
At the conclusion of the run the water was drained and the bed
load collected in the trap was dried and weighed.
Durl.ng the first several runs of each series the gravel bed re-
mained plane as it was molded at the Commencement of the series. After
the first few runs, however, the number depending upon the type of
gravel, slope of the bed, etc., the bed became irregular at isolated
points and small waves seem to have appeared. The general practice in
this series was to remold the bed and repeat the run.
Five series of runs were made; each series corresponds to a differ-
ent bed material (Table II).
"
t, PRESENl'ATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The object of the present investigation was to develop a.n ex-
pression- relating the bed load transport rate and the floW' chara.cter-
istics. The collected flume data have been ana1yzed as discussed in
Chapter III. In the course of investigation several parameters had
to be computed.
Computation of Parameters:
Entrance Effect of the Flume:
When the lrater enters the flume it takes a considerable length
of the channel before the proper velocity profiles are established.
To ascertain the entrance lengt.h of the flume, the velocity profiles
were taken at stations 5.5, 7, 10, 13, 26, and J6 in run 5 of series A.
The flow was quite uniform in that run. Figure II uses a sliding
abscissa and shOWSthe velocity distribution in the vertical at these
stations. These velocity profiles clearly indicate that it takes about
13 ft of travel for the flow to become established, i.e., the boundary
layer reaches up to the surface. Downstreatl of station 15 the velocity
profiles are qUite similar. and thus the flow ls fuJ.ly developed.
Einstein and Chi en [9Jreported that entrance effects are felt further
when sediment size is larger. In the case of sediment sizes of 2.5 mm
and 7.95 mm the entrance length for flow required to establish fully
developed flot-' would be shorter. The bed of gravel was stablized by
cementing the particles for the first 10 ft in the entrance region when
the bed ma.terial size was 22 mm. In the case of smaller size sediment
the bed was covered with a Wire mesh for about 10 ft in the entrance
region to prevent movement.
(61)
50
Enerf5Y Slo"lle
The profiles of the bed and the water surface 'IIere plotted. The
entrance region was eliminated from consideration by disregarding the
upstream end of the water surface and the bed profiles. The bed and
the water surface profiles of the remaining portion of the fIlume had an
essentially uni:form slope as shown in Fig. 12. Knowing the bed and
the water surface slopes, Sb and Sw' respectively. the energy grad-
ient Se was computed by the following formula:
Se ~ Sw - F
r
2(Sw
- Sb)
in which Fr is the Froude number of flow (=ufli,D. D being the mean
depth of flow and U being the mean velocity of flow).
Depth of Flow
The average depth of flow is given as the difference between the
average water surface and the bed elevations.
lied. Shear
In the flume the bed was covered with the sediment and the side
walls were SlllOOth. The shear distribution is not uniform along the wetted
perimeter and the bed shear intensity would be different than the mean.
The bed shear stress TO can be given by the folloWing expression:
(62)
where R
b
is the hydraulic radius associated with the bed.
In order to com1lUte the value of R
b
the method of' Einstein l7]
has been used. The basic concept of the method is that the entire cross
section o:f the smooth wall flume can bedivided into trro sub-sections.
one influenced by the walls and another by the bed. The average velocity
51.
is assumed to be constant, and the total resistance offered to the
flow is assumed to be equal to the sum of resistances offered by the
side walls and the bed. It is assumed tha.t different values of hydraulic
mean radius a.nd i\r. respect!vely. for the bed and tho;l side walls
exist. The value of I\, can be computed by using equation:
{
nw _U } 3/2
nao vs-;-
(6;)
where nw is the value of Manning's rugosity coefficient for the side
walls.
The area with reference to the walls Is:
(64)
and the area with reference to the bed is:
where Be is the bed width.
The corresponding hydraulic radius with respect to the bed, is
1), .. AJBe (66)
(The wetted perimeter with respect to the bed is Be' the bed width).
Combining Eqs. (65) and (66):
2Rw
lb =D{l - B; }
Knowing Rb. the shear stress pertaining to the bed can be computed as
. from Eq. 62.
52
Thus the effect of smooth side walls has been eliminated from the mean
bed shear.
In a loose boundary open channel when ripples and dunes are formed
on the bed the bed shear i' develops in two distinctly different ways
---along the surface of sediment particles TO and by the form drag
~ D of the bed irregulatities, i.e., ripples and dunes.
the part of the bed shear pertaining to the form drag of ripples and
dunes does not contribute to the movement of bed particles. The shear
that is responsible for the sediment grains themselves. This shear was
computed as follows:
The entire croas section was divided into two flow sUbareas,
one consisting of granular roughness, and the average velocity
of flow was assumed to be constant. Different values of hydraulic mean
radius have been assumed for both sub-areas. The Nanning formula was
assumed ~ o hold for both the SUb-sections. For the subsection perta.in-
ing to granular roughness one can write:
Ro' 2/3
(69)
where I\' is the hydraulic radius pertaining to granular roughness and
is the Manning rugosity coefficient given by the following Strickler- n
g
type equation:
n = 0.0395 d
l/6
(Ref. 1 )
g
(70)
Fr.OIll Eq. p9:
(71)
53
The bed sheaz "0 pertaining to the granular roughness is given by:
3/2
The bed load movement data collected in the present investigation be-
long to plane bed regime, so Eq. 62 was used to compute the bed shear
intensity. The data of the other investigators used 1n this study per-
tain to ripple and duneregilne as well as plane beds, so the necessary
computations as outlined above were made to determine the bed shear
"0 pertaining to the granular roughness element.
Presentation of Data
Before any attempt is made to generalize the analysis of' the
collected data for bed load transport, the data obtained by the writer
have been plotted separately in order to show the consistency of the
results. The quantitative conception of' the problem will eventually
be reached after the analysis of' a relatively large amount of collected
data. At such a stage a quantitative conclusion will be drawn 1n the
form of constants for the bed load transport. Eq. 60.
Fig. 13 shows qs' the amount of sediment transported P!!1: foot
width in pounds per foot per hour, plotted against bed shear "'0 in
pounds per square foot. The rate of bed load transport decreased with
a decrease in fluid shear. In spi-te of the sca-tter. a common charact-
er1stlc of the data plotted in Fig. 13 is that there is s ~ i m ~ n t movement
below the 'critical shear.' This indicates the possibility tha.t sed1-
lIIent transport belo" the incipient state' is also governed by certain
laws. The movement of sediment particles at such loW' values of shear
appears to be random in time and space. There does not appear to be
any liJ:l1t below which there is no movement. At very, very loW' shear
-------------- ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
54
values one has to wait for a longer time to see the movement, as the
probability of movement becomes vary small. But this probability of
movement is never zero except in still water.
A familY of curves can be fitted into the data which show that
bed load transport varies as the 16th power of fluid shear. In spite
of some scatter at very low values of shear there is a definite tend-
ency for the data to lie along the curves. At these low shear values
it appears that the experiments 'Here not run for a sufficient time
and that even ten to twenty hours was not long enough to arrive at the
expected value of bed load transport rate. This is inferred to be the
reason for the high transport rates.
In Fig. 14, the data have been plotted in terms of dimensionless
parameters--the dimension1ess bed shear TG* and the dimensionless bed
load transport rate qs.' The same 16th poiler correlation can be fitted
into the data. The variation of qs* with To* can be described by
the folloinng relationship:
q
., 6 Id. X 10
18
T 16
Stt'
JV
0*
This 16th poiler correlation is consistent with the concept of critical
shear stress which stipulates that a small increase in shear causes a
noticeable change 1n bed load transport.
The bed load transport. data of Gilbert (13), the United States
Water\iaY5 Experiment Station (13) , and Casey (131 were for relatively
higher shear values. These data were also plotted in terms of T
O
* and
qs* 1n Fig. 15. Most of the bed load data follow a 2.5 power correl-
ation with the dimcnsionless bed shear T
O
* and can be expressed by
the following expression:
qs* .. 13
(74)
,
55
On the same figure the 16th power correlation has also been plotted.
The line representing this correlation intersects the 2.5th power cor-
relation at To* 0: 0.05. For values of shear stress less than TO* 0: 0.05
a s11ght increase in shear causes a very larse increase in the rate
of movement. The correlation shows that with an increase in intensity
of fluid shear the transport .rate passes through the stages of 'weak'
and 'medium' to the stage of 'general' novemarrt , Critical tractive
force has been defined by [23] as the shear stress that bril\;,"S about
the general movement of the bed material. The plot explains why earlier
workers in this field took TO* 0: 0.05 as the so-called dimensionless
critical shear stress. This point is not well defined. and most of
the data show much scatter in this region.
In Chaper III an expression for the bed load transport rate
has been developed in the following form:
(60)
The writer's data along with the data of Gilbert (13), Casey [13J, and
the United States aterways Experiment Station (13] have been plotted
according to r.q. 60 in Fig. 16. As data, two series Gore ustd: the
low Intensit1es are the flume studies conducted in the present in-
vestigation and the higher intens1ties are the experiments of other
investigators. The measurements belonging to all regimes of flow were
considered. Despite the scatter the data seem to fo11o\T the analytical
curve With the following values o ~ constants:
A 0: 9.9
B 0: 13

Eq. 60, along with the bed load equations of Einstein C8} Kalinske
(14J, and Meyer-Peter (19] have plotted in Fig. 17. All equations are
rather similar at low transport rates, but at high shear vlaues Eq.
60 gives higher values of bed load transport rate. None of the equations
except the one developed in this investigation sediment movement
belOlf the so-called critical tractive force, T 0* = 0.05.
Critical Shear Force Concepts
These experiments have shown that the motion of sediment particles
at the bed of a flume is highly unsteady and nonuniformly distributed
over the entire bed area. At lo\{ shear values the motion of particles
in any small area of bed occurs in gusts whose incidence increases as
the mean value of shear increases. Observa. tions and movies taken of
the sediment bed shov that the incidence of sediment motion appears to
be random in both time and space. This suggests that the process of
sediment is statistica.l in nature, as suggested by Einstein
(7)' Because of the statistical nature of sediment motion, Einstein
observes that there is no truly critical condition at which the motion
s\lddenly begins.
At low values of shear the bed load trans:PO-"'"t rate increases
with the 16th power of the shear. A slight increase in flow charact-
ter1stics causes noticeable increase in the moveJaent of bed material.
At relatively higher shear intensities the variation in bed load
transport rate is proportional to the 2.5th power of shear. Both the
curves (correlations) intresect at 't
o
* = 0.05 and qs*" 10-
2
Thus
the 16th power correlation is applicable only up to T
O
* .. 0.05.
57
The concept of the so-called critical tractive force was in-
troduced by Shields t22J, who defined it as the value of shear for zero
sediment discharge obtained by extrapolating to zero a graph of observed
sediment discharge versus the shear. The data obtained in this invest-
igation for sediment sizes d =2.5 mm and d =7.95 mm have been plotted
in Fig. 18. The sediment transport curve representing the variation of
qs with T 0* at higher shear values when extended backr:ard intersects
qs == 0 at T 0* == 0.05. This value of Shields's parameter agrees very
well with values reported in the literature [21}.
le.ter on, other workers (23) in this field introduced the idea
of general move!:lent where the shear force causing it was defined as
the critical shear st::-ess. It seems reasonable to consider the point
of intersection of the 16th power correlation and the 2.5th power cor-
relation as representing the initiation of general movement. The cor-
responding shear stress can be taken as the critical shear stress, T0* ==
0.05.
The Watenrays Experiment Station (2;] in Q) nection with hydraulic
models where relatively fine sand was used defined ~ e critical shear
stress as that shear at which the rate of movement is llb/ft/hr. This
definition, however, cannot be used for gravel or crushed rock mix-
tures because the movement of a very few isolated particles can satisfy
this requirement even though the movement does not belong to-the category
of general movement. The St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic laboratory (1)
proposed that the value of shear at which the rate of movement is 10
Ibs/'ft/hr should be used as the limiting shear for design of riprap-
lined drainage channels. It may be concluded that the definition of
the beginning of move::lent is as 'weak' as tm movement itself.
58
The term 'critical shear stress' is so familiar to every one that it
seems almost impossible to do without it. Unfortunately, it is a condition
that does not exist in nature. If it did, the points somewhere near the
lower end in Fig.16 would approach a line parallel to the qs* axis. These
points representing the rate of transportation of a very few particles
per hour would be called zero transportation by many observers.
It is clear that for the professional engineer the concept of critical
shear stress or limiting shear stress is very useful, since it indicates
the now under which a natural or an artificial bed will be stable. It
should be remembered, as has been demonstrated by experiments, that the
exact limit of transportation does not exist, but the erosion can be reduced
to a safer amount, by choosing the proper value of T 0*'
Since the shear stress at small values of transport rate qs increases
slowly as increases, it is possible by selecting a small value of qs to
determine a shear stress below which the bed load is of no practical
importance. Three such values of have been selected, one
at llb/ft/hr, the second-5 Ibs/rt!hr, and the third at 10 lbs!ft!hr to
determine the arbitrary choice of small value of To'
Fig 19 shows a graph of shear stress, TO' and the sediment size, d,
as determined by Eq 60 for different transport rates. Also shown on the
same plot are the data of several.investigators and the well accepted
curve (1) showing variation of critical shear stress with the sediment size.
The curve of shear stress with the sediment size seem to agree very well
with the data. This investgation does not define a well defined 'critical',
but for all purposes a limiting shear can be defined below which
the bed load transport is of no practical importance.

CONCLUSIONS
As a result of this investigation, the conclusions
about" bed load movement may be drawn:
1. The reported herein indicate that a distinct
condition for the beginning of movement does not exist.
2. A bed load can be derived on the basis of CL
stochastic analysis which considers that the particle ex-
pcsures are uniformly distributed, turbulence is normally
distributed. and the length of steps by particles follow
a negative exponential dist:ibution.
BIBLIOGRAYtiY
1 Anderson. A.G.. et al
r
''Tentative Design Procedure for Rip:ap
Lined Channels." Project Report No. 96. St. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic labora.tory, Hinneapolls. June 19/58.
2 Chepil, W.S "E'quilibriu:n of Soil Gra.ins at the Threshold of
Movement by Wind." Proe , Soil Science Society of AllIerica:
23. 1959.
...
3
4
6
1
8
9
10
II
12
13
14
Chepil, W.S '''J'he Use of Evenly Spaced Hemispheres to Evaluate
Aerodynamic Forces on a 5011 Surface," !ran. AGO, Vol. 39,
1958.
Chepi1, tl.S. and Siddoway. F. H., "Strain Gauge Aneometer for
Ana1yzing Various Characteristics of Wind Turbulence,"
Journal of Meteorology, 16. 1959.
Chepll, W. 5., "The Use of Spheres to measure Lift and Drag on
Wind Eroded Soil Grains." Proe , 5011 Science Society of
America, Vol. 25. 19/59.
Chien. N., "The Present Status of Research on Sediment Transport,"
Trans. ASCE, Vol. 121. 1956.
Einstein, H. A., "Fornulae for the transportatim of Bed Load,"
Trans. ASCE. Vol. 101. 1942.
Einstein, H. A.. ''Bed Load Function for Sediment Transportation
in Open Channel Flows." Tech. Bul. No. 1026. Sept., 1950,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 5011 Conservation Service. Washington,
D. C.
Einstein, H. A. and Chien, N., "Effect of Heavy Sediment Con-
centxation near the bed on Velocit
J
' and Sediment Disi...""ibution,"
M.R.D. Sediment Series No. 8, Univ. of California, Berkely,
August 1955.
Einstein. H.A. and El-Satmi. "Hydrodynamic Forces on a. Rough Wa.ll."
Review of Modern Physics. Vol. 21, July 1949.
Gilbert, G. K ''Txansportation of Debris by Running Water," Prof.
Paper No. 86; U.S. Geological Survey. 1914.
Jeffreys, H., "On the Transport of Sediment by Strean:s," Proc.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Vol. 25, 1929.
Johnson, J .il., "laboratory Investigations on Bed Load Transpor-
tation and Bed Roughness." Sedimentation Section, Office of
Research, SCS-TP-50, ~ l a r c h 1943.
Ka.linske, A. A., "Hovcmcnt of Sediment as Bed load in Rivers."
Trans. Am. Geo. Union. Vol. 110. 4, 1941.
19

61
15 Kallnske, A.A. and Lane, E. W., "The Relation of Suspended to
Bed in Rivers," Trans. AGU, 1939.
16 Kramer, Hans, "Sand Hixtures and Sand Movement in Fluvial Models,"
.Trans. ASCE, Vol. 100, 1935.
17 Leliavsky, S., "An Introduction to Fluvial Hydraulics," Con-
stable and Co., Ltd., London, 1955.
18 Mercer, A. G., "Characteristics of Sand Ripples in low Froude
number Flow," Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Minnesota, June 1964
Meyer-Peter, E. and R., "Formulae f"r Bed Load Transport,"
Proc. 2nd IAHR, Stock.'lolm,
20 Rouse, Hunter, "An Analysis of Sediment Transportation in the
Light of Fluid Turbulence," U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil
Cons. Service, SCS-TR-25, July 1939.
21 Sediment Transportation Mechanics: Initiation of Motion; Progress
Report of the Task Committee on Preparation of Sedimentation
Hanual, J o:Jrnal of Hydraulics Di'f., Proc , ASCE, 1966.
22 Shields, A., "Anevendung der und der
Turbulenzforschung aut Preussische
Versuch"eanstalt fur Wasserbau and Schiffbau, Berlin, 1936.
23 "Studies of River Bed and their Movement, with SpeCial
reference to the Lower Hississippi River, Of Paper 110. 17, U.5.
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi,
January 1935.
24 White, C. 11., ''The Equilibrium of Grains on the bed of a Stream,"
Proc, Royal Society (A), Vol. 174,
PHOTOS AND FIGURES
62
63
Photo 1 (a) The photograph shows the flume used
in this flume is
3 ft. wide, 1.25 ft.! deep and 50 ft.
long. The picture shows also the
flume inlet, tail control, and the
point gauges used for measuring the
water surface elevations bed elevations,
and velocity profiles.
Photo 1 (b) This photograph taken from a point
near the surface illustrates the
characteristics of the bed material.
-
64
65
i I
. I i
i I I
j-1t
-I i I
! !
I !
I - - i - I - - - ~ -
i
!
I
I
10
!W!
17
Shielcis' Diagram for Critical Shear Stress Fig. 1
b. Sand (Casey)
\l Sand (USWES)
<> Sand (Kramer)
o Amber
1.0....--------,.---,-----;--.-.,.-,,----,----,--.,.--,-,
.01 '--_....L-_-L_L.......JI-L.__.l.-._-'----'-.....i-...:.----'-_----'_-'--""--4
1.0
w
Fig. 2 White's Model
y
66
Fig. 3 An Exposed Grain subjected to Hydrodynamic
Forces
Flow
w
Fig. 4 Bed Embodiment Model
Mean bed
level
Cubical domain
Fig. 5

Diagrammatic representation of Probability of Movement p - Triple

Integral - Eq, (26)
.1
.01

I
!
1
I
~
I
I
i
I
I
I
I
.L
I"-
I
I
I
I
-+-
:
I
.--
-j-
I
---
f
-1
I
I
~
-
-1-
I I
I I
-
;.:::::.:;;;;- r
-
l
'-
-
~ ------
-
I !--:.-:----:....--
III
/
~
1 ~ ~ - - ~
' - I ~
~
V
I"-
~ -
I
!--
I
~
~
./
I
I
-:
I
. -- _._-f-
-'--
----- --- v
----
".,.......
-
.---
~
;;;:::
I---
-'
~
---
--
-----.
---
~ -
~
t:
-------
___ f....-
----- --
...--
--
'--
-- --- I-
~ - - ~ _ .
-
... . _.- . ~ . _ -
~ _ ..~ _ . _._- - ._- _..... _. - .. _- -- _. - -_.. _-- _.-
Fig. 6 Variation of Probabll Ity of MovementI I> I with Instantaneous Dlmenslonless Bed Shear, T.
10
.1
.04
1
10
0
I I
.--
..__..
4-
--.. _._--
V-
I--- f-.
I-- ...
1-1- -
I--"

V-
t-
1--. f--f- f- I-
-_.
/
---
I
I
-+-- ...--
:::::---
- .. - _.-.
I
/
---
/
r--j---
L...- .r: ./
- f-- f- .
I
Y
I
_.
I-
-. V
-1-
-

l--
I

--_. __ , ..
--
--_. "'-
---- - --1---
_.
._- -
I

I
.- .-.
----- -
._--
--I-
-.. - . - - ..... - . .. _.. - -_.-.
I f----f--- _.
--- ..-
l--- I
-.-.. - .._-
_.
.1
.2
1 -2
.1
.04 -5
10
.01
Po
Fig. 7 Variation of Probability of Movement,
Po' with Dimenslonless Bed Shear
-+---1-- ._... --------.. -
2 .----. ..
4 --- .----- ...- ..._-
3
- ..-]-. --_.. --.... ---r.- .-...-.._0_._..
- -- _._- 0 1
i
I
1 ... o . - _ - _ - ---1".. - .. .... __0.- t_- ---
:: -- 1--. J -:l :-- ->L- .
0*
.5
.4
.3
.2
--3-
ftf

IJ----T-- -j r-r- .T
...
-T

,.. .. ., ._- .. --- ..
J---I
_,. _. _.. _.. . '" __ _ M ._
-1
-
.. _... _-- -. . . .
-
0' .. _.
1_
- .-- .0-
r-- .- --- ._- -- ...-
- r-..
--
-
I I I I
I
I I I I
Fig. 9 Variation of qs. wIth T0* IEq. (60) with A 8 1)
I
I
-r--
J-_.. _--
I
I
--r
I
-.,J
I
,-'
30 40 60 80 100
i
I
1. _
l_i.__
I
1
2 3 4 6 8 10 20
Size d (mm)
Fig_ 10 Size Distribution of Bed Material
I
--- i--- j.
. i I
I ' ,
80 _-+-_: 1_
I i
I ! :
--_._--. __._----_..
100

e
CIl
o
1----+----1----- -
g I
-:E 60 -.-_ .. - ------....
I i I ;

, : I I
5
4 3
4
2
3
1
4
2
3
.1
Velocity u - ft/sec
--I1 -- .--- '---;o-tion 26- --,
-[ . - j .: ' --I - .' ",' !
I.'! 1;,' -------,
I I ei __e__1
1
------ - -----1------ I
I, I
2
1
4 5
2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4
VelocIty u - ft/sec
FIg. 11 Velocity Profiles at VarIous Statlons showIng Growth of Boundary Layer

I
---_.----- )- .
I
I
- -------,-
J
I
0.2
0.1
1
QI 0.5
u
c
.g 0 4
o
0.3
.,
d = 2.5 mm Run No. 26
_ ... , ----1--- 1.65
I
I I
I i
r
- .1 ..--_.- ~ --- 1.63
Sw = 0.Op165
I
.---', '", I
I
I
~ . 1 61
.-.-_..--_. -1- "- .
\ ,
\ I
, :
't.:.. J ",
.. I
, ..f
,
\ . ~
. \
." - \
\
\
- ~
\. -
1.65
....
e
'0
c..
Ol
c:
:a
~ 1.45 ------ ---- .\.". __L....
s
C>
1.41 1-----+---.--+
1, = 0.0021
5 10
15 20 25 30
x - ft
FIg. 12 Water Surface and Bed Profiles
35
.04-
Fig. 13
..
2.5 mm Uniform
7.95 mm Uniform
.22.2 mm Uniform
.22.2 mm (J = 1.5
... 22.2 mm (J = 2.73
11
__ --.- - - - I - - - I - . j - - t - - - t - - - I - - ~ - J . - . j . . --+---I,..-+--H ~
10-
4
10-
3
Bed Load Transport qs (Ibs/ft/hr)
Variation of Bed load Tronseer! with R..t! C:h..n.
._-

11
o
o
I
o
d = 2.5 mm
"d=222 mm
ad= 795 mm
I I I I
I
I I I I -:- I' I I I T
" " " " "v"
-7-" 1I.__J----a-\',.-L-rf-.!:-
.,._ o. D CD
- c
1-1--1---I--1-JJ __-L
1. .
10-
7
qs. 10-
6
Variation of Bed L d T 00 ronsport at Low Sheor Values Fie. 14
I I
I
-'
I
I
I
'I
I
m
lB
lI
l1
TT
IIlI I!J 11 .lrJjJ
0
ID
qs... <I(
T 16
I
C...
IQ 0
a
0

I
-_.- .
-
._..
-- -
_....
.- ---<
-_.
..- - .- --
0*
.02
.011--
-
-
10
-10
Fig. 15
qs* \0-1
Variation of Bed Load Tron!port ot High Shear Values
10
qs*
Fig_ 16 VarIation of qs* with T
0*
,.

qs
FIg. 17 ComparIson with Other Bed Load Formulae
..
.03
.07
.06
.05
.04

--- -
I
-_..
-
..--._-
I.. --
_.. _.-
---1---
....
I-
..... ..
! ._--L.__' L.__
G

.- .. ..
c. ___
r--- --_.-
-
.. .. --_.
--
..
---
...
..- .. ..-.
-- -
.. -_._..---_._- -_._---
Q,.o
I( ....... - -----.- -----._.
_. ..
---- .-..
----- --------
'--
-_._._- ._._---
___M
_. __..--.
_.._----
------------ --_. ._--
- --
.. .. ..._...
- -_ ... .__._-----
------ .-
._-_.
.._--
d = 7. 95 mm
10 20 30 40 50
qs - Ib/ft/hr
60 70 80
._-----_.
-- I
o
,. . 0 __--- 0
c _e-----.o
_...,.,..;:::o=-- -- - - -
d = 2.5 mm
10 20 30 40 50
qs - lbs/ft/hr
Fig. 18 Determination of Critical Shear Stress
60 70
--+-.--4.--- _.- --I---f--
ioU
------1-- ,-
I
I
--- - _._- ~ ~ - . ~
-- L. _
I
././,,...----t--+--I-1- _._-J
J ~ r + l - --t--t-;
Nell
o Mavls
V Bonneville
"i1 Schaffernak
o Meyer-Peter
g Shields
Cl Gilbert
ID Kramer
o Newton
A Indrl
(Xl
o
Mean Stone Size d (ft)
Fig. 19 'Critical' Boundary Shear at Incipient Movement
APPENDIX
EXPE:RIMENTAL DATA
- ------------------
81
",
i.A.F.H.L..JIalnta1 SlBe d- 22.2 111111, MateriAl, Uniform
!un. No.
D U Fr !1, Sw Se
T
qa Duration T0* qs*
efa ft. ft/sec
.1bs/ft/hr. hrs.
1. 2.5 .31.5 2.65 0.82 0.0092.5 0.0067.5 0.00846 0.158 0.0133 3.5 .021 1.5.5 x 10-
7
2 3.0 .)4.5 2.90 0.87 0.0092.5 0.0074 0.0088 0.1785 0.0167 4.0 .02)8 1.9.5
)(
) ).5 .)75 ).11 0.88 0.00925 0.0070 0.00874 0.195 0.010) 8 .026 1.2
y. 1:)-7
4 ).9 .41 ).18 0.885 0.00925 0.00725 0.00882 0.211 0.0086 11 .0281 1. x 10-
7
5
4.6 .433 3.42 0.918 0.00925 0.00712 0.225 0.0041 28.5 .030 4.78
x 10-
8
6 5.0 .481 ).48 0.883 0.00925 0.0070 0.00875 0.244 0.0218 10.25 .0)27 2.,54 x 10-
7
7 5.5 .49 ).7) 0.9)8 0.00925 0.0070 0.00887 0.251 0.064 6.66 .03)8 7.48 x 10-
7
8 6.0 .52 ).85 0.941 0.00925 0.00725 0.009101 0.271 0.077 2.6 .0)62 9. x 10-
7
9 6.5 .5)5 4.06 0.976 0.00925 0.0070 0.00914 0.278 0.193 3 .0372 2.25 x 10-
6
10 7.0 .560 4.16 0.980 0.00925 0.0067 0.00915 0.29 0.196 4.)3 .0)87 2.29 x 10-
6
11 7.6 .60 4.22 0.961 0.00925 0.0065 .00905 0.)0) 0.)6 6.0 .0405 4.2 x 10-
6
12 8.0 .612 4.35 0.976 0.00925 0.00675 0.00912 0.)09 0.42) 6.0 .0412 4.94
x 10-
6
1) 9.0 .665 4.52 0.976 0.00925 0.0065 0.00912 0.3)) 1.06 4.25 .01145 1.2)5 x 10-5
.ll
1\J
,
:.A.F.R.L. - :Paint&! Size d- 22.2 mm, Mixture, Standard deviation - 1.5
Q D U Fr
~ S"
Se TO qs Duration
T 0* qs*
tun No. ers ft ft/sec lbs/rt
2
lbs/ft/hr. hrs.
14 4.7 0.47 3.33 .855 .01 .0105 .0103 .28 .31 2.0 .0373 3 ~ 6 1 x 10-
6
15 4.5 0.47 3.2 .82 .0082.5 .0092.5 .0086 .238 .34 9.0 .0317 3.97 x 10-
6
16
5.5 0.52 3.53 .864- .00825 .0093 .0086 .259 .5 3.0 .0346 5.84 x 10-
6
17 6.5 0.54 3.55 .85 .0090 .01 .00925 .29 .557 4.0 .0387 6.5
x 10-
6
18 7.6 0.605 4.17
.945 .0090 .0095 .0091 .307 1.23 6.0 .0411 1.43 x 10-.5
19 8.5 0.655 4.32 .942 .0090 .01 .0091 .323 2.25 3.5 .0432 2.63 x 10-
5
20 4.6 0.47 3,26 .836 .0095 .00625 .0086 .241 .56 4.5 .0322
6 -6
.78 x 10
21 6.5 0.575 3.76 .874 .00925 .01 .00943 .313 4.38 6.0 .042
51
x 10-
5
22 8.5 0.63 4.5 1.0 .0095 .012 .0095 .342 16 2.5 .046 18.65 x 10-
5
S.A.F.H.L Pnintal Size d- 22.2 mm, Mixture, Standard dev1at10n - 2.73
Q r V F
r
Sb Sw
Se
To q Duration
T
qs*
Run No. efs ft. ft/see lbs/sq.rt. lbs /ftfiu:. hrs.
0*
C 23 3.a .455 2.78 .728 0.0085 0.00125 0.0079 .216 .51 4.16
.029 5.95 x 10.
6
24 4.76 .515 3.08 .15.5 0.0095 0.008 0.00885 .264 .6 12.0 .0355 1
x 10.
6
25 5.6 .515 3.25 .155 0.0090 0.0085 0.00818 .295 2.0 4.75 .0396 2.33 x 10.
5
26 6.7 .61 3.61 .63 0.0085 0.0080 0.00833 .291 .98 2.5 .0391 1.14 x 10-
5
21 1.7 .66 3.90 .845 0.009 0.0075 0.00856 .322 3.9 2.5 .0432 4.55 x 10.
5
28 8.2 .10 3.90 .822 0.00875 0.00775 0.00825 .332 13.1 1.6 .0446 1.53 x 10-4
29 3.6 .43 2.79 .75 0.00825 0.0105 o.00()ll-9 . 2 / ~ 3 1.7 3.0 .0326 1.98 x 10-
5
30 4.6 .51 3.0 .738 0.0090 0.009 0.0090 .270 3.6 3.0 .036 4.2 x 10-
5
31 5.5 .56 3.27 .77 0.0090 0.01 0.00911-1 .307 5.1 2.33 .0412 5.95 x 10-
5
32 7.6 .62 4.08 .915 0.0100 .01 .01 .352 20. 1 .0472 2.3:3 x 10-4
..
,A.F.H,L. - Paintal Size d- 7.95 l1II1lJ Uniform material

y
V Fr
Sb Sw . Se TO

Duration
1'0* qs*
.11'1 No. eft ft ft/sec lbs/ft
2
hrs.
1 2.0 0.266 2.5 .855 .0049 .0047 .00487 .0752 .0283 6.5 .028 1.,54 x 10-
6
2 .92 0.176 1.74.5 .734 .O()lf9 .Q()lI4.5 .0047 .0495 .0003 2.0 .0185 1.6) x 10-
8
3
2.0 0.281 2.370 .792 .0049 .004) .00468 .0768 .00915 2.75 .0288 4.98 x 10-
7
4 1.3 0.222 1.97 .74 .0049 .0049 .0646 .00377 1.75 .0241 2.05 x 10-
7
5 2.5 0.32 2.60 .808 .0049 .0046 .0048 .0900 .1075 .90 .0335 5.85 x 10-
6
6 0.92 0,144 2.13 .985 .0049 .0040 .00487 .0419 .000)15 5.75 .0158 1.71 x 10-
8
7 1.50 0.214 2.34 .89 .0049 .00435 .0048 .00138 1.3 .0222
7.5
X 10-
8
8 2.6 0.35 3.48 .728 .0049 .0020 .00352 .0704 .036 1.0 .0268 1.96 x 10-
6
9 3.0 .356 2.81 .824 .0049 .00365 .O()lf53 .0918 .050 0.9 .0)/14 2.72 x 10-
6
10 1.65 .251 2.2 .77 .0049 .0040 .00453 .0716 .00072 2.0 .0268
-8
3.92 x 10
11 2.15 .29'. 2.44 .79 .0049 .0040 .00455 .0775 .0040 1.8 .0292 2.18 x 10-
7
12 2.80 .338 2.76 .838 .0055 .0045 .0052 .101 .350 0.83 .0377 1.9
x 10-5
13 3.20 .368 2.90 .84 .0055 .0044.5 .0052 .11 1.2 0.83 .()lHZ .00006.5'1-
14 3.60 3.0 .834 .0055 .0032,5 .0047 .106,5 .418 0.66 .0398 2.27 x 10-,5 Si
15 3.2 .38 2.8 .8 .0055 .0029 .0045 .0975 .0485 3.25 .0365 2.64 x 10-
6
16 1.1 .151 2.43 1.1 .00,5,5 .00445 .00572 .0,506 .000,565 18.0 .0189 3.07 X 10-
8
17 3.6 .L.o8 2.94 .61 .0049 4.3:3 1.0 .046
.Jl.
.0055 .123 2.36 x 10

S.h.F.U.L. - Pa1nta1 Size d- 7.95 mm, Uniform material

Q
y
V Fr

Sw Se
r
Duration
qa*
0

r 0*
Run No. era ft. ft/aee Iba/rt
2
hra.
D- 18 4.2 .438 3.20 .85 .00.5.5 .0049 .00.53.5 .1321 .5.0 0.75 .09.5
2.72 x 10-4
19 1.05 .188 1.86 .762 .0055 .00)8 .00478 .05)6 .000486 21 .0201 2.66 x 10-
8
20 0.92 .175 1.75 .739 .0045 .0041 .00487 .0510 .000053 17 .0191 2.88 x 10-
9
21 2.7 .28 ).1 1.0) .0095 .0089 .0096 .1585 20.0 0.25 .059) .00109
22 3.1 .)06 ).)8 1.07 .0095 .0086 .0096 .17) 82 0.2 .0648 .00446
2)
2.75 .284 3.22 1.06
.0095 .00752 .0096 .1.595 12.67 0.5 .0598 .000688
24 .86 .14 2.0.5 .96.5 .008.5 .01 .0086 .073 .00171 1.7.5 .0273 6.81 x 10-
8
25 .90 .152 1.975 .890 .0085 .00722 .0081 .0745 .00069 7.0 .0278 2.75 x 10-
8
26 1.0 .16 2.08 .915 .0085 .0062 .0080) .0775 .000606 1).0 .029 ).) x 10-
8
27 1.0 .174 1.92 .81 .0085 .0068 .0079 .08) .00081 17.0 .0)1 4.41 x 10-
8
28
.50 1.77 1.02 .0085 .0075 .0086 .0000:379 48.0 .0184 2.06 x 10-
9
29 .98 .144 2.27 1.05 .0085 .0060 .00858 .074 .00485 4.0 .0277 2.64 x 10-
7
)0 1i5 .)025 1.64 .527 .00195 .00245 .002)2 .041 .000)82 22.0 .015) 2.08 x 10-
8
)1 1.3 .267 1.62 . 55
.00195 .00275 .00251 .0)82 .00040 4.5 .014) 2.18 x 10-
8
Cl>
)2 1.0 .259 1.285 .446 .00195 .0021 .00207 .0)20 .000018 40.0 .012 .98 x 10-
9'"
)) 1.35 .284 1.584 .525 .00195 .002)7 .00226 .0)74 .0000,54 72.0 .014 2.94 x 10-
9
YI- 1.60 .)) 1.615 .495 .00195 .0030 .00274 .0538 .0006 22.0 .020) 3.2.5 x 10-
8
-----,.__..._._--_...._----
"
\.F.H.L. - Paintal - Size d-2., mm, Uniform material
Q
y
V FI-
Sb Sw Se TO
1bS/f1im-
Duration
T 0* CJ.
s
1 No. efa ft ft/see Ibs/sq/ft. hrs.
1 2.5 0.393 2.12 0.595 .002 .00175 .001811- .0398 7.5 1.0 -.0475 .00231
2 2.08 0.358 1.93 0.568 .0011 ~ 0 0 1 4 0 .001:34 .0263 .39 1.83 .0314 .00012
3 1.53 0.313 1.63 0.514 .0012 . 0 0 1 / ~ 5 .00138 .0243 .022 1.0 .0290 .678 y. 10-5
4 1.035 0.271 1.27 0.430 .0025 3.83 .0218 .??
x 10-
6
5 2.875 0.401 2.38 0.661. 16 1.0 .0507 .004811-
6 2.14 0.330 2.16 0.660 .11 3.0 .0305 .0000339
7 2.25 0.366 2.04 0.590 3.66 2.0 .0478 .00111
8 2.7 O.tfOO 2.25 0.626 22 1.0 .0555 .00678
9 3.0 0.424 2.36 0.638 :34.6 .53 .0562 .01065
10 2.0 0.334 2.00 0.610
2.5 .80 .0380 .00077
11 2.8 0.403 2.32 0.642
34 .60 .0527 .0105
12 1.35 0.270 1.60 0.,544 .00185 .00140 .00153 .0236 .0093 4.0 .0279 2.86 x 10-
6
13 2.2.5 0.372 2.02 0.5811- .0018.5 .0013.5 .00152 .0310 1.835 2.,5 .0368 .000565
14
3.7 0.519 2.38 0.583 .0018.5 .00145 .00158 .0434 33.1 0.6 .0515 .0102
15 3.1 0.486 2.13 0.538 .0020 .00115 .0014 .0364 19.3 1.0 .0432 .00595 ~
16 4.1 0.549 2.50 0.594 .00187 .0015 .00163 .0468 70 0.36 .0555 .0216
17 4.6 0.585 2.62 0.604 .0020 .0020 .0020 .0621 120 0.275 .0738 .0:37
.A.F.H.L. - Paintal - Size d
a2.5
mm, Uniform
Q
y
V Fr
Sb Sw Se "0

Duration
r 0* qs
un No. cfe ft ft/sec Ibs/sq/ft hrs
,
1 2.5 0.393 2.12 0.595 .002 .00175 00184 .0398 7.,5 1.0 '.0475 .00231 ,-
2 2.08 0.358 1.93 0.568 .0011 .00140 .00134 .0263 .39 1.83 .0314 .00012
3 1.53 0.313 1.63 0.514 .0012 .00138 .0243 .022 1.0 .0290 .678 y. 10-,5
4 1.035 0.271 1.27 0.4:30 .00115 .0012 .00117 .018:3 .0025 3.83 .0218 .77
x 10-
6
5
2.875 0.401 2.38 .0012 .00205 .00163 .0424 16 1.0 .0,507 .00484
6 2.14 0.330 2.16 0.660 .00175 .0012 .00144 .0255 .11 :3.0 .0305 .0000:339
7 2.25 0.:366 2.04 0.590 .00175 .002 .00191 .040 3.66 2.0 .0478 .00111
8 2.7 oAoo 2.25 0.626 .00175 .0023 .0021 .0465 22 1.0 .0555 .00678
9 :3.0 0.424 2.36 0.638 .00165 .0022 .00202 .0471 34.6 .53 .0562 .01065
10 2.0 0.334 2.00 0.610 .00165 .00175 .00172 .0318 2.5 .80 .0380 .00077
11 2.8 2.32 0.642 .00165 .00225 .0020 .0442 34 .60 .0527 .0105
12 1.35 0.270 1.60 0.544 .00185 .00140 .0015:3 .0236 .0093 4.0 .0279 2.86 x 10-
6
1:3 2,25 0,:372 2.02 0.584 ,00185 ,001:3,5 ,00152 .0:310 1,8:35 2,5 ,0:368 .000565
14
:3.7 0.519 2.38 0.583 .0018,5 .0014,5 .00158 .0434 :33.1 0.6 .0515 .0102
15 3.1 0.486 2.1:3 0.,538 .0020 .00115 .0014 .0364 19.3 1.0 .0432 .00595
16 4.1 0.549 2.50 0.594 .00187 .0015 .00163 .0466 70 0.36 .0555 .0216
17 4.6 0.585 2.62 0.604 .0020 .0020 .0020 .0621 120 0.275 .0738 .0:37

A.F.H.L. - Painta1 - Size d 2., nun, Uniform material

Q
y
V Pr Sb Sw Se
1bS/fiim-
Duration
T
qs*
TO
0*
.In No. efe ft ft/sec 1be/sq./ft hrs.
.
18 3.4 2.34 0.588 .0021 .0017.5 .00187 .049.5 46.1 0.60 .0586 .0142
19 0.57 0.138 1.37.5 0.6.5 .00175 .0011.5 .0014 .0112 .000073 4.5 .0133 2.2.5 x 10-
8
20 0.6.5 0.163 1.32 0.57,5 .0017.5 .0013 .0014,5 .0143 .000476 3.5 .0169 1.4!tix 10-
7
21 0.80 0.187 1.42 0.,580 .0017.5 .001.5 .00159 .0173 .0008,5 6.0 .020.5 2.62 x 10-
7
22 1.0 0.230 1.4,5 0.532 .0017.5 .0019 .00186 .0249 .029 6.0 .029.5 8.94 x 10-
6
23 0.094
-
.0017.5 .0015 .0016 .00938 .0000096,53.0 .011 2.96 x 10-
9
24 0.6 0.138 1.4,5 .686 .0017.5 .0016 .00167 .0144 .000074 47 .0163
-8
2.29 x 10
2.5 0.10,5
-
.0017.5 .001,5 .00160 .010.5 .0000<Jl.8 69 .0124 1.485x 10-
9
26 0.8 0.199 1.33 .,52,5 .0021 .0016,5 .0223 .000,584 23.2,5 .0264 1.81 x 10-
7
27 1.64 .615 .0226 .,54 x 10
-6
1.20 0.220 .0021 .0011.5 .00153 .0191 .0017.5 23.5
28 1.36 0.273 1.67 .,56 .0021 .0014 .00162 .0269 .0472 3.5 .0319 1.46 x 10-
5
29 0.124
-
.0021 .00135 .00162 .0126 .000085 25.5 .0149 2.63 x 10-
8
30 0.92 0.220 1.4 .,52 .0021 .00175 .00185 .024 .01835 17.5 .565 x 10-.5
31 0.0.53
-
.0021 .001? .0018.5 .00616 .OOO<X1l67 2.5.0 .00728 .515 x 10-
9
eo
32 0.60 0.151 1.32 .60 .0021 .0021; .00213 .0193 .000,54.5 22.0 .0229 1.69 x 10-
7
eo
33 0.90 0.189 1.58.5 .644 .0021 .0022 .00216 .0239 .00978 4.0 .0284 3.02 x 10-
6
34 0.56 0.129 1i45 .703 .0021 .0020 .00ZO,5 .01,56 .0000808 4.5.0 .0184 2.5
x 10-
8
CASEI Size d .:::'2.45 mm; Unigranular
Rei'. Run Cl D U
Se
fi, -ro qs
DJration
't"* qs*
No. cc/soc Cm emlseo cm grmns/cm
2
grmns/cm/sec Hirmtes
J9 56000 20.65 67.6 .00129 14.61 .0188 .062 14 .0465 .00635
20 57600 21.9 66.0 .00126 15.7 .0201 .079 2105 .0495 .006ll
21 49200 18.7 65.7 .00140 13.78 .0J93 .038 32 .0476 .00295
1:200 9 6000 3.35 44.7 .00499 3.16 .0158 .00024 15 .039 .0000186
10 6900 3.60 47.8 .00499 3.37 .0168 .00079 15 .0415 .0000612
II 6710 3.53 47.4 .00494 3.31 .0165 .00079 17 .0406 .0000612
12 7620 3.65 1.:9.3 .00491 3059 .0180 .01553 23 .0434 .00ll8
13 9170 4.26 53.6 .00496 3.94 .0195 .015167 16 .0462 .cous
14 10600 4.65 56.8 .00505 4.27 .0216 .189 19 .058 .0102
15 12500 5 . ~ 6 60.4 .00498 4.70 .0234 .132 19 .058 .0102
16 14700 5.61 63.1 .00500 5.26 .0264 .352 1h .0655 .0273
17 16600 6.76 69.1 .00509 6.05 .0307 .595
122,5 .0762 .046
18 moo 4.73 58.4 .00506 4.33 .0219 .1236 1105 .05111 . 00956
J9 9380 4.16 56.1 .00502 3.03 .0193 .0197 llS .0577 .0158
20 8000 3.76 52.7 .00509 3.51 .0179 .0784 16 .0444 .00608
21 6110 3.24 41.5 .00496 3.06 .0151 .0152 12.$ .0372 .00118
22 41,0 2.12 43.5 .00496 2.51 .01215 .0091 6 .0315 .000705
CD
\D
1:400 9 9300 ,.30 43.1 .002$ 4.61 .012 .00069 16 .0297 .0000536
10 moo 5.82 47.5 .00251 5.11 .0128 .00069 32 .0317 .0000535

CASEY Size d -:::. 2.45 1lUll; Un.1.grnnulnr

Rei'. Run Q D U S ~
~
2
qs
Duration
'1;* . qs*
No. cc/sce Cm cm/:::ec
e
cm groms/cm groms/cm/sec Hinutos
18 21900 9.22 59.2 .00251 7.88 .0198 .1186 15 .049 .0092
19 23200 9.51 60.9 .00256 8.09 .0207 .1326
"
.051 .0102
20 25000 9.61 63.5 .00290 0.39 .0242 .1960 19.5 .0598 .0152
21 17000 7.09 56.4 .0024 6.79 .0162 .0550 18.5 .0hO .00h26
22 17700 7.96 55.5 .00253 6.91 .0175 .053 16-5 .0432 .0041
23 20200 8.06 56.0 .00249 7.60 .0190 .0675 17 .0469 .00678
24 23000 9.61 59.6 .00252 8.21 .0207 .140 14.5 .0511 .0108
25 24400 9.84 61.9 .00250 R.31 .0208 .26 12 .0514 .0202
26 32700 12.18 67.0 .00250 10.04 .0251 .102 17.5 .062 .0141
27 41300 13.79 74.7 .00250 10.94 .0273 .583 12 .0672 .01152
1:800 9 22600 11.70 40.2 .00125 9.58 .0119 .00091 16 .0294 .0000705
10 26300 12.811 51.0 .00130 10.11 .0135 .0039 13 .0334 .000302
11 29600 13.86 53.3 .00130 11.05 .0144 .00679 14.5 .0356 .000253
12 32000 14.74 54.1 .00123 11.55 .0142 .00698 11.5 .035 .00054
13 35000 15.66 55.8 .00120 12.04 .0153 .00704 14.5 .0378 .000545
14 38500 16.55 58...0 .00119 12.47 .0155 .00994 16.5 .0383 .00077
15 hllooo 17.50 62.5 .0012 12.76 .0].44 .0206 17 .0356 .0016
16 47500 18.27 64.9 .00123 13.05 .0160 .035 14.5 .0395 .00272 \D
0
17 118900 18.76 65.0 .00119 13.27 .0158 .035 14.5 .039 .00272
18 52500 19.42 67.5 .00125 13.62 .0170 .061 14.5 .042 .00472
CASEY Size d =. 2.45 mm; Unigranulor
Ref. Run Q D U
Se
11>
~ 2
qs
D.l1'ation
T.tt qs*
No. cc/see em em/see cm gra:no/cm grams/cm/see :Hinutes
II 12300 6.27 40.9 .00250 5.58 .0139 .00259 15-5 .0344 .000197
12 lL400 6.67 53.0 .00250 5.83 .0146 .olL6 17 .0,361 .00ll3
13 15300 7.37 51.0 .00251 6.49 .01625 .0305 15.5 .0402 .00243
14 16600 7.71 53.7 .00245 6.72 .0165 .045 15 .0409 .00356
15 17400 7.97 54.5 .00248 6.94 .0172 .049 lL .0425 .00,388
16 18800 8.34 56.3 .00248 7.21 .0179 .0638 .35 .0442 .0050,3
17 20,000 8.72 57.2 .00249 7.51 .0186 .08,32 17.5 .046 .00658
.,
U.S.\o1.E.S. Size d ""0.6911llll1;
UnigrllIlUlar
Ref. Run
qs ~ o , . . qs*
1'10. Q D U
Se
1\
::"0
Dura.tion
cc/sec Cm cm/soc cm grrons/cm
2
grcma/cm/sec Ninutcs
1 1 666$ 7.6$ 37.16 .001 6.2 .0062 .0].447
)0 .0544 .006:15
2 6665 7.68 :n.01 .001 6.24 .00624 .0132 30 .0548 .00568
3
8665 7.65 37.16 .001 6.20 .0062 .010 30 .0544 .00427
4 8665 7.68 37.08 .001 6.24 .00624 .012 30 .0$48 .00$12
$ 0665 7.65 37.16 .001 6.20 .0062 .011 30 .0544 .0047
2 1 23418 16.97 51.34 .001 10.33
.Oll2 .093
)0 .098 .0397
3 23418
16.92 45.42 .001 12.56 .0092 .16 30 .0605 .0664
4
23416 17.43 44.07 .001 13.14
.0088 .08 30 .0771 .033
5-6 23418 1'(.59 43.69 .001 13.35
.0087 .086 30 .0761 .0325
3
1 38766 22.71 $6.01 .001 lh.72 .0124 .129 30 .109 .055
2 38766 26.45 48.63 .001 18.75 .0102 .096 30 .084 .041
") 30766 26.85 47.36 .001 19.55
.00985 .098 30 .0864 .0418
4 38766
26.91 47.26 .001 19.60 .0098 .057 30 .0858 .0245
5
30766 27.10 46.94 .001 19.81 .0097 .079 30 .085 .0338 \0
I\)
U.S.\o/.E.S. Size d -:=0.976 1lIIlI, Unigranu1ar
nef. Run
~ No. Q D U S
't"o 2 qs
Dura.tion T
o tt
cc/sec cm cm/sec
e
cm
gI'lIIlIS/cm grlllllS/cm/sec
qs*
Hinutes
4 1 8665 7.56 37.61 .001 6.1 .0061 .00579 ,30 .0379 .00116
2 8665 7.59 37.46 .001 6.13 .00613 .00537 )0 .0392 .00164
3 8665 7.59 ,37.46 .001 6.1,3 .0061,3 .00579 30 .0,381 .00177
4 8665 7.62 :37 .,31 .001 6.17 .00617 .00579 30 .0383 .00177
5
8665 7.62 37.31 .001 6.17 .00617 .00744 .30 .0)82 .00228
5 1 2)!tJ.8 15.15 50.72 .001 10.58 .01058 .05663 30 .0625 .017.35
2 2,3!tl8 17.1,3 1I4.85 .001 12.64 .01284 .02232 ,30 .0798 .00675
3 23418 17.13 44.85 .001 12.64 .01264 .0215 30 .0790 .0066
4 23418 17.07 45.01 .001 12.74 .01274 .04175 JO .079 .0128
5 2.3!t18 17.25 44.5,3 .001 12.96 .01296 .04547 JO .0805 .01.41
6-7 23418 12.37 44.22 .001 as.ri .01,311 .07069 30 .0815 .0217
6 1 )8766 22.52 56.46 .001 14.53 .0145,3 .096,32 ,30 .0905 .0295
2 38766 26.0 48.92 .001 18.58 .01858 .096.32 ,30 .116 .0295
3 38766 26.76 47.52 .001 19.!tJ. .0194 .07,317 30 .121 .0226 \0
VI
4 36766 27.07 116.99 .001 19.78 .0198 .05994 30 .121 .0180
5'
38766 26.86 47.31 .001 20.08 .0200 .07,317 ,30 .124 .0225
U.S.\oI.E.S. Size d :::. 4.07 mmj Natural 11.ixture
Ref. Run
~
"'Co qll
110. Q D U
Se
Duration
'0.... qs*
cc/sec Cm cm/sec cm grams/cm
2
grOJntJ/cm/sec 11:1.nutell
3$ 1$ 294$0 7.38 $6.6 .003 6.71 .0202 .00041 60 .0298 .0000148
16 3$ll3 8.23 60"2 .003 7.41 .0222 .00248 60 .0332 .000089
17 40766 9.30 62.19 .003 8.33 .02$ .00413 60 .0372 .000149
18 47997 10.42 6$.34 .003 9.2$ .0278 .00661 4$ .0416 .000236
19 5$020 11.$2 67.75 .003 10.16 .030$ .0062 45 .0456 .000223
20 62063 13.$3 6$.9 .003 11.99 .036 .08.39 45 .054 .00302
36 15 27184 6.8,3 56.45 .004 6.33 .02$3 .00331 60 .0377 .OOOll9
16 32969 7.66 60.93 .0011 7.06 .0282 .0095 60 .042 .000342
17 38228 8.38 64.71 .004 7.63 .0305 .0682 60 .0456 .002117
18 43891 9.20 67.67 .004 6.33 .0333 .0996 40 .050 .00.358
19 48280 9.97 60.69 . .004 9.0 .0.360 .1.347 .30 .,45 .00485
37 1$ 26759 6.46 $8.76 .0045 6.01 .027 .00207 50 .040.3 .0000745
16 31432 7.07 63.06 .0045 6.,2 .0293 .01364 60 .0435 .000492
17 34457 7.71 6.3.$6 .0045 7.10 .0,32 .0,3266 60 .0$76 .00ll6
18 40493 6.60 66.79 .004$ 7.66 .0.35.3 .0905,3 30 .0531 .00325
19 47289 9.57 70.09 .0045 8.69 .039 .1645 30 .0565 .0059
'i
20 55161 10.7 73.12 .0045 9.66 .0113 .2158 22 .065 .00778
21 63033 12.19 73.35 .0045 10.99 .0495 .1802 20 .074 .00657
GILBERT Size d'; 0.)05 IlIIIIj Unigranulnr
Ref. Run Q D U
Se
lb To
qs
Duration
~
qs*
1!0. cc/sec cm cm/sec cm grnms/cm
2
grnms/cm/sec Hinutes
4Jl. 1 2633 1.90 66.00 .0122 1.14 .041 1.19 5 .94 2.1
.3 5:154 3.04 66.12 .0069 3.0B .02.31 .09 10 .462
4 5:154 2.9 ee.se .0159 2.84 .011 4.11 4 1.54 8.4
5 15433 0.29 92054 .0055 1.99 .0355 2.00 5 .11 5.6
7 5:154 3.6 41.0 .0053 3.26 .013 .31 10 .26 .546
9 10219 5.33 63.22 .0042 4.42 .019 .62 8 .30 1.09
11 2011.15 0.05 84.73 .0044 7.83 .03 1.67 4 .60 2.94
13 5154 2.77 46.10 .0063 2.62 .013 .30 10 .26 .528
14 5154 2.56 50.02 .0015 2.41 .0156 .45 10 .312 .192
15 5154 2.29 56.02 .001) 2.13 .0183 .42 10 .366 .74
16 5154 2.114 52.52 .0019 2.29 .0168 .52 8 .336 .915
11 5151, 1.92 66.72 .0099 1.80 .0246 .94 6 .49 1.6l1
18 5154 1.11 12.45 .011 1.65 .0295 1.27 5 .59 2.24
19 5154 1.86 6B.BB .0131 1.14 .029 1.69 5 SB 2.98
20 5154 1.83 10.04 .01l11 1.71 .0)25 1.81 5 .65 3.19
23 10219 5.82 43.89 .0021 5.21 .01 .22 0 .20 .381
24 10219 3.78 61.6 .0051 3.32 .022 .94 6 .44 1.64
25 10219 3.51 12.88 .0058 3.05 .025 1.02
5 .50 1.1.10
'-D
26 10219 3.41 74.83 .0067 3.02 .0275 1.07 5 .55 1.80
\1l

GILBERT Size d ""0.305 l!Il1\; Unicronu1.ar

Ref. Run Q D U
Se
~ "t". 2
qs
Duration -r.;.
qs*
No. cc/sce cm cm/sec cm grnms/cm grnms/cm/sec Hinutes
27 10279 .3.4J. 74.8.3 .0084 .3.2.3 .0295 1..84 4 .59 3.22
28 10279 3.96 64.47 .0090 3.66 .0245 1.89
5 .49 3.33
29 10279 3.$1 72.88 .ous 3.23 .0,315 3.,31 4 .6,3 5.81
.30 10279 .3.23 79.07 .01l4 2.96 .0345 ,3.1.18 5 .69 6.15
31 10279 2.71 9 ' ~ . 1 8 i0143 2.47 .0426 4.4 4 .852 7.75
34- 20785 8.14 63.49 .0035 8.02 .0182
.9'!- 5
.3611- 1.611-
35
..
6.24 82.66 .0048 6.13 .029 2.(,9 4 .580 3.68
36
11
6.04 85.59 .0051 5.9'!- .0315 2.21 4 .630 3.90
37
..
,.79 89.21 .0073 ;.70 .036; 3.88 4 .730 6.84
44 10279 ;.46 31.55 .0036 5.27 .0064 .15 6 .128 .264
47
11
3.14 54.80 .0060 2.96 .0168 .54 .5 .336 .950
;1
11
2.35 77.30 .0110 2.23 .0335 2.13
5 .670 3.74
52
11
2.29 75.26 .0118 2.16 .0325 2.41 4 .650 4.24
53 2.19 78.39 .0138 2.07 .0350 3.0 4 .700 5.28 \D
en
54
11
2.32 74.28 .0150 2.23 .0315 3.23 4 .630 5.7
"
CILBERT Size d-o.305 mm, Unigranular
Ref. Run
co'seo
:D U
Se R]) "t'Q
qs Duration "t'o...
qs
No. om om/sec om grams/cm'1 grams/cm/sec Minutes
4A
55 10279 2.04 811-.25 .0159 1.95 .040 3.6; 4 .800 5. 42
;6
11
2.10 81.81 .0173 2.01 .039, 4.42
3 .790 7.8
57
"
2.13 80.6; .0177 2.04 .040 4.74
3
.800 8.32
65 20785 4.11 88.48 .0094- 3.75 .038 3.0 4 .760 .5.28
66
11
3.93 81lo.;5 .0098 3.63 .0355 3.87 3 .710 6.81
67
11
4.11 87.81 .0101 3.81 .038; 4.67
3 .770 8.21
71 3JP87 5.97 88.79 .0057 5.JO .0)40 3.15 3 .680
5.55
72
11
5.55 9.5.62 ~ 0 0 6 J 4.88 .039 3.70 3 .780 6.51
73
"
. 5 ~ 7 0 93.06 .0060 5.00 .03.5 3.83 3 .700 6.75
74
"
.5.03 105.46 .0081 4.4.5 .0475 4.32 4 .9.50 7.61
75
"
5.46 97.2 .0079 4.80 .043 4.87
3 .86 8.6
\0
"J
"
GILBERT Size d- .506 mm, Un1gra.nular
Ref. Run
cc'seo
D U
Se
R
b
"t:

Duration
Tu- qs*
No. cm cm/sec cm gram'om
3
Minutes
4 1 2633 4.91 40.02 .0064 4.21 .0106 .24
7 .129 .198
2
"
4.30 .008.5 3.69 .014 .4
.5 .169
03:32
3
"
3.99 49.16 .0094 3.41 .017 . 70
5 .205 .579
4
" 3.72 .52.79 .0101 3.14 .019 .89
5 .229 .735
.5
"
3.57 55.08 .0126 3.08 .021.2 1.42
7 .256 1.175
6
" 3.38 .58.08 .0145 2.93 .0234 1.94 4 .282 1.60
7
"
3.38 .01.59 2.96 .026 2.61
5 .301 2.16
8
"
3.05 .0171 2.62 .0308 2.54 4
.372 2.10
12 .51;4 5.12 .0133 4.Q2 .0475 2.83 6 .572 2.34
13
"
5.)6 71.63 .0132 4.30 .0470 3.21
5
.,566 2.65
14
"
5.24 73.3 .0138 4.18 .0470 3.50 4 .,566 2.9
15
"
.66 .0152 3.63 .0495 3.80
5 .596 3.14
16
"
4.21
91.3.5 .0216
3.35 .053 7.23 3 .640 6.0
\D
eo
36 .
"
7.38 34.75 .0024 6.19 .0073 .11 420 .088 .091
43
"
2.71 94.43 .01.57 2.23 .051 3.88 8 .615 3.2

"
1.89 135.58 .0224 1.43 .095 5.62 4 1.15 4.65

GILBFJiT Size d- .506 PUlII Un1granule.r

Rof. Run Q D U
Se
R
b
To

Duration
To.,. qs*
No. oe/soo cm om/sec cm grams/em:L M1nutes
10279 5.3 96.38 .0099 3.93 .067 3.88 6 .566 3.21
65
"
5.09 100.4 .0104 3.75 .050 4.13
5
603 3.42
66
"
5.12 99.76 .0108 3.81 .051 4.87 3 .615 4.03
67
"
5.27 96.9 .0107 3.96 .053 4.92 3 .64 4.07
69
"
5.30 96.38 .0119 4.12 .049 6.01
5 .53 4.96
71 4.91 104.09 .0141 3.81 .058 6.066 3 .70 5.0
77 "
5.03 101.59 .0208 4.21 .062 12.18 3 .748 10
96
"
111.34 .0112 4.85 .061 7.5 5 .735 6.2
98
11
6.77 113.39 .0121 4.85 .063 8.05 5
.76 6.65
99
11
7.13 107.59 .0153 5.55 .063 9.74 4 .76 8.05
GILBERT Size d- .506 mm, Unigranul.a.r
Ref. Run Q D U
Se
R
b
1:"0
~ ' o m / s e o
Duration ~
. qs*
No. oo/seo om om/seo om grams/om" Minutes
54
It
7.19 94.79 .0119 6.16 .064 2.82 6 .224 .372
.5.5
It
6.80 100.31 .0123 .5.76 .74 '.28
4
.2.59 .432
56
It
5.7 119.63 .0146 4.69 .096 4.4)
3 .336 .582
57
It
5.76 118.36 .0150 4.79 .096 4.92 3 .336 .6;
....
o
o
BILDERT Size d.. 1.71 mmI Unif9:tl.nular
Ref. Run Q D U
Se R
b
"t"Q

Duration
qs*
No. oo/sec cm cm/sec cm gram/cm" Minutes
4E 1 5154 3.81 67.24 .012 3.32 .0315 1.04 15 .11 .137
3
11
3.51 73.09 .01
1.3
3.05 .0455 1.39 16 .159 .1835
6 10279 6.10 83.82 .0104 4.85 .0522 1.54 9 .183 .20)
8
11
6.0 85.10 .0127 4.94 .057 2.09
9 .199 .277
10
11
5.64 90.62 .0129 6.,511- .06) 2.:34 10 .22 .309
12 20785 11.8 87.6 .0109 9.33 .056 2.49 6 .196 .329
26
5154
2.87 59.01 .0111 2.65 .0)2 .62 10 .112 .0818
:34 10279 7.35 45.9 .0022 6.07 .0143 .10 61 .05 .0132
35
11
7.)8 45.72 .0025 6.22 .0144 .07 60 .0503 .0922
37
11
6.46 52.18 .0044 5.67 .02 .26 20 .07 .0:343
38
"
4.91 68.73 .00187 4.36 .025 .12 :34 .0875 .095
45 20785 13.47 50.63 10.33 .016 .12 6) .0]6 .0158 ....
0
....
47 12.28
55.5
.0026 9.78 .02
.3:3 25 .07 .0435
49
"
9.?4 73.8 .0048 7.41 .0)55 .66 18 .124 .087
50
11
9.17 76.34 .0067 7.32 .0355 .85 16 .124 .112
"
GILBERT Size d- 3.17 mm, unigra.nular
Ref. Run Q D U
Se Rb "to

Duration
'"to... qs*
No. cc/sec cm cm/sce cm ftJ:MI!cm't. Minutes
4F 1 51,54- 3.6 71...23 3.11 .04 .550 17 .0770 .2087
2
11
3.93 65.17 .0131 3.48
.0455
.600 23 .01375 .0313
3
11
3.11 82.42 .0251 2.80 .0704 2.58
11 .1360 .1)4
4
11
3.23 79.28 .025 2.93 .0731 2.63
8 .1415 .137
5
10279 6:31 80.99
.0112 5.15 .057
6 1.29 17 .114 .0675
6
"
6.22 82.0 .0113 5.06 .0;31 1.29
12 .110 .0675
7
11
5/36 95.22 .0189 4.51 .0855 3.98
6 .165 .207
8
11
5.18 98.6 .0196 4.36 .0855 3.;3
10 .165 .18;
13 2.76 61.63 .0136 2.56 .0)48 .22 21 .0668 .0115
14
11
2.38 71.11 .0249 2.26 .056; 1.38 7
.108 .072
15 "
2.44 69.36 .0253 2.32 .05
85 1.
114
7 .113 .07;1
16 10279 4.88 69.16 .0085 4.30 .0365 .31
18 .0708 .0162
I-'
17
"
4.91 68.73 .0091 4.36 .0396 .33
20 .0767 .0172
0
l\)
18
11
).90 86.44 .0165 3.,51 .0;80 1. ,54- 16 .110 .0804
19
11
3.96 85.1 .0170 3.60 .0612 1.67
10 .118 .0871
20
"
4.27 73.03
.0168 ).90 .0655
1.811- 8 .126 .096
..
GILBERT Size d-
4.93 1Ml'
unlersnular
Ref. Run
.s:
n u Se Rb To

Durable
To.. qs*
No. cm cm/sec cm grams/cm' Minutes
4G 25 10279 4.36 .0127 3.90 .0496 .3:3 20 .0609 .0089
26
If
4.24 79.61 .0148 3.84 .0566 .69 15 .0695 .0187
27
If
4.15 81.35 .0161 3.75
.0605 .82 12 .0741 .0222
28
If
4.30 7e.46 .0162 3.93 .0637 .9
2 18 .0781 .0249
29
"
4.02 83.83 .0176 3.66 1.12 12 .079 .0303
30
11
3.93 85.77 .0209 3.60 .0752 1.64 9 .923
.0443
32 20785 8.29 82.27 .0078 6.95 .0;42 .36
42 .0665 .00974
33
"
7.;6 9.22
.0086 6.25 .0536 .66 15 .06;6 .0178
34 "
7.56 90j2? .009:5 6.34 .0603 .82 15 .074 .0222
35
"
7.45 89.12 .0097 6.46 .0627 .85 11 .077 .02;
36
"
7.16 95.19 .0121 6.16 .0746 1.61 10 .0914 .Q435
....
37
11
6.5? 104.55 .0169 5.67 .096 3.28 5 .118 .089
0

40 31687 11.86 87.64 .0064 9.42 .0604 .33 20 .074 .0089

GILBERT Size d- 7.01 mm, unigre.nular
Rof. Run Q D U Se fib "to
gr::;'iem/seo
Duration '"to.. qs*
No. co/sec cm cm/seo om (!r8.m/crn 1
Minutes
4H 1 10279 ;.61 91.14
.0149 4.63 .069 .46 21 .0605 .00716
:3
"
5.58 91.56 .0180 4.72 .085 .84- 18 .7045 .013
5
..
;.09 100.4 .0243 4.36 .106 2.53 5
.093 .0404
7 20785 10.52 98.27 .0090 7.50 .0675 .39
18 .059 .0062
9
..
lO.15 101.77 .0110 7.;0 .0822 .99 17 .072 .0157
13
"
8.81 117.32 .0202 7.01 . 1 4 1 L ~ 5.22 4 .124 .083
14
"
7.62 135.56
.0269 6.07 .1635 10.39 3 .143 .165
15
..
7.71 133.96 .0292 6.2; .1825 11.03 3
.16 .175
21 31687 13.32 118.26 .0128 9.45 .121 2.68 10 .106 .0426
23
tI
11.92 132.16 .0165 8.53 .141 4.87 3
.1245 .0775
26 10.:36 152.0 .0231 7.5
6 .17; 10.39 3 .1;35 .165
I-'
'i?