COMPUTER MEASUREMENTS

bits (b) - 0's and 1's lowest form of measurement off or on Nibble - 4 bits or half a Byte Byte (B) - is one Character consisting of 8 binary digits Kilobyte or KB - equals 1024 Characters or consisting of a half page of text Megabyte or MB - equals 1,048,576 Characters or one typical novel Gigabyte or GB - equals 1,073,741,824 characters or 1 thousand novels Terabyte or TB - equals 1,099,511,627,776 characters or entire library * Note computers use binary (base two) math, instead of a decimal (base ten) system

HARD DRIVES
The hard disk drive or hard drive is the main location where all data is stored. Most hard disk drives consist of spinning platters of aluminum, glass or ceramic that are coated with a magnetic media. A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a typical 84mb hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four sides) and 1,053 cylinders.

Hard drive manufacturers: fujitsu, ibm/hitachi, maxtor, seagate, western digital

Tips for buying a hard drive 1. You should make sure there's space in the case for another drive. Most desktop PC cases have at least one, and sometimes several spaces, internal drive bays--places where you can mount extra hard drives. But check your manual and open up the case. Some of the smaller low-profile computer cases don't have room for additional internal hard drives, so you won't be able to use both the your old and a new drive in the same computer case. In which case you will need to buy an external hard drive. 2. Capacity typical hard drives are about 100GB they can go up to 1 TB the more information such as pictures, files, music and videos your going to store the more space your going to need. 3. RPM rotation per minute The best is 15,000 rpm however you should consider buying a hard drive with a fast rotational speed of 7,200 revolutions per minute (rpm) or higher. You should expect to spend less for a slower 5,400rpm hard drive. 4. Seek Time you should look for an average seek time of fewer than 4.7 milliseconds (ms), and a data transfer rate of at least 15 megabytes (MB) per second. The actual sustained speed of the drive will be less than the maximum "burst" speed. 7. Buffer 8MB or better: When a system requests data, a hard drive will not only fetch what is requested, but it will also load its buffer memory with extra information that the processor is likely to ask for next. While a 2MB buffer is good, that's plenty of room to keep the data flowing, I found that drives with 8MB performed is best! for disk-intensive tasks.

8. Transfer Speed: Internal Hard Drives Parallel ATA 33, 66, 100, 133MB/s Serial ATA 150-300MB/s SCSI 33-640MB/s External Hard Drives Serial ATA 150-300MB/s USB 12Mbps up to 480Mbps Firewire 400Mbps up to 800Mbps SCSI 33-640MB/s 9. External Hard Drives. External drives is a good idea if you need to lock up important data or you need to transport a lot of data to another PC. Note external hard drives cost quite a bit more than internal drives and usually require an FireWire or USB 2.0 interface. 10. There are three main types of internal hard drive Parallel ATA, Serial ATA and SCSI.

Below is a picture of what the inside of the hard disk drive looks like. The Hard disk drive has four main components. The head actuator controls the head arm, which reads the information off of the disk platter. The chassis encases and holds all the hard disk drive components.

Platter - The actual fixed disk within the hard disk drive. There can be several platters within the hard drive Heads - Each side of a platter Tracks - Large sections that completely circle the platter Sector - Section on the track Cluster - Smallest unit of measurement that a hard drive will read Cylinder - Tracks of the same diameter on each platter

Types of Hard Drives IDE Abbreviation of either Intelligent Drive Electronics or Integrated Drive Electronics, depending on who you ask. An IDE interface is an interface for mass storage devices in which the controller is integrated into the disk or CD-ROM drive. IDE usually contains one controller and 40 pins where you can install up to only 2 devices a typical speed of an IDE drives is about 3/MBs . EIDE Short for Enhanced IDE, a newer version of the IDE mass storage device interface standard developed by Western Digital Corporation. It supports data rates of between 4 and 16.6 MBps, about three to four times faster than the old IDE standard. In addition, it can support mass storage devices of up to 8.4 gigabytes, whereas the old standard was limited to 528 MB. Because of its lower cost, enhanced EIDE has replaced SCSI in many areas.

ATA: Known also as IDE, supports one or two hard drives, a 16-bit interface and PIO modes 0, 1 and 2.

ATA-2: Supports faster PIO modes (3 and 4) and multiword DMA modes (1 and 2). Also supports logical block addressing (LBA) and block transfers. ATA-2 is marketed as Fast ATA and Enhanced IDE (EIDE). Also known as Ultra- DMA/0 ATA/33: Also called Ultra-DMA/2 , and DMA-33, supports multiword DMA mode 3 running at 33 MBps.

ATA/66: or Ultra-DMA/4 A new version of ATA proposed by Quantum Corporation, and supported by Intel, that will double ATA's throughput to 66 MBps. Other ATA supports speeds of 100 and 133MB/s ATA/100 aka Ultra-DMA/5 ATA/133 aka Ultra-DMA/6 currently the fastest IDE hard drive in the market Note if you do choose to have a hard drive that supports 66MB/s and higher you will need to use an 80pin ribbon cable instead of the traditional 40pin ribbon cable which only supports 33MB/s.

Hard Drive Geometry LBA Short for logical block addressing, a method used with SCSI and IDE disk drives to translate the cylinder, head, and sector specifications of the drive into addresses that can be used by an enhanced BIOS. LBA is used with drive's that are larger than 504MB. 1,024 cyl * 16 heads * 63 sectors/track * 512 bytes/sector = 504MB CHS Short for Cylinders, Heads and Sector translation E/CHS Extended CHS a competitior to LBA supports different translation 1,024 cyl * 256 heads * 63 sectors/track * 512 bytes/sector = 8.4GB INT/13 Interrupt 13 extensions developed by Phoenix technology to support up to 137GB Best when installing hard drives it is best to set it to AUTO detect mode in the CMOS/BIOS setup Hard drive maintenance DEFRAG A DOS and Windows utility that defragments your hard disk. In Windows 95, you run Defrag by selecting Start->Programs->Accessories->System Tools->Disk Defragmenter.

SCANDISK A DOS and Windows utility that finds different types of errors on hard disks and is able to correct some of

them. In DOS, you run Scandisk by entering scandisk at the prompt and pressing the Enter key. In Windows 95, you can run Scandisk by selecting Start->Programs->Accessories->System Tools->Scandisk. Among other things, Scandisk checks the disk platters for defects and also looks for lost clusters that are sometimes created when a program aborts. In Windows 2K/XP go to start>run>cmd and type CHKDSK from the command prompt File systems FAT or File Allocation Table A table that the operating system uses to locate files on a disk. Due to fragmentation, a file may be divided into many sections that are scattered around the disk. The FAT keeps track of all these pieces. In DOS systems, FATs are stored in hidden files, called FAT files . The FAT system for older versions of Windows 95 is called VFAT, and the one for new versions of Windows 95 and Windows 98 is called FAT32. A new version of the file allocation table (FAT) available in Windows 95 OSR 2 and Windows 98. FAT32 increases the number of bits used to address clusters and also reduces the size of each cluster. The result is that it can support larger disks (up to 2 terabytes) and better storage efficiency (less slack space). NTFS-New technology file system use in Windows 2K/XP/NT environment for security support Steps in installing a hard drive

1. Buy a hard drive usually look for space in terms of GB example a 40 GB hard drive, the RPM/s usually 7200 or more is the revolution per minute and the speed of the hard drive EIDE vs. Ultra DMA/33 which is faster. Several vendors to consider when buying a hard drive include Maxtor, Seagate, IBM, Western Digital, Fujitsu and Quantum. 2. Back up your computer and record settings like CMOS and desktop settings before installing the hard drive. 3. Set jumper settings of master and slave, example if one hard drive and CD/ROM were daisy chained on one 40-pin ribbon cable then the jumper settings would be master on the hard drive and slave on the CD/ROM. You can set jumper settings by looking at the back of the hard drive and CD/ROM and follow the master and slave specification 4. Install 40 pin ribbon cable to hard drive making sure pin one which is the red section is closest to the Molex power connector and install other side to IDE controllers. 5. Install the Molex power connector from power supply to hard drive for power if it's a PATA if a SATA hard drive install the 15 pin black power connector. 6.Go to CMOS setup and configure hard drives using the AUTO detect or manual configuration 7. Partition hard drive, which is dividing hard drive into sections. You can either use the DOS utility FDISK or use a 3rd party software like PQ Magic to partition your drive. Usually the first partition is the Primary partition. Set it to active in order for the OS to boot up. That which is left over on the hard drive will become the extended partition. Finally, divide the extended partition into logical partitions. Example: if the hard drive has total space of 4GB, the primary partition under FAT16 will be 2GB, which is the most you can allocate per hard drive. The left over is the extended partition, which is 2GB. To get this figure, Subtract 4GB total space minus the 2GB max in FAT16 and you have 2GB left. Then divide the extended partition to logical partition, in this case we will divide by 2, which leaves 1GB of D drive and 1GB of E drive. Under FAT32 large disk support is enabled and can partition hard drives into the highest number so if you have a 40GB hard drive you can partition that to the full 40GB max. 8. High-level Format each partition drive. This will make your partition usable. 9. Install a file system FAT16, FAT32 and NTFS, the latter being used for security with the drives. 10. Install and load the Operating System

MEMORY
Internal storage areas in the computer The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. Moreover, the term memory is usually used as a shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard disk. Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to as main memory or RAM. You can think of main memory as an array of boxes, each of which can hold a single byte of information. A computer that has 1 megabyte of memory, therefore, can hold about 1 million bytes (or characters) of information.

Memory Manufacturers Kingston, Rambus, Crucial, Samsung, PNY, Micron

Memory Terminology Memory speed - measured in nanoseconds, this is the time to access data that is stored in memory the lower the nanoseconds the faster the memory (2ns-80ns) Parity - A simple error checking method use in memory correction ECC-Error correction code use in memory correction for newer computers Memory Banks - A socket where memory is installed Example 4 banks will have 8MB of memory each for a total of 32MB There are several different types of memory:

ROM or Read Only Memory, Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to. It is non-volatile which means once you turn off the computer the information is still there.

PROM, short for programmable read-only memory A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROM's retain their contents when the computer is turned off. The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM. EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed. An EEPROM is similar to a PROM, but requires only electricity to be erased. EEPROM- Acronym for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. Pronounced double-ee-prom or e-eprom, an EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM is similar to flash memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The principal difference is that EEPROM requires data to be written or erased one byte at a time whereas flash memory allows data to be written or erased in blocks. This makes flash memory faster. RAM (Random Access Memory) is a temporary (Volatile) storage area utilized by the CPU. Before a program can be ran the program is loaded into the memory which allows the CPU direct access to the program. 2 Types of RAM SRAM Short for static random access memory, and pronounced ess-ram. SRAM is a type of memory that is faster and more reliable than the more common DRAM (dynamic RAM). The term static is derived from the fact that it doesn't need to be refreshed like dynamic RAM. SRAM is often used only as a memory cache usually found in the CPU (L1, L2 and L3 Cache) DRAM stands for dynamic random access memory, a type of memory used in most personal computers. Types of DRAM Packages and DRAM Memory LAPTOP MEMORY

(72, 144, 200) SO-DIMM SO-DIMM Short for Small Outline DIMM, a small version of a DIMM used commonly in notebook computers. 72 supports 32bit and 144 and 200 SO-DIMM pins supports a full 64-bit transfer.

(144, 172) Micro-DIMM Micro-DIMM Short for Micro Dual Inline Memory Module, a competing memory used on laptops, mostly supports 144 and 172 pins.

SIMM Acronym for single in-line memory module, a small circuit board that can hold a group of memory chips. Typically, SIMM's holds up 8 (on Macintoshes) or 9 (on PCs) RAM chips. On PCs, the ninth chip is often used for parity error checking. Unlike memory chips, SIMM's is measured in bytes rather than bits. SIMM's is easier to install than individual memory chips. A SIMM is either 30 or 72 pins.

30 pin SIMM (Usually FPM or EDO RAM) FPM RAM Short for Fast Page Mode RAM, a type of Dynamic RAM (DRAM) that allows faster access to data in the same row or page. Page-mode memory works by eliminating the need for a row address if data is located in the row previously accessed. It is sometimes called page mode memory.

72 pin SIMM (EDO RAM) EDO DRAM Short for Extended Data Output Dynamic Random Access Memory, a type of DRAM that is faster than conventional DRAM. Unlike conventional DRAM which can only access one block of data at a time, EDO RAM can start fetching the next block of memory at the same time that it sends the previous block to the CPU. DIMM Short for dual in-line memory module, a small circuit board that holds memory chips. A single in-line memory module (SIMM) has a 32-bit path to the memory chips whereas a DIMM has 64-bit path. Because the Pentium processor requires a 64-bit path to memory, you need to install SIMM's two at a time. With DIMM's, you can install memory one DIMM at a time. A DIMM contains 168 pins.

168 pin DIMM (SDRAM) SDRAM Short for Synchronous DRAM, a new type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus and is capable of running at 133 MHz, about three times faster than conventional FPM RAM, and about twice as fast EDO DRAM . SDRAM is replacing EDO DRAM in many newer computers SDRAM delivers data in high speed burst

184 pin DIMM (DDR-SDRAM) DDR SDRAM Short for Double Data Rate-Synchronous DRAM, a type of SDRAM that supports data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle, effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput. DDR-SDRAM is also called SDRAM II.

240 DIMM (DDR2-SDRAM) DDR2-SDRAM Short for Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM 2 is a type of DDR that supports higher's speeds than it's predecessor DDR SDRAM

240 DIMM (DDR3-SDRAM)

DDR3-SDRAM Short for Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM 3 is the newest type of DDR that supports the fastest speed of all the SDRAM memory

184 pin RIMM (RDRAM) RIMM Rambus Inline Memory Module, The memory module used with RDRAM chips. It is similar to a DIMM package but uses different pin settings. Rambus trademarked the term RIMM as an entire word. It is the term used for a module using Rambus technology. It is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for Rambus Inline Memory Module. A RIMM contains 184 or 232pins. Note must use all sockets in RIMM installation or use C_RIMM to terminate banks 232 pin RIMM (RDRAM) RDRAM Short for Rambus DRAM, a type of memory (DRAM) developed by Rambus, Inc. In 1997, Intel announced that it would license the Rambus technology for use on its future motherboards, thus making it the likely de facto standard for memory architectures. CLICK HERE for a picture and more information on RIMM Installation SIMM and DIMM Sockets

SDRAM Chart

168 DIMM (SDRAM) Clock Speed (MHz) 66 100 133 Bus Width (Bytes) 8 8 8 Transfer Rate (MB/s) 533 800 1,066

Module Standard PC66 PC100 PC133

Module Format SDR DIMM SDR DIMM SDR DIMM

Chip Type 10ns 8ns 7ns

Cycles Per clock 1 1 1

Bus Speed 66 100 133

DDR SDRAM Chart

184 DIMM (DDR-SDRAM)

Module Standard PC1600 PC2100 PC2400 PC2700 PC3000 PC3200 PC3500 PC3700 PC4000 PC4300

Module Format DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM DDR DIMM

Chip Type DDR200 DDR266 DDR300 DDR333 DDR366 DDR400 DDR433 DDR466 DDR500 DDR533

Clock Speed (MHz) 100 133 150 166 183 200 216 233 250 266

Cycles Per clock 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Bus Speed 200 266 300 333 366 400 433 466 500 533

Bus Width (Bytes) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Transfer Rate (MB/s) 1,600 2.133 2,400 2,667 2,933 3,200 3,466 3,733 4,000 4,266

DDR2 SDRAM Chart

240 DIMM (DDR2-SDRAM) Clock Speed (MHz) 200 Bus Width (Bytes) 8 Transfer Rate (MB/s) 3,200

Module Standard

Module Format

Chip Type DDR2400 DDR2533 DDR2667 DDR2800

Cycles Per clock

Bus Speed

PC2-3200

DDR2 DIMM

400

PC2-4300

DDR2 DIMM

266

533

4,266

PC2-5400

DDR2 DIMM

333

667

5,333

PC2-6400

DDR2 DIMM

400

800

6,400

240 DIMM (DDR3-SDRAM)

Module Standard

Module Format DDR3 DIMM DDR3 DIMM DDR3 DIMM DDR3 DIMM

Chip Type DDR3800 DDR31066 DDR31333 DDR31600

Clock Speed (MHz) 400

Cycles Per clock

Bus Speed

Bus Width (Bytes) 8

Transfer Rate (MB/s) 6,400

PC3-6400

800

PC3-8500

533

1,066

8,500

PC3-10600

667

1,334

10,670

PC3-12800

800

1,600

12,800

RDRAM Chart

232 RIMM (RDRAM) Clock Speed (MHz) 300 350 400 533 600 400 533 600 Bus Width (Bytes) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Transfer Rate (MB/s) 1,200 1,400 1,600 2,133 2,400 3,200 4,266 4,800

Module Standard RIMM 1200 RIMM 1400 RIMM 1600 RIMM 2100 RIMM 2400 RIMM 3200 RIMM 4200 RIMM 4800

Module Format RIMM-16 RIMM-16 RIMM-16 RIMM-16 RIMM-16 RIMM-32 RIMM-32 RIMM-32

Chip Type PC600 PC700 PC800 PC1066 PC1200 PC800 PC1066 PC1200

Cycles Per clock 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Bus Speed 600 700 800 1,066 1,200 800 1,066 1,200

RAM Desktop Installation Note RAM Memory Sticks come in the following sizes 8MB, 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB and 8GB

SIMM Single Inline Memory Module Installation (30 or 72 pin) 1. Place SIMM in a 45 degree angle, push it upright to lock with the corresponding notch on the sides 2. Must be installed in same pairs 3. Must populate first two slots of the SIMM sockets in order for it to work DIMM Dual Inline Memory Module Installation (168, 184 or 240 pin)

1. The first thing you do is open the plastic retaining clips on each side of slots you are going to use. 2. Align the cut-out on the module pin connector with the engaging pin on the slot 3. Holding the module upright press down both ends. 4. When the module is correctly seated, retaining clips should lock automatically. 5. DIMMs can be installed as a single pair (unless it states Dual Channel then you must install it in pairs)

RIMM Rambus Inline Memory Module Installation (184 or 232 pin) 1. The first thing you do is open the plastic retaining clips on each side of slots you are going to use. 2. Align the cut-out on the module pin connector with the engaging pin on the slot 3. Holding the module upright press down both ends. 4. When the module is correctly seated, retaining clips should lock automatically. 5. Must populate all RIMM slots available 3. If not unpopulated slots must use CRIMMs (Continuity Rambus Inline Memory Module) Memory Troubleshooting MEMORY (when installing use a ground strap because of ESD) ESD (low and high humidity) Mixed Memory usually equals fried memory Parity Errors or ECC Errors (Memory correction errors) SIMMS must be installed in pairs RIMMS must be all installed in all slots or CRIMM's must be needed in unvacated RIMM slots General Protection Fault (memory overwrite) Not enough memory (computer is slow) NMI -Non Maskable Interrupt will cause BSOD (Blue Screen of Death) Multiple beeps when booting up check that memory is properly installed and working No Video (Reseat memory) Memory speeds set in BIOS/CMOS Setup Virtual Memory (Page fault) Chip Creep - Thermal expansion and contraction