EM I&II

The energy transported by a large number of photons is, on the average,

equivalent to the energy transferred by a classical electromagnetic wave.
The dual nature of light is evidenced by the fact that it propagates through
space in a wave-like fashion and yet displays particlelike behavior during
the processes of emission and absorption.
3.1 Basic Laws of Electromagnetic Theory
Charge & Fields
Electric Field E

A point charge q experiences a force , the

E field at the position of the charge is:
E
F

E q F
E

=
Magnetic Field B

A moving charge experience force , which

is depended on its velocity and magnetic
field as:
M
F

B V q F
M

=
q
V
B
Moving charge in both E and B fields experiences:
B V q E q F

+ =
Electric
current
Time-varying
E field
Electric
charge
Time-varying
B field
E field B field
E E
3.1.1 Faradays Induction Law
Convert magnetism into electricity
---- Michael Faraday 1822
Swing of galvanometer
when switch close/open
A changing magnetic
field generates a current
(induced electromotive
force emf).
When constant,
When constant, =

A
t B A emf A A

/
= B
t A B emf A A

/
3.1.1 Faradays Induction Law
Flux of the magnetic field through the wire loop
u cos BA BA A B
M
= = = u

When constant, When constant, =

A
t B A emf A A

/
= B
t A B emf A A

/
The flux of the field: the product of field and
area where the penetration is perpendicular.
More generally, if B varies in space
}}
= u
A
M
S d B

The induced emf developed around the loop
dt
d
emf
M
u
=
Very generally, an emf is a potential difference per unit charge,
which corresponds to work done per unit charge, which is force per
unit charge times distance, which is electric field times distance
}
=
c
l d E emf

Thus,
} }}
=
c A
S d B
dt
d
l d E

} }}

c
c
=
c A
S d
t
B
l d E

or
3.1.2 Gauss's Law - Electric
The relationship between the flux of the electric field and the sources
of that flux, charge.
The flux of E field through an imaginary
closed area A is:
}}
= u
A
E
S d E

If no sources or sinks of the E field within
the region encompassed by A, the net flux
through the surface equals zero.
q in vacuum centered inside a spherical
surface of radius r.
}} }}
= = u

A A
E
EdS dS E
E is constant over A
}}
= = u
A
E
r E dS E
2
4t
By Coulombs Law:
2
0
4
1
r
q
E
tc
= so
0
c
q
E
= u
Electric flux of single point-charge
Multiple charges:

= u q
E
0
1
c
and
}}

=
A
q S d E
0
1
c

Gausss Law
Continuously distributed charges:
}} }}}
=
A V
dV S d E
c
0
1

V: volume
enclosed by A
E
Electric Permittivity
2 2 12
0
/ 10 8542 . 8 m N C =

c
Electric permittivity of free
space (vacuum)
Conceptually, the permittivity embodies the electrical behavior of the
medium: in a sense, it is a measure of the degree to which the material
is permeated by the electric field in which it is immersed.
Indeed, permittivity is often measured by a procedure in which the
material under study is placed within a capacitor.
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant:
0
c c
E
K =
K
E
is defined as /
0
and it is unitless.
3.1.3 Gauss's Law - Magnetic
NO isolated magnetic poles
Any closed surface in a region of
magnetic field would accordingly have
an equal number of lines of entering
and emerging from it because there is
no monopoles.
B

The flux of magnetic field through

such a surface is zero.
}}
= = u
A
M
S d B 0

3.1.4 Ampres Circular Law
Magnetic field of a straight
wire carrying a current i is:
r i B t 2 /
0
=
Suppose magnetic charge q
m,
analogy to electric charge

Magnetic force = q
m
B in the direction of B.
The work done by carrying the monopole along l : l B q W
m
A = A
The total work done is:
l B q
m
A

In this case,
r i B B t 2 /
0
= = so
r B q l B q l B q
m m m
t 2 = A = A

Substitute
r i B t 2 /
0
=
work done becomes
i q
m 0

Hence,

= A i l B
0

To be summed over any closed path surrounding i.

Hecht
???
3.1.4 Ampres Circular Law

= A i l B
0

0 Al
}

=
C
i l d B
0

Ampres Law
It relates line integral of tangent to a closed curve C, with
the total current i passing within the confines of C.
B

For the current with a nonuniform cross section:

} }}
=
C A
S d J l d B

0
here open surface A is bounded by C.
The quantity
0
is called the permeability of free space
and it is defined as
2 2 7
/ 10 4 C s N

t
The permeability of a medium where the current
imbedded in:
0

M
K = K
M
: the dimensionless relative permeability.
Hecht
3.1.4 Ampres Circular Law
} }}
=
C A
S d J l d B

0

A1: 0 = J
A2: no net current 0 = J
???
Moving charges are not the only source of a magnetic field.
Capacitor:
A
Q
E
c
=
as the charge varies, the electric field changes
Taking the derivative of both sides
A
i
t
E
=
c
c
c Effective current density
Maxwell hypothesized the existence of displacement
current density.
t
E
J
D
c
c

c
Rewrite Ampres Law as
} }}

c
c
+ =
C A
S d
t
E
J l d B

) ( c
Note: a time-varying field will be accompanied by a
field even when
E

0 = J

3.1.5 Maxwells Equations

} }}

c
c
+ =
C A
S d
t
E
J l d B

) ( c
}}
=
A
S d B 0

}} }}}
=
A V
dV S d E
c
0
1

} }}

c
c
=
c A
S d
t
B
l d E

Free space
0
0
0
0
=
=
=
=
J

c c
} }}

c
c
=
C A
S d
t
E
l d B

0 0
c
}}
=
A
S d B 0

}}
=
A
S d E 0

} }}

c
c
=
c A
S d
t
B
l d E

E affects B while B in turn affects E
Symmetries of Math and Physics!
Youre beautiful!
3.1.5 Maxwells Equations
Differential form see Appendix 1 Hecht
For free space, in Cartesian coordinates
} }}

c
c
=
C A
S d
t
E
l d B

0 0
c
}}
=
A
S d B 0

}}
=
A
S d E 0

} }}

c
c
=
c A
S d
t
B
l d E

Faraday
Ampere
Gauss
Magnetic field of a straight
wire carrying a current i is:
r i B t 2 /
0
= ???
3.2 Electromagnetic Waves: application of Maxwell equations
Time-varying E-field generates
perpendicular B-field
Time-varying B-field generates
perpendicular E-field
Consider an accelerating charge
At the instant the charge begins to move, the E field is altered and the time-
varying E field induces a B field.
The charge is accelerating. Hence the induced B field is time-dependent.
The time-varying B field generates an E field.
The process continues with E and B coupled in the form of pulse.
} }}

c
c
=
c A
S d
t
B
l d E

} }}

c
c
=
C A
S d
t
E
l d B

0 0
c
3.2 Electromagnetic Waves: application of Maxwell equations
Second differential equations in Cartesian coordinates
Note: each and every component of the
electromagnetic field (E
x
, E
y
, E
z
, B
x
, B
y
, B
z
)
obeys the scalar differential wave equation
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
t v z y x c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
With
0 0
/ 1 c = v
2 2 18 2 7 3 2 2 12
0 0
/ 10 12 . 11 ) / 10 4 )( / 10 85 . 8 ( m s C kg m kg m C s

~ ~ t c
Thus, in free space the speed of all electromganetic waves would be
s m v / 10 3
1
8
0 0
~ =
c
Light of speed in vacuum
s m c / 10 99792458 . 2
8
=
Latin: celer - fast
3.2.1 Transverse Waves
2
2
0 0
2
t
E
E
c
c
= V

c
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
E
y
E
x
E
z
y
x

Explain transverse wave property of light by EM theory

For example, plane wave propagating in the positive x-direction in vacuum
The electric field intensity should be a solution of
and is constant over each of an infinite set of planes perpendicular
to the x-axis. Hence, it is a function only of x and t.
E

) , ( t x E E

=
Back to Maxwell Eqs
0 =
c
c
x
E
x
) , ( t x E E

=
0 =
x
E
=
x
E
constant
No such traveling wave advancing
in the + x-direction.

Thus, the EM wave has no E field component in the direction of
propagation. The E-field associated with the plane wave is transverse.
Transverse E-field Many directions (polarizations)
For plane or linearly polarized waves, E-vector is fixed. For example, y-axis.
) , (

t x E j E
y
=

}}
=
A
S d E 0

3.2.1 Transverse Waves
) , (

t x E j E
y
=

t
B
x
E
z
y
c
c
=
c
c
The time-dependent B-field
only have a component in
the z-direction.
In free space, the plane electromagnetic
wave is transverse.
Harmonic wave:
] ) / ( cos[ ) , (
0
c e + = c x t E t x E
y y with a propagation speed of c.
The associated magnetic flux density is:
}
c
c
= dt
x
E
B
y
z
So, ] ) / ( cos[
1
) , ( ] ) / sin[
0
0
c e c e
e
+ = + =
}
c x t E
c
t x B or dt c x t
c
E
B
y z
y
z
And
z y
cB E =
Note:
E
y
and B
z
differ only by a scalar.
They have same time-dependence. They are in-phase at all points in space.
They are mutually perpendicular.
Their cross-product E x B points in the propagation direction.
3.3 Energy and Momentum
EM transports energy and momentum. i.e. light from star
3.3.1 The Poynting Vector
Radian energy per unit volume or energy density, u.
Energy density of the E-field (considering the plates of a charged capacitor)
2
0
2
E u
E
c
=
Energy density of the B-field (considering a current-carrying toroid)
2
0
2
1
B u
B

=
For plane EM wave:
0 0
/ 1 c = = c and cB E
So, we have
B E
u u =
The energy streaming through space in the form of
an electromagnetic wave is shared equally between
the constituent electric and magnetic fields.
Further,
2
0
2
0
1
, , B u E u u u u
B E

c = = + =
3.3.1 The Poynting Vector
To represent the flow of electromagnetic energy associated with a traveling
wave, let S symbolize the transport of energy per unit time (the power) across
a unit area. S has a unit of W/m
2
SI system.
An EM wave traveling with a speed c through
an area A.
uc
tA
tA uc
S =
A
A
=
Energy in cylindrical
volume
or EB S
0
1

=
Poynting vector
B E c S or B E S

= =
0
2
0
1
c

Direction: the energy flows in the direction of the propagation of the wave.
Magnitude: the power per unit area crossing a surface whose normal is parallel to S

Example: Harmonic, linearly polarized plane wave traveling through free space in
the direction of
k

) cos( ) cos(
0 0
t r k B B and t r k E E e e = =

) ( cos
2
0 0 0
2
t r k B E c S e c =


Instantaneous flow of energy per unit area
per unit time
0 0
/ 1 c = = c and cB E
Averaging Harmonic Functions
More practically, due to the extremely rapid changing of S, we need to take an
averaging procedure to measure S.
Time-averaged value of some function f(t) over an interval T:
}
+

=
2 /
2 /
) (
1
) (
T t
T t
T
dt t f
T
t f
For harmonic function:
) (
1
) ) (
1
1 1
2 / 2 /
) 2 / ( 2 / (
2 /
2 /
2 /
2 /
T i T i t i
T
t i
T t i T t i
T
t i
T t
T t
T t
T t
t i t i
T
t i
e e e
T i
e
e e
T i
e
e
T i
dt e
T
e
e e e e
e e e
e e e
e
e
e

+
+

=
=
= =
}
t i
T
t i
e
T
T
e
e e
e
e
)
2 /
2 / sin
( =
sinc u
u = , 2, 3..
3.3.2 Irradiance
The amount of light illuminating a surface is called irradiance, I the average
energy per unit area per unit time.
How to measure I ?
The time-averaged value (T>>) of the magnitude of the Poynting vector,
<S>
T
is a measure of I.
Harmonic Wave:
) ( cos
2
0 0 0
2
t r k B E c S
T
e c =


t >> = T for
T
2 / 1 cos
2
0 0
0
2
2
B E
c
S
T

=
c
or
2
0
0
2
E
c
S I
T
c
=
The irradiance is proportional to the square
of the amplitude of the electric field.
Alternatively,
T T
E c I and B
c
I
2
0
2
0
c

= =
Radian flux (optical power), W: the time rate of flow of radiant energy
Radiant flux density W/m
2
: radian flux incident on or exiting from a unit area surface
EB S
0
1

=
0 0
/ 1 c = = c and cB E
Magnetic Field due to Conduction Current
2
4

I
o
d
d
r

=
s r
B
Biot-Savart Law
Refers to magnetic field due to the
current-carrying conductor

o
= 4 t x 10
-7
T
.
m / A
permeability of free space

Unit vector
Appendix:
Magnetic Field due to Conduction Current
To find the total field, sum up the
contributions from all the current
elements Ids
2
4

I
o
d
r

=
}
s r
B
Integration over the entire
current distribution
Vector sum
Useful to high-symmetry currents
2
4

I
o
d
d
r

=
s r
B
Appendix:
Example 1: B for a Circular Loop of Wire
Magnetic field at the center of a current loop

r
I
r
I
B
r
r
r
r ds
2
2
4
2

0 0
2 2
t
t

t
= =
=

r
I
2
4

I
o
d
r

=
}
s r
B
Appendix:
Example 2: B for a Long, Straight Conductor
The thin, straight wire
is carrying a constant
current

Integrating over all the
current elements gives
( )
2
1
1 2

4
4
I
sin
I
cos cos

B d
a

a
=
=
}
( )
sin

d dx = s r k
Appendix:
B for a Long, Straight Conductor, Direction
a
I
a
I
B
t

2
2
4
0 0
= =
( )
2
1
1 2

4
4
I
sin
I
cos cos

B d
a

a
=
=
}
From previous results
Now let u
1
=0, u
2
=t, we have
back
Appendix:
Energy density of the E-field (considering the plates of a charged capacitor)
2
0
2
E u
E
c
=
The work to move a charge element dq from the negative plate to the
positive plate is equal to V dq, where V is the voltage on the capacitor.
C=Q/V
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Appendix:
The instantaneous power which must be supplied
to initiate the current in the inductor is
The energy density (energy/volume)
Energy density of the B-field (considering a current-carrying toroid)
2
0
2
1
B u
B

=
(1)
(2)
(3)
back
Appendix:
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
Want to calculate the
magnetic field at a
distance r from the center
of a wire carrying a
steady current I
The current is uniformly
distributed through the
cross section of the wire
Appendix:
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
Outside of the wire, r > R



Inside the wire, we need I, the current inside
the amperian circle


2
2
( ) I
I
o
o
d B r

B
r
= =
=
}
B s
2
2
2
2
2
( ) I ' I ' I
I
o
o
r
d B r
R

B r
R
= = =
| |
=
|
\ .
}
B s
Appendix:
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
The field is proportional
to r inside the wire
The field varies as 1/r
outside the wire
Both equations are
equal at r = R
Appendix: