EUROPEAN HERMIT CRAB

... CLASS
~ Crustacea
". ORDER
~ Oecapoda
FAMILY
Paguridae Eupagurus bernhardus
Living its entire adult life in the abandoned shells of other
sea animals, the hermit crab is a familiar inhabitant of coastal
waters around the world.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 5 in. At this size it
usually lives in shells of dog whelk.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1 8 months.
Mating: Year-round.
No. of eggs: Up to 15,000.
Incubation: About 7-10 days. Eggs
hatch into larvae, which molt 4
times before becoming adults.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, but may congre-
gate to feed. Lives on shoreline
when young, moves offshore when
mature.
Diet: Omnivorous-will eat almost
anything.
~ ~ ! ~ ) _ i i RELATED SPECIES
~ One species of hermit crab, the
giant robber crab, lives on land
and weighs over 2 lb. It is said to
be able to crack open the coconuts
on which it feeds with its claws.
Range of the hermit crab.
DISTRIBUTION
The common European hermit crab is found around all
European coasts.
CONSERVATION
Very common. But numbers are expected to decrease due to
pollution in European coastal waters. Being scavengers, they
are particularly at risk because they feed on the bodies of
animals already contaminated.
THE HERMIT CRAB AND ITS HOME
Cutaway illustration of a shell shows the
position of the hermit crab inside it.
The body inside the shiny interior of the shell is
soft, unlike the parts that can be seen.
The hermit crab will often
share its home with a sea
anemone.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. us P 6001 12012 PACKET 12
""
ro
D
..:J
:J
o
o
u

U
BREEDING
The hermit crab breeds during
most of the year. The female
lays up to 15,000 tiny, bright
red eggs at a time. They stick
to her abdomen and she fans
them with her abdominal ap-
pendages, called swimmerets.
OJ
0. ______________________ __ ____
There are many different species of
hermit crab, ranging in size from no larger than
a pea to six inches across. Found throughout the seas
of the world, they are a common sight in European
waters, where they occupy shells of varying shapes.
A few species actually live on land.
OJ
g
OJ
'u
w

co
HABITAT
o
When it is young, the Euro- Below: Hermit crabs may also 5
pean hermit crab usually use discarded jars as homes. ci __ ....::::::
lives in a top shell or winkle
shell and is found at low tide
on rocky shores and in tide
pools. At this stage, it is
small enough to creep under
stones and into crevices, so it
can avoid being dashed
against the rocks by the tide.
As the hermit crab grows
larger, it inhabits the larger
shells of sea snails. It moves
offshore where it is protected
from the pounding surf.
PREDATORS
In its pre-adult, or larval
stage, the hermit crab is prey
to a large variety of marine
life. As an adult, however, it
is protected by the shells it
inhabits. It is most vulnerable
to attack from predators
when it is moving from one
shell to another, since its soft
body is exposed.
It is not uncommon for one
hermit crab to pull another,
weaker crab out of its shell
and use the shell as its own.
Still, even with its borrowed
shell, the adult hermit crab is
still in danger. Octopus and
squid are its main predators,
both of which possess jaws
powerful enough to crush the
crab's shell in seconds.
This action washes oxygen-
rich water over the eggs.
The eggs hatch into tiny
free-swimming larvae. They
then molt several times. After
their fourth molt, they search
for a shell in which to live .
HABITS
Almost any shell will serve as
home for the hermit crab, al-
though it will also use bam-
boo stems or man-made
objects like glass jars. Despite
their seeming inappropriate-
ness, the crab is surprisingly
quick and agile in them.
Its front claws and legs, and
the top of its head all have
protective armor; the crab
uses them to barricade the
opening of the shell. By doing
so, the crab makes it difficult
for predators to pull it out.
When it looks for a new,
larger home, the crab bases
its selection on the smooth-
ness of the interior of the
shell, as well as its size.
Of the thousands of baby
crabs released by the female,
only a tiny proportion ever
reach the stage of inhabiting
their first shell.
Above: A
hermit crab
changes shells.
It is at its most
vulnerable out
of the shell.
FOOD &: HUNTING
Hermit crabs are omnivorous;
that is, they feed on both
plant and animal life. Young
crabs spend their time be-
tween tides picking away at
the rock surfaces, feeding on
algae and other marine life.
They will also eat any food
left behind by other animals.
Despite its enormous front
claws, the hermit crab is a
very delicate feeder. It picks
small pieces off and transfers
the morsels to its mouth.
<ii
Right: A small
sand hermit
crab feeds on ci!
fish. c..i
ci __ __
DID YOU KNOW?
The hermit crab often
shares the outside of its shell
with a sea anemone. The sea
anemone helps to give it
protection from its main
predators, the octopus and
the squid.
The hermit crab will hunt
for food both by day and
by night.
Other crustaceans and
small worms often share
the inside of the shell with
the hermit crab.
GARDEN SNAIL
ORDER
Gastropoda
FAMILY
Stylommatophora
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
.. GENUS & SPECIES
~ Helix aspersa
Recognized by its slug-like body and the spiral-patterned shell it
ca"ies on its back, the edible garden snail is considered a
delicacy by many people.
SIZES
Shell: Up to 2 in. wide and 1 in.
high.
Body: 3-4 in. long.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Can be up to 2
years in large-shelled specimens.
Mating: Warm nights in summer.
No. of eggs: 20-50 in each batch.
Hatching time: 1 month.
LIFESTYLE
Habits: Hibernates in winter;
dormant on hot summer days.
Diet: Leaf and plant matter.
Lifespan: Can live up to 10 years,
but this is rare.
RELATED SPECIES
There are about 80,000 species of
snail in the world. They are found
on land, in fresh water, and in the
sea.
THREE GARDEN SNAilS
The term garden snail can be quite confusing,
for in the past, it has also been used to refer to
two other types of snails-the white-lipped and
brown-lipped banded snails, Cepaea hortensis
and Cepaea nemoralis.
Range of the garden snail.
DISTRIBUTION
Helix aspersa is found throughout the British Isles, in the
Mediterranean area eastward to the Black Sea, and in
western Europe as far north as Germany.
CONSERVATION
Because the garden snail is edible, it is sought after by some
people. However, demand can be met by farming; as a
species, it is not threatened.
Left: The garden
snail has a brown
shell flecked with
black.
Top right: A
brown-lipped
snail's shell is
usually some
shade of brown,
pink, or yellow. It
either is plain or
has from one to
five dark brown
bands.
Bottom right: A
white-lipped snail
has a smaller
shell , usually a
yellowish color
with a white lip.
The shell may
have five dark
bands.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200061 PACKET 6
HABITAT
Most snails eat the leaves of
plants such as primrose,
nasturtium, and, particularly,
lettuce. Still, snails usually do
less damage to gardens than
slugs. After foraging for food,
their strong homing instinct
will lead them back to their
roost.
In captivity, snails have
shown distinct preferences for
dandelion leaves and nettles,
but they will eat a wide range
of leafy plants, as well as
Not confined solely to gardens, snails r ---
DID YOU KNOW?
are found in a variety of habitats,
_______________________ The snail's shell is made of a
from coastal cliffs and dunes to hedges, lime-rich substance. For this
reason, large numbers of snails
woods, and parks. Like most land snails, are found on alkaline soils,
they prefer damp places with which are high in lime.
Banded snails vary greatly in
plenty of shade. color and pattern. Brown and
I
During the day, garden
snails can be found with-
drawn into their shells in
damp, dark crevices in
yards. They are commonly
found in flower pots and
wooden flower boxes.
When snails are hibernating,
they tend to gather to-
gether in large numbers in
favored spots, such as under
stones and leaves or among
t he stems of ivy.
In the summer, snails are
more visible because they
come out of their hiding
pl aces at night. Brown-
lipped snails can be seen
attached to the tops of
plants and dead stems,
where they remain until the
first rai n arrives.
HABITS
Snails spend the day with-
drawn inside their shells,
hidden among crevices or
under decaying plant
matter. At night, they come
out of their hiding places to
feed.
Snails in temperate
climates hibernate in the
winter. During long, hot, dry
spells in the summer, they
are in a state of aestivation-
that is, an inactive state. In
both instances, the snail
withdraws into the security
of its moist inner shell. It
then further protects itself by
secreting one or more layers
of mucus, which hardens
over the hole in the shell to
form a protective seal.
Right: Snails produce a frothy
substance as a form of defense.
The garden snail (above) and the
white-lipped snail (right) move by
gliding on their flat, muscular foot.
lichens and algae. Some
species of snail are carnivo-
rous and eat small insects and
other snails.
---------------,
pink forms are more com-
mon in woodland, where
they blend in with the dead
leaves. Yellow and striped
forms predominate in open
land, where they blend in
with sun-bleached grass.
BREEDING
All snails are hermaphrodites
-that is, they have both male
and female sexual organs.
Still, although all snails can
both produce sperm and lay
eggs, they must still mate
before reproduction can take
place.
Mating takes place on
warm, damp summer nights.
The two individuals rear up
and press their undersides
together before releasing
sperm into one another. After
mating is completed, the
snails lay their eggs in the
ground. Snails may lay several
batches of eggs, each of
which is fertilized with the
sperm from a single mating.
Sperm can be stored in their
bodies for future use.
The tiny, newly hatched
snails have fragile, transparent
shells. As the snail grows, its
shell gets bigger and becomes
more spiral in shape.
Top right: Snails mate and
mutually impregnate one
another. Center: Tiny pearl-like
eggs are laid and buried in the
ground. Right: Hatchlings are
very fragile and transparent.
PORTUGUESE MAN-Of-WAR
.. r - c __ ..- "" __ <z -_ .... _....., __ ,... _
.-' ....
CLASS
Coelenterata
" ORDER
Siphonophora
FAMILY
Physalidae
Sailing where the wind takes it in the warm oceans
of the world, the iridescent beauty of the Portuguese man-of-war
disguises its deadly sting.
SIZES
Length: Body, 3-14 in .; tentacles
usually 45 in .; on rare occasions ten-
tacles may grow as long as 150 in .
BREEDING
Reproduction: Usually by asexual
budding; polyps break away from
the main colony to form new,
separate colonies.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Marine wanderer; may be
found in large groups.
Diet: Any small fish.
Lifespan: A few months.
RELATED SPECIES
Numerous species in the genus,
many known as Portuguese men-
of-war (at least 20 different species
recorded in the Mediterranean
area alone); close relatives include
the by-the-wind-sailor.
Range of the Portuguese man-of-war.
DISTRIBUTION
Found throughout warm seas of the world, the Portuguese
man-of-war is most common in the Gulf Stream of the
northern Atlantic and the Indian and Pacific oceans.
CONSERVATION
Little is known about the susceptibility of the Portuguese
man-of-war t o oceanic pollution and reduced fish stocks, but
at present the species is in no danger.
fEATURES Of THE PORTUGUESE MAN-Of-WAR
The large, crested float above water is
gas-filled and acts as a sail. In stormy
weather it can be deflated so that the
jellyfish sinks just beneath the water's
surface, where it will be safe from wind
and waves.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
A small member of
the jack family of
fish can often be
found among the
tentacles. The fish is
immune to the
Portuguese man-of-
war's poison and
acts as a lure to
attract other fish
toward the tentacles.
It will then feed on
any remains and
also on the "dead"
ends of tentacles.
0160200091 PACKET 9
The Portuguese man-of-war is a complex form oflife.
It is an entire animal colony, composed of several
types of polyp. Each has a special function,
and they work together to swim, feed,
and reproduce.
These jellyfish normally live
in the offshore waters of
warm seas throughout the
world. They can often be
found in large groups.
During the warmer months
they tend to drift poleward.
DID YOU KNOW?
A deadly relative of the
Port uguese man-of-war is
t he bluebottle (P. utriculis),
found in the Pacific and
Indian oceans.
Portuguese men-of-war are
The Portuguese man-of-
war's translucent, iridescent
float extends 6 inches above
the surface of the water and
acts like a sail. It can even
maintain a course the way a
sailboat does.
related to corals and sea fans.
This jellyfish was given its
name by 18th-century sailors
who reported sighting a
creature that looked like a
Portuguese ship.
HABITAT
Beneath the Portuguese man-
of-war's float are clusters of
polyps, called a colony. Many
tentacles hang from the
colony, and some contain
stinging cells that paralyze
small fish that swim close by.
The jellyfish's muscular sting-
ing cells then lift the prey up
into the colony. Special feed-
ing polyps in the colony digest
the fish.
The Portuguese man-of-war
is not a selective eater. It will
eat any fish small enough to
be overcome quickly. However,
it usually does not attack the
small fish of the jack fami ly
that helps it to lure and trap
prey (see back cover) .
Left: A jellyfish releases a deadly
cloud of poisoned barbs from
stinging cells called nematocysts.
Right: Once a fish is caught it is
drawn up by the muscular
stinging tentacles to be eaten by
the jellyfish 's feeding polyps.
BREEDING
The reproductive system of
the Portuguese man-of-war
is not fully understood. It is
known that the polyps
within the colony are re-
sponsible for reproduction.
New colonies are generat ed
Right :
Produced from
tiny cells, the
Portuguese
man-of-war
larvae soon
grow to
resemble
miniatures of
the adult.
asexually from these polyps.
In this way each Portu-
guese man-of-war can
reproduce itself many times
over. This capability may be
the reason they sometimes
appear in huge numbers.
'fi SPECIAL

The Portuguese man-of-war
is armed with a great num-
ber of tiny sti nging cells
called nematocysts. Each cell
contains a coil ed hollow
tube t ipped with barbs. Any
pressure on the cell s causes
t he barbs to be released.
They shoot into t he prey li ke
miniat ure harpoons and re-
main attached to t he ten-
tacl es. The sti ng contains a
powerful poison simil ar to
cobra venom. Stung f ish die
quickly.
Lef t: A
Portuguese
man-of-war
drifts in the
warm waters
off Mozam-
bique. Its
trailing
tentacles mean
certain death
for any small
fish that may
carelessly
brush past.
Above: Closeup of the stinging
celfs on tentacles.
FIDDLER CRAB
CLASS
Crustacea
ORDER
Oecapoda
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
-----.;;..
~ FAMILY
~ Reptantia
The male fiddler crab has one claw which is much larger than the
other. It makes him look as though he is carrying a fiddle and a
bow and gives him his name.
Y FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 1-2 in.
Length of male's claw: Up to 2 in.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1-2 years.
Mating: Several times a year,
depending on species, location,
and the tides.
No. of eggs: Several hundred.
Incubation: About 7-10 days. Eggs
hatch into tiny planktonic larvae.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, shore-living.
Diet: Organic particles scraped
from grains of sand or mud.
RELATED SPECIES
There are many different types of
fiddler crab, belonging to the
genus Uca. Some species can be
identified by the particular form of
their mating display.
Range of the fiddler crab.
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ~
DISTRIBUTION
Found throughout the warmer areas of the world, including
the shores of the Pacific Ocean, the South Atlantic, and the
Mediterranean.
CONSERVATION
Fiddler crabs are found in large numbers throughout their
range. The main danger to their survival is the increasing
level of marine pollution worldwide.
_________________ ...J
THE FIDDLER CRAB'S CLAWS
-.
The female's claws
(right) are of regular
size, enabling her to
gather food more
easily than the male.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.SA
The male fiddler crab's claw
(left) is greatly enlarged and
brightly colored. By
d[splaying his claw to a
female, the male hopes to
. . lure. her into his burrow to
. . mate. By waving his claw at
. other males, he warns them
. . to 'stay away from his
. territory: He also uses it
When fighting with rival
males.
0160200041 PACKET 4
There are several different species of
fiddler crab found throughout the warmer parts
of the world. They are generally quite small,
about the size of a walnut, and can be very
brightly colored-especially the male
of the species.
~ HABITS
Fiddler crabs spend most of
their time out of the water,
feeding on the shore when
the tide is out. Staying close
to the long burrows they
excavate in the sand, the
crabs retreat into the holes
at the sign of any danger.
~ PREDATORS
At its larval stage, the fiddler
crab is eaten by a wide var-
iety of predators, such as the
flamingo, which scoops up
the larvae by the thousands.
Adult crabs also have many
predators. Birds like the
When the tide is in, the
crabs bury deep into their
individual burrows, safe inside
a pocket of air. Although
fiddler crabs spend all their
time on land, they breathe
through fish-like gills that
need to be kept moist.
frigate and tern swoop down
and snap them up. The
whimbrel chases them across
the beach, breaking off their
legs before eating them.
Foraging mammals dig them
out of their burrows.
I DID YOU KNOW?
In certain species of fiddler
crab, the males have an en-
I
larged right claw, while in
others they have an enlarged
left claw (see below) .
As the fiddler crab grows, it
must shed its outer shell, or
molt. Because the crab's new
shell is still soft while molting,
it seeks the shelter of its
burrow, where it is safe from
most predators.
The largest crab in the
world is the giant spider crab,
which lives at great depths
off the coast of Japan. Its shell
is only 12 inches across, but
its legs can stretch as far as 6
feet .
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Fiddler crabs use their front
claws to feed by scooping up
sand and mud which they
pass to their mouthparts.
They eat the algae that they
separate from the grains of
sand and mud. The non-
edible particles are ejected
on the seashore in the form
of tiny, pea-size pellets.
Because sand and mud
contain little organic mate-
rial, the crab must feed
continually to survive.
Male fiddler crabs spend
twice as long feeding as the
females .
~ BREEDING
The male fiddler crab uses his
large, brightly colored claw to
protect his territory from rival
males and to attract females .
He will display his claw to a
female and then retreat into
his burrow, where the female
follows him to mate.
After mating, the female
Right: A
female fiddler
crab piles mud
around her
burrow while
the male tries
to attract her
attention by
displaying his
claw. If he
succeeds, they
will mate in his
burrow.
deposits several hundred
fertilized eggs into the sea.
The crab larvae soon hatch
and spend the first part of
their lives as part of the
plankton (microscopic plants
and animals) that floats in the
ocean. As the larvae grow and
molt, they begin to resemble
Left: Fiddler
crabs in the
Everglades
search the
mud for the
minute
particles of
food on which
they depend.
Far Left: Male
fiddler crab in
a typical
stance.
tiny crabs and are eventually
washed up on the beach.
Young fiddler crabs are
miniature versions of the
adults. They excavate their
own burrows, but will not
mate until they have reached
their full size and become
sexually mature at 1-2 years.
CARDS
ROBBER CRAB
The huge robber crab is the best known
of all land crabs. Its name comes from its habit of stealing
anything it can carry away in its large pincers.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Width of body: 18 in. Including
tail, 30 in.
Weight: Up to 6 lb.
BREEDING
Mating: On land, year-round.
Eggs: Several hundred laid at a
time.
Hatching time: Several weeks.
From hatching to leaving the sea:
Several months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Terrestrial. Mainly nocturnal
on inhabited islands.
Diet: Fruit and carrion (dead
animals).
Lifespan: Unknown, probably
long-lived.
RELATED SPECIES
The robber crab's closest relative is
the hermit crab, which it resembles
when young because it lives in other
animal's shells.
Range of the robber crab.
DISTRIBUTION
Found mainly on islands in the Indian and Pacific oceans.
Range extends east from Zanzibar to the Gambier Islands.
CONSERVATION
Numbers are constantly decreasing on heavily inhabited
islands because of loss of habitat. On more remote islands,
pollution is the greatest threat to the crab's survival.
FEATURES OF THE ROBBER CRAB
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Abdomen
As it matures, the robber crab's abdomen
becomes hard and well protected. The
crab has a thick bony covering, called an
exoskeleton, which helps conserve
precious water.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200161 PACKET 16
The robber crab is also called
the "coconut" crab because it sometimes feeds on
coconuts. It is also known as the "terrestrial hermit"
crab because of its habit of living in shells when it is
young. 5till, it does not belong to the same family
as the true hermit crab.

Although the robber crab
hatches in the water, it spends
most of its life on land, where
it lives in rocky crevices or
shallow burrows.
The robber crab climbs trees
to escape predators or to find
shade when it is very hot. The
crab has no special adaptions
that enable it to climb. It sim-
ply grasps the trunk with the
sharp, pointed claws located
on each leg and hauls itself up.
The crab climbs backward
down trees, and it can walk
backward on land as well.
It was once believed that
the robber crab fed on co-
conuts by cutting them
down with its pincers and
then breaking the shell. But
it is now known that the
crab cannot break open co-
conuts. Instead, it feeds on
those that are on the ground
and already split apart.

Robber crabs mate on land.
The female carries the eggs
under her abdomen, waiting
until low tide to release them
in shallow water so she won't
be swept away by the tide.
When the eggs hatch, the
larvae barely resemble crabs.
They spend much of the time
Right: A
female robber
crab heads to
the sea to lay
her eggs. When
the eggs hatch,
most of the
larvae are
eaten by
predators.
DID YOU KNOW?
The robber crab has be-
come so adapted to living on
land that it will drown if it is
submerged in water for more
than a few minutes.
The robber crab grows
much larger than the hermit
crab, possibly because it does
not need to find a shell to
accommodate its growing
body as it matures.
The world's largest crab has
a leg span of over six feet. It
lives deep in the ocean and
never comes to the surface.
Robber crabs steal cooking
utensils and cutlery from
campsites. One was even
seen dragging a camp stove
into the bush, while another
was found pulling a whiskey
bottle behind it.
floating among plankton.
Most of the larvae are eaten
by aquatic animals that feed
on plankton, so only a tiny
proportion survives.
The larvae eventually shed
their skin, or molt, and begin
to resemble crabs. They crawl
out of the surf and onto the
FOOD &: FEEDING
Robber crabs feed on carrion
(dead animal matter), as well
as various types of fruit. They
locate food primarily by smell,
sometimes from several yards
away. They even consume the
remains of other robber crabs.
Sometimes they chase other
crabs to their burrows, where
they pull off and eat the claws
that the crabs use to defend
themselves.
The meat of the coconut fruit
is one of the robber crab's
favorite foods. When the fruit is
plentiful, the crab eats enough
to grow to its maximum size.
The robber crab often carries
its food great distances to a
hiding place before eating it.
Right: A robber crab climbs a
papaya tree.
beach, where they remain
for the rest of their lives. At
this stage their bodies are
still soft, so they crawl into
tiny, empty mollusk shells for
protection. After molting
several times, they become
fully mature and abandon
their shells.
.. SPECIAL

The robber crab is uniquely
adapted to life on land. It
withstands extreme drought
by absorbing water from the
moist earth and by sealing its
burrow to keep it damp.
The robber crab breathes
through gills, like other crabs.
But its gills are modified for
use on land. They are sur-
rounded by spongy tissue
that contains many blood
vessels, similar to lungs. The
crab keeps its gills moist by
dipping its brushlike hind
legs in water and stroking
them over the bronchial tufts
within the gill cavity.
The robber crab drinks by
picking up water droplets
with its claws and transfer-
ring them to its mouth.
SEA ANEMONE
... ORDER
'11IIIIIIII Coelenterata
FAMILY
Anthozoa
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
... GENUS
'11IIIIIIII Actiniaria
Sea anemones abound on the sea floor in coastal waters
throughout the world. Related to corals, they are
abundant and varied on the tropical reefs.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: From less than an inch to
more than 3 feet in diameter .
BREEDING
Asexual: Divides or buds.
Sexual: Releases eggs and sperm
into the water, followed by a
free-swimming larval stage. Also
fertilizes internally.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary. Attaches to the
seabed or other surfaces.
Diet: Varies from plankton to fish,
according to size of species.
Range of the sea anemone.
DISTRIBUTION
Sea anemones occur in most of the world's seas at varying
depths, but they are most numerous in tropical waters.
RELATED SPECIES
The sea anemones are grouped
with the corals in the class
Anthozoa. This class contains
some 6,500 species.
CONSERVATION
Some tropical species may be affected by pollution and by
the exploitation of reefs.
FEATURES OF THE SEA ANEMONE
Actinia equina
Basal disc: Located at the sea anem-
one's base, it produces a cement-
like substance that anchors it to
a rock or coral.
'9MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Covered with
stinging cells,
they stun the
anemone's prey,
then draw it into
its mouth
Anemonia sulcata
Contains micro-
scopic hairs that
beat constantly
to circulate water
around the body.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200231 PACKET 23
Sea anemones are among the most beautiful
of marine animals, graced with vivid colors
and delicate, waving tentacles. But if an
unwary fish swims near, the sea anemon'e's
beauty turns to deadliness as the poison
from its stinging cells takes effect.
CHARACTERISTICS
Sea anemones are a large
group of soft-bodied animals
closely related to coral-forming
polyps and belonging to the
same phylum as the jellyfish.
Like all these creatures, their
bodies have a simple structure,
consisting of an inner and an
outer layer of cells. The inner
layer surrounds a central cav-
ity, with one opening to the
outside world for food and
waste. The outer layer consists
of a mass of fleshy tentacles
radiating from around the
mouth. Each tentacle is armed
with special stinging cells used
for both defense and attack.
Sea anemones cannot move
since they are anchored to the
seabed or to rocks or corals. A
special disc on the base of
each animal produces a ce-
ment that secures it even if it is
exposed to waves.
But sea anemones can
move their tentacles. Those
that inhabit tidal zones retract
their tentacles completely
when they are exposed at low
tide.
Right: The sea anemone catches a
shrimp and draws it into its mouth
with its tentacles.
SPECIAL
RELATIONSHIPS
The sea anemone provides
one of nature's best examples
of symbiosis-a relationship in
which two types of organisms
benefit from living closely
with one another. The cloak
anemone lives on the shell of
the hermit crab. The crab
gains protection from preda-
tors, which are driven off by
the anemone's stinging cells,
while the anemone gets food
scraps discarded by the crab.
In tropical waters, certain
species of fish live among sea
anemones' tentacles. The
most famous is the clownfish,
REPRODUCTION
Sea anemones reproduce in
various ways. Some simply
divide their bodies into two
new anemones. Others split
off sections of their basal discs,
which then develop into new
animals. In some species, each
animal produces eggs and
sperm; in others, the sexes are
which has a covering of pro-
tective mucus that prevents
it from being stung by the
separate. The eggs and sperm
are released into the water,
with fertilization depending
upon the different sex cells
drifting into contact with one
another. Then fertilized eggs
develop into larvae that settle
on the seabed and grow into
young anemones.
Far left: Sea
anemones live
in tidal waters
where the
current con-
washes
food past their
tentacles.
Left: The
clownfish is
safe from
predators
among the
sea anemone's
deadly ten-
tacles.
sea anemone's tentacles. In
this way the clownfish gains
protection from predators.
FOOD &: FEEDING
Sea anemones are carnivorous
(meat-eating) and use their
waving tentacles to catch
prey. Smaller species draw
organisms into their mouths
by beating tiny hairs on the
tentacles to create a current.
Larger species prey on fish
and crustaceans, using power-
ful stinging cells to stun or kill.
A sea anemone has a muscu-
lar tube leading from its
mouth into its body cavity.
After prey passes through, di-
gestive juices break down the
food, which is then absorbed
into the sea anemone's tissue.
DID YOU KNOW?
Sea anemones get their
name from the colorful
wildflowers, anemones.
Some of the largest sea
anemones, found near
grow to over
three feet in diameter.
Some species of sea
. anemone burrow into
holes in mud and sand.
A sea anemone has no
brain. Instead, its nerve
cells form a network that
connects its sense organs
and its muscles.
The dahlia anemone
. camouflages itself with bits
of shell and sand.
Left: A new-
born beadlet
anemone drifts
away from its
parent. This is
one of the few
species to de-
velop young
within its
body.
NATUREWATCH
The common bead let
anemone, a small red or
green species found along
the shore, is often seen
when the tide is out, with
its tentacles retracted.
Rockpools on the west
coast may also be the
home of the snakelocks
anemone, which has green
tentacles, tipped with vio-
let. The larger plumose
anemone, with its pink or
whitish tentacles, occurs
in deep water.
EUROPEAN STARFISH
CLASS
Asteroidea
FAMILY
Asteriidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Asterias rubens
The European starfish is a brownish-orange color and has five
tapering limbs that give it its star shape. It is a common seashore
sight along the coastline of western Europe.
SIZES
Length: Up to 18 in. across.
Arm length: Up to 10 in.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1 year.
Spawning season: Spring.
No. of eggs: About 2.5 million
eggs in each spawning.
Larval stage: About 2 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Occurs where prey is
abundant. Creeps across sea-
bed using tube feet.
Diet: Mainly bivalve mollusks,
especially oysters, mussels, and
scallops.
RELATED SPECIES
There are about 1,600 species of
starfish in 31 families, distributed
throughout the oceans of the
world. The family Asteriidae
includes numerous species in
North America.
Outer surface: Supports many tiny
pincers that snap shut on intruding
creatures to deter or even kill them.
Outer wall: Very
flexible. Made
mostly from
muscle fiber and
bony supports.
Fluid system:
Muscular podia
(see detail right)
are filled with
fluid and operate
much like water
pumps. As they
become longer
or shorter, the
pressurized fluid
inside moves
accordingly.
Sex cell organs:
Occur in each
arm and release
sperm or eggs.
Digestion: From the mouth
(underneath) food enters
the stomach (1) . Organs
in each arm (2) make
digestive juices and
store food. Waste is
expelled from the
anus (3).
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of the European starfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Found on the coasts of northern and western Europe and
northwest Africa, from the lower shore to 650 feet below
sea level.
CONSERVATION
The European starfish is still common and widespread
throughout its range, but some are collected, dried, and
sold as decorative trinkets.
Spines: Cover
the starfish's
upper surface.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Podia: Tube feet
under each arm,
tipped with suc-
tion pads. They
enable the star-
fish to walk and
to open its prey.
They also absorb
oxygen.
o 160200351 PACKET 35
The European starfish, which is all legs and
has no real head, seems a strange creature.
It uses its suction feet to crawl along the seabed
and to grasp its prey. With these suction feet,
it can even pry open mussel and clam shells.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
The bodies of starfish are very
different from those of most
other animals. The European
starfish has five identical arms
radiating from a flat central
area, and other starfish have
as many as 50 arms. The cen-
tral area contains the mouth
(on the bottom), the anus
(on top), and the main stom-
ach organs in between.
Bony plates in the starfish's
DID YOU KNOW?
Adult starfish consume
three times their weight in
food every day. Young
starfish may eat 10 times
their body weight.
body give it support. All over
the surface there are tiny pin-
cers that snap shut to defend
against creatures that try to
settle on the starfish.
Sensitive tube feet with suc-
tion pads line the bottom of
each arm. These podia detect
and trap prey. To move for-
ward, the starfish repeatedly
extends its tube feet and fixes
each to a new spot.
Crown-of-thorns starfish
graze on living coral. They
recently destroyed large
sections of Australia's Great
Barrier Reef.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Some starfish filter nutritious
particles from the water, but
most, including the European
starfish, are predators. They
eat sponges, corals, worms,
mollusks, crustaceans, other
starfish, and small fish. They
use their tube feet to detect
prey from chemical signals in
the water and to ensnare
their victims.
The European starfish is
especially fond of bivalve
left: A starfish uses hundreds of
suction feet to creep slowly on
the seabed.
1[,' 6/ NATUREVVATCH
European starfish are often
found on mussel beds. Oth-
I er European species include
the cushion star, with stub-
by arms, and the sunstar,
mollusks such as mussels,
oysters, and clams. These
creatures seal their shells tight
when attacked, but the star-
fish wraps its body around
the prey and uses its tube feet
to pull the two halves of the
shell slightly open. It extends
its stomach outward through
its mouth and into the shell
itself. The starfish releases di -
gestive juices that break
down the victim's tissue. The
resulting soupy mixture is
absorbed into the extended
stomach.
with 10 or more arms. The
dry remains on beaches are
the animal's bony plates.
The softer parts have usuallYJ
decomposed or been eaten.
-- --
The male and female Euro-
pean starfish look similar.
During the spring spawning
season, they produce millions
of sex cells and release them
into the water through spe-
cial pores. When a female
releases sex cells, she triggers
neighboring males and fe-
left: A starfish usually moves
only when feeding or if the sea-
bed temperature changes.
Above: A star-
fish pumps
digestive juice
into a mussel
I to dissolve it.
left: Even a
hermit crab
can fall prey to
a starfish.
males to release theirs, and
many of the cells intermingle.
A fertilized egg hatches into
a floating, bean-shaped, sym-
metrical larva. It grows twelve
arms and floats near the sur-
face for several more weeks.
Eventually its arms are re-
placed by three new arms.
The larva inverts itself and,
using its three arms and a
suction foot, anchors itself to
the seabed. A star-shaped
bud grows on the rear of the
larva and eventually takes
over. After a year it is a ma-
ture, but small, adult, mea-
suring four inches across.
left: After weeks of floating, the
larva adheres to a rock and
changes into an adult.
OCTOPUS
PHYLUM
Mollusca
CARD 8
The well armed octopus has a secret weapon. Concealed in the
folds of its body lies a sackful of ink, which the octopus
secretes to ward off or confuse its enemies.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 10ft., but usually
smaller.
Weight: Up to 55 lb. Females are
mature at 21b. Males, at 3
1
/2 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Females, 1
1
/2-2
years. Males, earlier.
No. of eggs laid: Up to 150,000.
Hatching time: 4-6 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, bottom-dwelling.
Diet: Mainly crabs, crayfish, and
bivalves.
lifespan: Females usually die
after breeding at about 2 years of
age; males live longer.
RELATED SPECIES
Octopus are closely related to
squid, cuttlefish, and nautiluses.
FEATURES OF THE OCTOPUS
Skin: Light-sensitive, it can change
color rapidly to blend in with the
surroundings.
Arms: Eight, used for swimming and
crawling, fighting, housebuilding,
gripping prey, and breeding. Nerve
endings on suckers transmit
information about surroundings.
MCMXCIIMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of the octopus.
DISTRIBUTION
The octopus is found worldwide, generally in warm waters.
CONSERVATION
Because of overfishing, the octopus has become scarce in
some localities. In these areas, the octopus needs protection
so that the population can recover.
J'J
, Eyes: Change position to focus,
)1 always remaining horizontal as body
moves.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. WF DM NC 22
The strange-looking octopus has a
bulbous body and eight arms. Its
bag-shaped body-called a mantle-
houses a remarkably well developed
brain and nervous system, making the
octopus surprisingly intelligent.

A bottom-dwelling animal, the
octopus makes its home in a
hole or rock crevice in shallow
water. Sometimes it digs a
gravel nest or forms a protec-
tive area with a pile of rocks.
By day, the octopus spends
DID YOU KNOW?
The first writing ink was
made from pigment found in
the octopus's ink sac.
The octopus is messy. It is
easy to identify its lair by the
pile of discarded shells outside
the entrance.
If an octopus damages one
most of its time hidden in its
lair. When it hunts, it propels
itself by swimming or crawl -
ing along on its tentacles. Its
large, lidded eyes are adapted
to focus in dim underwater
light.
of its vital arms, it can grow a
new one.
The octopus is capable of
learning. In an experiment,
octopuses were trained to
distinguish between shapes
and also to recognize objects
by touch.
The octopus catches most of
its prey by stealth. Having
changed color to blend in ,
with its surroundings, the
well-camouflaged octopus
waits for prey to pass by and
then seizes it with its long
arms. The arms are powerful.
and flexible, with two rows of
suckers that help it grip its
slippery prey. The octopus
then stuns its victim with a
secretion of nerve poison. To
stalk lobsters and other
dangerous prey, the octopus
squirts ink into the water to >-
form a screen. Hiding behind
the dark cloud, it creeps up on :if

its victim and grabs it from
a:
behind.
If the octopus's prey is
hard-shelled, the octopus
punctures the shell by drilling
with its tongue, which is
covered in small, sharp teeth.
PREDATORS & DEFENSES
The octopus's predators in- Often, however, the
clude moray and conger eels, octopus avoids detection
dolphins, and sharks. When- completely. It can change its
ever possible, the octopus will body color and texture so
escape from its predators by perfectly that it can virtually
shooting a jet of water disappear. The colored pig-
through its body to create a ment in its skin can be con-
burst of speed. centrated or diluted, forming

When octopuses mate, the
male sends waves of spermato-
phores down one of its arms-
the hectocotylus-into the
female to fertilize her eggs.
For about a week afterward,
the female lays clusters of
The female octopus lays up to
150,000 eggs and guards them for
four to six weeks.
grapelike eggs inside her
nest. She will not leave her
nest in the month to 6 weeks
that it takes for the eggs to
hatch. Because female octo-
puses do not eat while they
are guarding their eggs, it is
An octopus egg reveals the embryo
within. Hatching time depends on
water temperature.
Far left: An
octopus crawls
along the
seabed on its
tentacles.
Left: The
octopus swims
headfirst. In
emergencies, it
can expel water
through the
funnel-shaped
end of its mantle
to give it a real
burst of speed.
stripes and patterns that blend
into the environment.
The octopus's ink sac also
helps it avoid attack. It releases
a disorienting black cloud that
is accompanied by another
secretion to dull the attacker's
sense of smell.
not uncommon for them to
die of starvation.
The eggs hatch into larvae
that look like tiny versions of
their parents. They come to
rest on the seabed, where
they mature quickly.
When hatched, the '/4-inch larva
resembles a perfectly formed
baby octopus.
COMMON EARTHWORM
ORDER
Oligochaeta
FAMILY
Lumbricidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Lumbricus terrestris
The earthworm is such a familiar sight that we rarely give it a
second glance, yet its contribution to soil fertility is enormous. It is
also an important food source for many small mammals.
SIZES
Length: Usually up to 1 ft., but
longer specimens are recorded.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 6-1 8 months.
Mating: On warm, wet summer
nights.
No. of eggs: Up to 20 per cocoon.
Hatching time: 1-5 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary burrower, occasion-
ally lies dormant in a burrow in
very cold or dry weather.
Diet: Soil containing organic
matter, dead vegetation, some-
times small dead animals.
Lifespan: Up to 6 years in
captivity.
RELATED SPECIES
The 1,800 or so species of earth-
worm are relatives of the leech,
marine ragworm, and lugworm.
Range of the common earthworm.

DISTRIBUTION
The earthworm is found worldwide. The common earth-
worm is found throughout Europe and Asia in suitable
climates and soil.
CONSERVATION
Some gardeners poison earthworms to eliminate wormcasts
(waste deposits). Poisoning causes more damage to lawns,
predatory birds, and other animals than to earthworms.
HOW THE EARTHWORM REPRODUCES
Mating: Attracted by scent, two earth-
worms exchange sperm on the soil's
surface, bound together by a mucus
covering.
Preparation: The worm secretes mucus
from its clitellum (the pale, swollen
section of its body) , forming a sheath.
Fertilization: The . ':. Sheath: The
sheath slips down earthworm slides
the body, collect- "'--o-u-f of the mucus
ing eggs and sperm. S eath, slipping it
'DMCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
over its head.
Cocoon: The sheath, containing up to
. . 20 eggs, seals up to form a cocoon. It
can survi ve extreme weather condi-
ns, but usually only a Single young
earthworm emerges.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200331 PACKET 33
The earthworm is a tunneler that eats its way
through the soit converting clay into rich,
living earth. Its activities over millions of years
have created the most fertile soils on the planet.
Although commonly seen on the ground in damp
weather, the earthworm is always careful to keep itself
anchored to its burrow for a quick getaway.
~ HABITS
The earthworm lives mostly
underground, plowing
through soil and creating
complex burrow networks six
feet or more.
The earthworm's body is a
tube of muscle arranged in
two layers. One set of fibers
moves lengthwise and another
stretches widthwise like a
girdle around its body.
Tightening the "girdle"
forces the worm's head
forward like toothpaste
squeezed out of a tube. A
muscle contraction passes
through the body, squeezing
more of the worm up the
tunnel until the long muscles
can drag the tail forward and
the contraction process starts
again. Well-lubricated with
mucus, the worm can move
through the hardest earth.
The thin-skinned earth-
worm has no resistance to
the sun's ultraviolet radiation
so it only comes to the
surface in wet weather. On
rainy, wet nights it emerges
to probe grasses and dead
leaves for food or to mate.
~ BREEDING
The earthworm has both male
and female sex organs, but it
cannot fertilize itself. It mates
to exchange genetic material,
similar to the way flowers
cross-pollinate each other.
The earthworm mates on the
surface at night. Drawn
together by scent, the worms
lie head-to-tail, enveloped in
mucus. For an hour or more
they exchange sperm and
store it in a special pouch.
After separating, the worm
secretes slime from its clitellum
left: Some species of earthworm
deposit waste, called wormcasts,
on the ground.
DID YOU KNOW?
If an earthworm loses one
end of its body it grows a
replacement, but if it is cut in
half it dies. It never becomes
two new worms.
In 1982 an earthworm
more than five feet long was
found in Britain-a midget
compared to the 10-foot
(the pale, swollen section
toward the rear of its body).
The slime dries into a tube
that slips down the worm's
body, collecting eggs and
sperm. The tube slips off and
the ends seal to form a pea-
sized cocoon holding up to
20 earthworm eggs.
The cocoon can survive
drought and frost while adult
earthworms cannot. Usually
only one earthworm emerges
from the cocoon.
Right: Although it has both
female and male sex organs, the
earthworm cannot reproduce
without a mate.
earthworms found in south-
ern Africa and Australia.
Earthworms slowly bring
soil to the surface and cover
objects on the ground. This is
one reason why archaeolo-
gists have to dig down
underneath the ground to
find fossils.
The thrush, blackbird, and
starling cock their heads and
listen for worms moving
underground. With a quick
stab of the bill they catch the
earthworm,but it uses tiny
bristles on its body to anchor
itself in the hole. A strong
earthworm can break free,
but sometimes part of it
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The earthworm eats the soil
by crunching it in its muscu-
lar stomach, digesting organ-
ic material mixed in with the
mineral fragments, and eject-
ing the rest. Some earthworm
species dump waste on the
surface, leaving coiled depos-
its called wormcasts, but
others void waste below the
ground.
In old grassland soils, a
cubic yard can hold up to
Left: The earthworm mainly eats
soil but also feeds on leaf litter
from the woodland floor.
snaps off. If the break is near
the end of the body, the
earthworm can regenerate
the missing part.
Small animals like shrews,
hedgehogs, badgers, foxes,
and wolves all eat earth-
worms, and the mole eats
about 50 earthworms a day
-more in winter.
500 worms. The soil be-
comes fertile as the worms
leave a well-drained, well-
aired, crumbly loam (soil with
sand, clay, silt, and organic
matter). The soil is very fertile
because of a continuous turn-
over of nutrients from the
lower levels to the surface.
Acid moorlands contain
few worms, causing the soil
to be poorly drained, airless,
compacted, and infertile.
The earthworm also eats
dead leaves after dragging
them to its burrow.
OYSTER
... CLASS
"IIIIIIIIIII Bivalvia
ORDER
Eulamellibranchia
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
" FAMilY
~ Ostreidae
The oyster is a remarkable animal. It changes sex each year,
can spawn in its male or female form, and is able to release up to
a mil/ion eggs at a time.
~
SIZES
length: European flat oyster, up to
3 in. at 5 years. Other species differ
in size.
~
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Matures first as a
male, then becomes a female and
continues to change sex through-
out its lifetime.
Spawn: Year-round, depending on
water temperature and salt
content.
No. of eggs: From 1 to several
million, according to species.
[j]
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Adult oysters live in clusters,
attached to rocks or any clean,
solid object.
Diet: Small edible particles filtered
from sea water.
~
RELATED SPECIES
Other bivalves, including tropical
pearl, thorny, and exotic oysters.
I INSIDE THE OYSTER
The oyster is a mollusk with two hard
shells, or valves, attached by a hinge and
held together with a strong, triangular
muscle. The flattened right and rounded
left shells act as armor for the oyster's
soft body flesh. They vary slightly in shape
according to species.
The oyster adds
fresh layers to its
shell each year-
just like the rings
of a tree-
providing an easy
way of estimating
its age.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
.I
j
Range of the oyster.
DISTRIBUTION
Oysters are found along the coastlines of the United States,
Europe, Mexico, Canada, Hawaii, and Australia. Pearls are
most common in those from Japan, Australia, and Venezuela.
CONSERVATION
Over-fishing and marine pollution have led to the destruction
of many natural oyster beds., Today oysters are a lUXUry food
raised mainly on commercial farms throughout the world.
Once the two halves of its shell are pried apart more than
1/2 in., the muscle that holds them together opens, and the
anatomy of the oyster can be studied in detail. Pearls are
produced by the oyster, which coats any foreign object
that gets inside, such as a piece 'of grit, with secretions
called nacre. This covering builds up over the years to
produce a highly valued jewel.
PRINTED IN U.S,A, 0160200081 PACKET 8
Oyster larvae will settle on any solid object
beneath the water's surface and cement themselves
in place. They then start growing, adding layer upon
layer to their shell to accommodate the
expanding body inside.
~ OYSTERS & MAN
Oysters have been farmed for
thousands of years-mounds
of discarded oyster, scallop,
and mussel shells have been
found during archaeological
digs of ancient Rome. The
Romans imported North Sea
oysters and were the first to
create artificial oyster beds to
satisfy the demand.
Below: Thriving oyster beds at
low tide.
The oyster has both male and
female reproductive organs
and undergoes a constant
cycle of sex change. It may
spawn (breed) as either a
male or a female, depending
on the salt content and tem-
perature of the water.
The eggs, which look like a
milky-white cloud, are
normally released on an
ebbing tide. An oyster sheds
an average of 1 million eggs,
on which small fish feed. The
fertilized eggs float 7-18 days
before settling, if they survive
being eaten by prey.
In spite of its minute size,
each larva has a tiny shell
complete with muscles and a
foot. Once its swimming
stage is over, the larva
extends its foot, settles on any
solid object it can find, and
cements itself in place. At this
stage, it is known as an oyster
spat.
Left: Resting
on the bed of
the Indian
Ocean, a
thorny oyster
of the
Spondylus
genus opens to
reveal its
insides.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The oyster feeds by filtering
tiny food particles from the
water. By beating the tiny
hairs, or cilia, of its gills, it
forces water through its partly
opened shell at the rate of 2-4
gallons an hour. Any food
particles sucked in stick to
mucous strings that are
attached to the cilia. The food
is then forced into the mouth.
Inside its stomach, the oyster
has a rod-shaped mass of
digestive enzymes, rotated by
the current of water, which
pulls in the food .
~ THE OYSTER FAMILY
The name oyster has been
given to a variety of bivalve
mollusks, not all of which are
considered true oysters. The
true oyster is the European flat
oyster Ostrea edulis, which is
made up of two different sized
shells that are irregular in
Left: Once they
are anchored
in place, oyster
- spat begin to
grow their
shells, which
are protection
for their
vulnerable
bodies.
shape.
In the same family are eras-
sostrea virginico, found on the
east coast of the United
States, the Portuguese oyster,
C. angulata, and the Japanese
oyster C. gigas-all of which
are edible.
DID YOU KNOW?
During the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, oysters
were so plentiful and cheap
that they were regarded as a
poor man's food .
It takes from 5 months to 7
years for an oyster to pro-
duce a cultured pearl.
The Chinese are credited
with starting the cultured
pearl trade in the fourteenth
century. They introduced tiny
metal buddhas (see below)
into oysters, around which
the pearls developed.