ZOOPLANKTON

ORDER
Various
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
Zooplankton drift through the oceans in swarms of millions,
clouding the rich waters gray-green. When they are examined
under a microscope, their fantastic shapes gleam like living jewels.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Range from microscopic
single-celled animals to large
comb jellies over 3 ft. long.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Weak swimmers, drifting
with the ocean current s.
Diet: Most zooplankton eat micro-
scopic floating plants called phyto-
plankton. Some prey on other
zooplankton.
ANIMAL TYPES
Most adult zooplankton are small
crustaceans, such as copepods,
and are related to shrimps and
crabs. Other zooplankton are the
floating larvae of fish, mollusks,
and echinoderms such as starfish
and sea urchins.
Range of zooplankton.
DISTRI BUTION
Zooplankton live in all the oceans. They are most numerous in
coastal waters where there is abundant plant life-especially in
the cold polar seas.
CONSERVATION
Most zooplankton are in no danger. But the harvesting of krill
from Antarctic waters could be damaging, both to the krill
populations and to the other animals that depend on them.
HOW OCEAN CURRENTS CAUSE ZOOPLANKTON SWARMS
1. Wind-driven currents push
surface water away from the coast.
Bottom water rises up to replace it.
2
2. Minerals sink to the seabed in
open water and form bottom ooze.
3. Minerals are carried by water
rising to the surface. Mineral-rich
water replaces surface water.
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CONTI NENTAL
COAST
4. Mineral-rich water warms up at
the sunlit surface, causing a bloom of
phytoplankton. This in turn causes a
population explosion of zooplankton,
which attracts whales, fish, and other
plankton eaters.
0160200491 PACKET 49
Zooplankton are minute floating animals that
graze on the flourishing plant life of ocean waters.
Sometimes they even feed on each other. Zooplankton
are one of the basic food sources of the sea, on which
all other marine life depends. Animals ranging from
the sea anemone to the great blue whale would die
without these tiny creatures to sustain them.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
There are two types of plank-
ton: single-celled plants known
as phytoplankton and the mi-
nuscule animals that feed on
them, zooplankton. In most
seas, plankton are tiny-even
microscopic-and they cloud
the water.
Some zooplankton spend
their lives drifting and feeding
on plants and on each other.
These zooplankton include
crustaceans such as krill, which
form huge swarms. Zooplank-
ton swarms also contain the
eggs and larvae of fish, mol-
lusks, sea anemones, barnacles,
and jellyfish.
The larvae hatch from spring
to early summer, when the phy-
toplankton they feed on is most
abundant. As the larvae feed,
the currents carry them far from
where they were spawned. This
planktonic larval phase is vital to
the wider distribution of species
like barnacles and mussels that
do not move as adults.
~ DISTRIBUTION
Plankton are usually found in
the top 500 feet of the sea,
where sunlight can penetrate.
They also occur in shallow
areas where wave action brings
mineral-rich sediments to the
surface. There the combination
of sunlight and minerals causes
a bloom, or population explo-
sion, of phytoplankton. This in
turn increases the zooplankton,
which feed on the tiny plants.
These fertile waters are stirred
up by currents swirling around
the great oceans. Turbulence
occurs mainly at the edges of
Left: Crab larvae are seasonal
members of zooplankton swarms,
hatching in spring and summer.
DID YOU KNOW?
One swarm of Atlantic krill
occupied 175 square miles to
a depth of 650 feet-over two
million tons of animals.
Many seas are rich in single-
celled animals called foramini-
ferans with skeletons made of
calcite. When they ~ i e , their
skeletons sink to the seabed,
the currents near the coasts, but
it can also occur where two cur-
rents meet. The mineral-rich
water can cause blooms of
plankton to occur in the mid-
dle of the ocean.
By contrast, the centers of
the great ocean swirls are al-
most motionless. There are
very few plant nutrients and
almost no plankton of any
kind. The waters of these mid-
ocean "deserts" are a clear,
sterile blue-very different
from the rich green of the
fertile seas.
Right: As larvae, jellyfish are part
of the plankton population. But as
adults they feed on zooplankton.
forming thick deposits of cal-
cite that are compressed into
chalk over millions of years.
Many zooplankton sink to
deep water by day and rise to
the surface at night. The fish
that eat them follow, which is
why herring, for example, are
easier to catch at night.
Some creatures that feed on
zooplankton are part of the
plankton swarm. Jellyfish, comb
jellies, and arrowworms drift
with the plankton, ensnaring
and engulfing other t iny or-
ganisms. Less mobile creatures
such as sea anemones and sea
squirts cling to rocks in shallow
water, trapping plankton that
drift against them.
Left: Sedentary as adults, larval
sea anemones may drift for many
miles as zooplankton.
Left: Krill is
a major com-
ponentof
zooplankton,
especially in
polar oceans.
Krill is a key
link in the food
chain. Without
it, Antarctica's
marine ecology
would collapse.
The giant manta ray moves
through plankton with its
mouth wide open, straining
water through its gills to filter
out a meal. Other fish-from
the anchovy to the basking
shark-feed in the same way.
Baleen whales use a similar
method, forcing water out
through the mat of fibrous
baleen surrounding their vast
mouths. In summer they feed
on krill in Antarctic seas, as do
seabirds, fish, and seals.
Crustacea Oecapoda Portunidae Carcinas maenas
The green crab is one of the most common animals of the
shoreline. This adaptable crustacean can live almost anywhere-
from a wave-battered breakwater to a brackish mud flat.
SIZE
Shell width: Up to 4 in.
BREEDING
Mating: May occur at any time of
year, but the peak of activity
depends on location.
No. of eggs: Several thousand.
Incubation: 12-18 weeks. Eggs
hatch into shrimplike larvae.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary opportunistic scav-
enger; lives close to the tidemark.
Diet: Almost anything edible-
dead or alive-including worms,
shrimp, mollusks, fish, and other
green crabs.
RELATED SPECIES
A close relative is the celebrated
blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, a
favorite choice on the menus of
seafood restaurants.
Range of the green crab.
DISTRIBUTION
Native to the coasts of Europe, the green crab was introduced
into North American waters in the 19th century and is now
probably the most abundant crab in the Northeast.
CONSERVATION
The resilience and resourcefulness of the green crab make it one
of the most adaptable of all coastal animals. It is a common
shoreline inhabitant.
FEATURES OF THE GREEN CRAB IDENTIFYING MALE AND
FEMALE GREEN CRABS
Legs: 10. The first 2 legs are en-
larged as toothed pincers. The
. other 8 legs help the crab move '
quickly with a sideways motion.
Carapace (shell): P ' all parts '
of the body, including the legs. The
shell is shed as the crab grows,
exposing a new, larger, temporarily
soft shell beneath.
Eyes: Mounted on movable
stalks that can be lowered
when not in use.
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Female: Shell is red-orange below.
The hind part of the abdomen, or
"tail," is curled underneath the body.
Male: Shell is green-yellow below.
The tail is the same length as the
female's but much narrower and
not as rounded.
us P 6001 12 052 PACKET 52
The green crab is a scavenger, foraging for morsels
among the debris of the shoreline. It is an opportunist,
making a meal of almost anything it can find. Dead
seagulls, beached jellyfish, and smashed limpets are
all rich pickings for the green crab. It also feeds on live
worms, shrimp, mollusks, and fish. If it gets the chance,
it even eats others of its own kind.
~ HABITAT
The green crab is one of the
most adaptable creatures of the
seashore. It can be found scurry-
ing over rocks, lurking under
submerged seaweed, or picking
its way across a mud flat.
Like all crabs, the green crab
breathes by forcing oxygenated
water through the nine pairs
of gills under its body. When it
ventures onto the beach, it car-
ries a supply of oxygenated wa-
ter with it.
To avoid drying out, the green
crab hides under moist stones
or weeds, or it takes refuge in
tidal pools. It usually stays close
to the water's edge, moving up
and down the shore with the
tide. This crab is also found as
much as 20 feet below the
water's surface.
The green crab is one of the
few marine animals that can
cope with a mixture of fresh
and salt water. This tolerance
of brackish water allows the
crab to penetrate river estuar-
ies and feed in tidal mud flats
and salt marshes. But many
seabirds flock to the mud flats,
and the green crab may end
up as a meal for an oyster-
catcher or herring gull.
~ BREEDING
The female crab can mate only
in the soft-shelled stage, imme-
diately after she molts (sheds her
old shell). The male latches on
to her, and as she molts, he in-
jects his sperm into her body,
where it is stored until she pro-
duces her eggs.
The fertilized eggs cling to-
gether in a sticky mass, which
the female carries under her
body. She clasps the eggs with
the broad "tail" that is perma-
nently curved under her cara-
Left: The green crab uses its claws
to defend itself as well as to attack
live prey.
DID YOU KNOW?
The green crab is often the
victim of Sacculina, a para-
site that eats the crab's body
fluids. The parasite looks like
a fungus growing under the
crab's body.
Green crabs are eaten by
rats that invade the beaches
at low tide. On the North
pace, or shell. The male also
has a tail, but it is narrower.
The eggs hatch into transpar-
ent, shrimplike larvae, with long
spines protruding from between
their eyes. These larvae, or zoeae,
float away to feed on plankton
for several weeks. Most are eat-
en, but a few escape and grow
into the more crablike megalops
larvae. They swim down to the
seabed, where they continue to
grow, molting several times un-
til they become miniature crabs.
Right: A female green crab carry-
ing a mass of eggs under her body
is said to be "in berry. "
American Atlantic coast rac-
coons prey on the crabs.
The green crab was once
sold as food, but it was too
small to become popular.
The crab's sideways gait
is very efficient. It moves
much faster than lobsters
and crayfish.
r ( ; ~ NATUREWATCH
The green crab lives on rocky
coasts and around piers and
breakwaters. Tie some bait to
a line, without a hook, and
dangle it in the water. When
you haul it up, there may be a
crab on the end. The female
has reddish orange underparts
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Almost anything edible, dead or
alive, is a potential meal for the
green crab. It is mainly a scav-
enger, eating decaying scraps
on the seashore, but it samples
anything it can get its claws
into. Worms, shri mp, mollusks,
fish, and even smaller green
crabs are fair game.
Like all crabs, the green crab
tears up its food with its claws.
With its claws it passes the pieces
to six pairs of jointed mouth-
parts. Some of these are used to
Left: If the opportunity arises, the
adaptable green crab may eat
other green crabs.
and a broad tail. The male is
green-yellow underneath.
When you set it down, the
crab will try to escape; if cor-
nered, it will raise its claws.
If seized violently by a leg or
claw, it sheds the offending
limb and scurries away.
----1
pump water through the crab's
gills, but the front pairs act as
food processors, mashing up the
pieces and pushing the pulp into
the crab's mouth.
As the crab feeds, it grows.
But progressive growth is im-
possible for an animal with a
hard shell, so the crab grows in
stages, shedding its carapace
and emerging with a new, soft
shell that expands to the new
size. The crab takes in water to
inflate the new shell before it
hardens. Until its shell hardens,
the crab is defenseless, so it
hides in crevices.
BLUE MUSSEL
... ORDER
'11IIIIIIII Mollusca
FAMILY
Mytilidae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
... GENUS &: SPECIES
'11IIIIIIII Myti/us edulis
The blue mussel is a familiar inhabitant of the North Atlantic
and Japanese coasts. This rugged mollusk clings to a hard
surface as the tide ebbs and flows around it.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: 2-4 in. Size is affected by
habitat conditions .
BREEDING
Spawning season: Spring and
early summer.
No. of eggs: Up to 25 million per
mussel.
Larval period: 1 month.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Adults use their byssal
threads to attach themselves to
rocks, logs, and breakwaters in
large groups. They usually stay in
one place for life.
Diet: Small organic particles such
as phytoplankton, which are fil-
tered from the water.
RELATED SPECIES
Close relatives include the slightly
larger horse mussel, Modiolus
modiolus, and the ribbed mussel,
M. demissus, which lives partly
buried in the mud of salt marshes.
Range of the blue mussel.
DISTRIBUTION
The blue mussel is found on shores on both sides of the North
Atlantic and around the coast of Japan.
CONSERVATION
The blue mussel is in no immediate danger. It can cope with
relatively high levels of pollution. Although it is a popular
seafood, stocks recover quickly after harvesting.
FEATURES OF THE BLUE MUSSEL
Water out: Water is driven out of
the mussel's body by the beating
of hairlike organs called cilia. Af-
ter food particles have been ex-
tracted, the water passes out
through a siphon.
to reattach at a
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Water in: Water is drawn into the
mussel's body through one of
two breathing tubes called
siphons. The water passes
through a set of gills, which ex-
tract oxygen and food particles
from the water.
8yssal threads: Secreted as a fluid
from the foot, these threads
harden into strong anchors.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
THE MUSSEL'S SHELL
The mantle (sensitive body wall)
that lines the inside of the mus-
sel's shell deposits a smooth
coating of shell-like material in
very thin layers as the mussel
grows. This coating appears as
a pearly surface.
0160200551 PACKET 55
The blue mussel is well adapted to the rocky coastlines it
inhabits. By binding itself to a hard surface with a web of
threads, it withstands pounding waves in all but the severest
storms. By closing and sealing the two halves of its shell, it
protects itself against the baking sun and dehydration in
between the tides. 50 far the blue mussel has proved resistant
to pollution, but it occasionally falls victim to predators.

The blue mussel is well adapted
to the rocky seashore, where
it faces exposure to pounding
waves and the drying effects
of wind and sun. This mussel's
strong, streamlined shell lets
water flow past easily and pro-
tects it against the direct im-
pact of waves. To avoid being
swept away, the blue mussel
binds itself to a rock or anoth-
er hard surface with a web of
fibers known as byssal threads.
First secreted as a sticky fluid
by a gland in the foot, the fi-
bers harden into a tough but
elastic anchor system.
The rising and falling tide is
no problem for the blue mus-
sel. Like most bivalve mollusks,
it can draw the two halves of its
shell together to form a water-
tight seal. When the tide ebbs,
the blue mussel is protected
from dehydration for approxi-
mately six hours, until the tide
returns. Because it cannot sur-
vive for longer than six hours, it
always lives below the midtide
level on the shore. When the
water starts swirling around it
again, the blue mussel relaxes
its muscles, allows its shell to
gape open, and begins to feed.
FOOD & FEEDING
Coastal waters are so rich in edi-
ble material that the blue mussel
has only to open its shell and a
meal floods in on the tide. To
get its food, the blue mussel uses
two large breathing tubes called
siphons. It draws water into one
siphon, passes it through a set of
gills, and ejects it from the other
siphon. The gills extract oxygen
from the water and at the same
time act as sieves, straining out
edible particles such as the tiny
algae known as phytoplankton.
Left: Blue mussels are often camou-
flaged by barnacles that make
their homes on the shells.
DID YOU KNOW?
A blue mussel may pump as
many as 12 gallons of seawater
through its body every day.
Tiny pea crabs may live inside
the mussel's shell and feed on
its waste products.
In the Middle Ages the gold-
en byssal threads from the fan
mussel were used in making
a fabric known as "cloth of
Tiny, beating hairlike organs
called cilia drive the water cur-
rent through the gills. The cilia
clean the food particles off the
gills and transfer them to a mov-
ing sheet of mucus, which carries
them into the animal's stomach
like a conveyor belt.
The tide also brings dangers. A
blue mussel may ingest poison-
ous red algae or toxic bacteria.
Over time these toxins may be-
come concentrated in the mus-
sel's body and kill it.
Right: The blue mussel uses its
byssal threads to secure itself to
any hard surface.
gold," which was worn only by
the very wealthy.
Some blue mussels contain
tiny pearls formed by calcite
deposits around sand grains
that have found their way
inside the shell. The pearls
are too small to be of any
value, and they are not sold
commercially.

The blue mussel's main enemy
is the oystercatcher. This black-
and-white wading bird uses its
long orange bill to smash or pry
open mussel shells, usually while
the mussel beds are still half-
submerged and already open.
Starfish also attack the blue
mussel. They clamp their suc-
tionlike feet onto the mussel's

Because blue mussels are nor-
mally fixed to their rocks, they
do not mate. Instead, all the
blue mussels in an area release
eggs and sperm into the water
at the same time. The currents
bring the eggs and sperm to-
gether, and fertilization takes
place in the open water.
Unlike adult blue mussels, the
larvae that develop from the fer-
tilized eggs can swim. Propelled
by beating cilia-like those in
the gills of the adult-the larvae
Left: Blue mussels simultaneously
release eggs and sperm, which then
mingle in the water.
shell and tear it apart to get at
the soft flesh within. Equally
deadly is the dog whelk, a flesh-
eating snail that attacks other
mollusks by boring through
their shells with its toothed
tongue, or radula. After an at-
tack by a dog whelk, only the
mussel's empty shell remains,
perforated by a round hole.
travel up to the sunlit surface
waters. There they drift among
the plankton and feed on these
microscopic organisms.
After a month or so groups of
larvae settle on a hard surface
such as a rock, a log, or even
isolated stones on a muddy
beach. As many as 10,000 blue
mussels may cluster together in
a square foot. If the site is not
ideal, a mussel may move to an-
other. But once a suitable site
has been found, the mussel an-
chors itself securely to the rock
with its strong byssal threads
and stays put.
LUGWORM
ORDER
Polychaeta
FAMILY
Arenicolidae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
.... GENUS & SPECIES
"'IIIIIIII Arenicola marina
The lugworm lives in a burrow in the beach, safe from the waves,
sun, and predators. Although rarely seen, its presence is revealed
by coiled casts of sand that litter the beach at low tide.
Y FACTS
SIZES
Length: 4-8 in.
Thickness: About ~ in.
BREEDING
From their burrows, females and
males release their eggs and sperm
into the water in mid-October. Lar-
vae stay near the seabed while de-
veloping into adults.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary burrow dweller.
Diet: Organic matter extracted
from beach sand and mud.
RELATED SPECIES
v
Range of the lugworm.
DISTRIBUTION There are several other species in
the genus Arenicola, widely dis-
tributed along the muddy and
sandy coasts of the world.
The lugworm is found mostly in the' dark, muddy sand of shel -
tered bays or estuaries. It is also found on the lower shore (be-
low midtide level) of beaches and mud flats.
CONSERVATION
Although used for bait, the lugworm is in no direct danger
from man. But like all shore life, it is vulnerable to pollution
from oil spills and chemicals washed down rivers.
THE lUGWORM'S BURROW
Seawater: Each
high tide brings
oxygen to the
lugworm, re-
moves waste
carbon dioxide,
and carries food
particles.
Tail shaft: Kept
open by a mucus
lining. The lug-
worm draws in
water by rippling
its body.
Cast: Made of
sand that the lug-
worm excretes
and ejects after it
has extracted
food particles.
The cast is
washed away by
the next high tide.
MCMXCII IMP BV/I MP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Head shaft: The
tide brings fresh
sand, which the
lugworm "eats"
to extract the
nutritious food
particles.
0160200531 PACKET 53
The lugworm is a seashore relative of the earthworm.
It feeds on beach sand, digesting any edible material
and ejecting the rest back onto the beach. This eating
method allows the lugworm to stay hidden safely
inside its burrow. The lugworm is able to benefit
from the wealth of food that is brought in by
each tide, yet it remains invisible to its enemies.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Many burrowing beach animals,
such as clams, strain edible parti-
cles out of the seawater, but the
lugworm has a different tactic. It
feeds on particles that have set-
tied in the sand. Sorting food
fragments from sand grains
would be difficult, but the lug-
worm simply swallows all the
sand. It then digests the edible
material and excretes the rest.
The lugworm stays inside
a U-shaped burrow and takes
in sand that the tide washes
down the head shaft. It moves
up the tail shaft to eject waste
sand on the surface. If it does
that when the tide has gone
out, the result is a coiled cast
like that of an earthworm.
The lugworm is most abun-
dant on quiet beaches of mud-
~ RESPIRATION
The lugworm takes in oxygen
from seawater through 1 3 pairs
of feathery, red gills along its
flanks. To get enough oxygen,
at high tide it ripples its body
Below & inset: The lugworm has
gills located about halfway along
the length of its body. They are
finely branched in order to collect
as much oxygen as possible.
dy sand, which is richer than
other sands in organic matter.
On these muddy beaches, the
processes of decay often use
up the oxygen beneath the
surface, so the deeper layers
are black and sulfurous. As a
result, the lugworm may pro-
duce blackened casts that con-
trast with the yellow-brown
beach surface.
and drives a current of water
through its burrow. The water
enters the tail shaft, which is
kept open by a lining of mucus.
As the water flows forward, it
carries oxygen over the animal's
gills and removes waste carbon
dioxide. The water also brings
in small particles of edible mat-
ter, which become trapped in
DID YOU KNOW?
The lugworm is related to
the earthworm, which feeds
in a similar way-swallowing
earth, digesting the organic
material, and ejecting the
waste as a cast.
A lugworm can live for
months in the same burrow,
relying on the tide to refill its
the sand that fills the head shaft.
When the tide goes out, a pool
of water remains in the burrow,
but the oxygen is soon used up.
To counter this, the lugworm
has a lot of hemoglobin, a red
oxygen-carrying substance that
stores enough oxygen in the
blood to keep the animal alive
until the tide returns.
food supply twice a day.
Food-rich beaches may
support almost 830,000 lug-
worms per square mile.
Long-billed wading birds
watch for lugworms ejecting
waste sand and snatch them
before they can retreat down
their burrows.
~ BREEDING
Lugworms move very slowly, so
if they had to emerge on the
beach surface in order to mate,
they would soon be killed by
predators. But lugworms breed
by simply releasing eggs and
sperm into the tidal water. The
eggs and sperm mingle and
fuse, developing into larvae.
The critical factor is timing:
the eggs and sperm must be
released together. To ensure
that they do, the male and fe-
male lugworm produce their
sperm and eggs in unison at
certain states of the tide, over
a period of about two weeks.
After the fertilized eggs hatch
into larvae, they stay near the
seabed. When they develop into
adults, they drift to the beach
and burrow into the sand.
left: Small, spiny hairs help the
lug worm grip as it burrows.
[:b] NATUREWATCH
The lugworm is used as
bait. It can be found near
the low tidemark on sandy
beaches, but it prefers the
sheltered, muddy sand of
an estuary. Look for the
cast of the lugworm-a
small, coiled pile of sand.
Or you may discover the
conical crater that marks
the head shaft of the lug-
worm's burrow.
GHOST CRAB
ORDER
Oecapoda
FAMILY
Ocypodidae
Ghost crabs are scavengers that are active at night on warm,
sandy shores. Their name comes from their ability to blend into
their surroundings so well that they seem to vanish into thin air.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Coloration: Yellowish brown; pro-
vides camouflage on the surround-
ing sand.
Shell width: 1 ~ - 2 in.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1-2 years.
Breeding season: Any time of year
when conditions are suitable.
No. of eggs: Several hundred.
Incubation period: 10 days.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, but often found in
large numbers on beaches. Active
mainly at night at low tide.
Diet: Carrion scavenged from
the beach and some small live
animals, such as baby turtles.
RELATED SPECIES
The closest relatives in the family
Ocypodidae are the fiddler crabs
of the genus Uca that live in man-
grove swamps and mud flats.
FEATURES OF GHOST CRABS
Eyes: Compound, consisting of a series
of tiny mirrors. Mounted on retractable
stalks, they are much larger than those
of many other species of crab.
Mouthparts: Strong and sharp for
cutting and chewing carrion and the
flesh of some living creatures.
MCMXCII IMP BVIIMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of ghost crabs.
DISTRIBUTION
Ghost crabs are among the most widely distributed of all shore
animals. They are found on tropical and subtropical beaches
throughout the world.
CONSERVATION
Ghost crabs are flourishing and are not directly threatened by hu-
mans, although they avoid beaches with a lot of human activity.
They are at some risk from increased ocean pollution.
Shell: Hard outer covering, or
carapace, over head and upper
body. Relatively light to allow
movement at considerable speed.
Claws: 2 pincers
of eql:lallength
are used to tear
off manageable
pieces of food.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Legs: Relatively
long and split
into 5 sections.
To move sideways,
a crab contracts
the limbs facing in
the direction in
which it is moving
and uses them to
pull its body
along. By
turning 180
degrees, it
can change
its leading
side and rest
the muscles
on the other side.
0160200601 PACKET 60
Ghost crabs are resourceful opportunists and can move
incredibly quickly. They are probably the fastest runners of
all the many crab species. Their light shells and relatively
long legs allow them to move sideways at speeds of six
feet per second-which is fast enough to escape from their
predators on the beach. They also escape from predators
because they are camouflaged and almost impossible to see.
HABITS
On a few undisturbed beaches,
ghost crabs may emerge during
the day, but they are primarily
night creatures. As the evening
tide ebbs in the tropics, hun-
dreds of ghost crabs creep out
of their burrows, unfold their
big periscopic eyes from their
sockets, flex their pincers, and
hurry across the sand.
Ghost crabs have adapted to
life out of water. Although they
must absorb oxygen from water
through gills, they can breathe
on the beach by carrying a sup-
ply of oxygenated water in a gill
chamber. As the oxygen in this
reservoir is used up, more oxy-
gen diffuses into it from the sur-
rounding air. This process allows
ghost crabs to stay out of the
water almost indefinitely-as
long as their moisture supply
does not dry up.
Yet ghost crabs rarely stray far
from the tidemark, for they are
scavengers and the richest pick-
ings are on the damp sand be-
low midtide level. When the
tide floods in, the crabs simply
slip into their burrows, which
may be overfourfeet deep, seal
the entrances with sand, and sit
tight until the water ebbs away.

Male ghost crabs have devel-
oped their own special court-
ship methods. While other crabs
attract partners with their mas-
culine physiques, a male ghost
crab prefers to seduce a mate
by displaying his building skills.
He builds a deep burrow and
uses the excavated sand to con-
struct a pyramid at its entrance.
In addition to attracting a fe-
male, this structure deters oth-
er males.
After mating, the female de-
Left: Because ghost crabs are so
fast, they are called racing crabs
in some areas.
roID YOU KNOW?
Even though it is a sea crea-
ture, a ghost crab cannot stay
underwater for long periods
of time. When it retires to its
burrow at high tide, it covers
the entrance with sand in or-
der to keep a bubble of air
under the flooded beach.
A crab's eyes consist of sev-
eral tiny mirrors that reflect
posits her fertilized eggs in the
sea. After about 10 days they
hatch into tiny aquatic larvae
that drift in the plankton, feed-
ing on these microscopic ani-
mals and plants.
As a larva grows, it sheds its
hard shell several times, emerg-
ing in a slightly different and
more crablike form each time.
When it reaches its full size, it is
washed up on a sandy shore,
where it digs a burrow and be-
gins its life as a beach scavenger.
Right: In its intermediate stages of
development, a ghost crab's eyes
are not mounted on stalks.
received images into light-
sensitive cells. A ghost crab's
eyes are very sharp and much
bigger than most crabs' eyes.
A ghost crab makes a rasp-
ing noise by rubbing its legs
together. This sound can be
heard 30 feet away and keeps
other animals from approach-
ing its burrow.
SPECIAL ADAPTATION
Ghost crabs get their name
from their ability to disappear.
The crabs are concealed by an
almost perfect camouflage.
Their coloring matches the
sand, and they can enhance
this effect by squatting and
eliminating the telltale shad-
FOOD &: FEEDING
Almost anything may be swept
in by the tide, from a jellyfish
to a dead whale, so scavengers
such as ghost crabs become op-
portunists, taking whatever is of-
fered. On beaches where food
is plentiful, large numbers of
ghost crabs crowd around car-
rion (dead animal flesh), tearing
off manageable pieces with
their strong pincers. The crabs'
mouthparts are adapted for cut-
ting and chewing, and they are
able to mash almost anything
Left: Ghost crabs have a varied
diet, and they will even eat other
ghosc crabs.
ow from under their bodies.
They also benefit from the
fact that their pale undersides
counteract the shadow cast by
light from above. Because the
crabs seem to have neither
form nor substance, they are
almost invisible to predators.
that is edible-even other crabs.
Although ghost crabs usually
feed on carrion, they sometimes
attack other, weaker live crea-
tures. On beaches where turtles
nest, ghost crabs prey on help-
less newborn turtles, intercept-
ing them as they try to make
their way from the sand to the
sea after hatching.
In turn ghost crabs are preyed
on by seabirds such as gulls and
frigatebirds, as well as raccoons
and otters. They defend them-
selves by freezing on the spot,
burrowing in the sand, or run-
ning away at great speed.
HYDRA
CLASS
Hydrozoa
FAMILY
Hydridae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
.. GENERA
~ Hydra, Chlorohydra, etc.
A hydra IS slim body and crown of tentacles may look like a piece of
ragged thread drifting harmlessly in a pond or stream. But looks
deceive-hydras are venomous and resourceful predators.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: ) 4 - ~ in .
BREEDING
Budding: Small buds form in the
body from time to time and break
off within 2 days.
Sexual reproduction: Eggs and
sperm occur in each individual. An
egg is fertilized by another hydra's
sperm, before separating from the
parent. A young hydra hatches a
few weeks later.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Abundant in freshwater
ponds, lakes, and streams. Usual-
ly anchored to objects.
Diet: Worms, fleas, tadpoles, fish,
and insect larvae.
lifespan: Not known.
RELATED SPECIES
The class Hydrozoa contains more
than 3,000 species in 6 orders. Sea
anemones and corals are related
to hydras.
FEATURES OF HYDRAS
Range of hydras.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in freshwater lakes, ponds, and streams throughout the
world. In North America there are about 10 species of the ge-
nus Hydra, as well as the green hydra, Chlorohydra viridissima.
CONSERVATION
Hydras are found in large populations throughout their differ-
ent ranges.
Tentacles: Usually 6, in a ring around the mouth. They
contain capsules, which are used to capture prey,
Body: A hollow
cylinder coated by
2 layers of cells
with a gelatinous,
noncellular layer
between them.
Mouth: Can expand to take
in larger prey. Doubles as
an exit for undigested food. for defense, or to help a hydra move.
Reproductive organs:
In most species,
one individual has
both male and
female sex cells.
Form: Up t o ~ inch long, but it quickly
contracts into a tight ball to protect
itself when necessary.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Polyp:
The adult
reproduces by
growing a small
bud, or polyp,
out of its side.
This breaks
off to become
an independent
animal.
0160200611 PACKET 61
There are many different species of hydra, and they
are found in all parts of the world. In their adult form,
hydras are tiny animals that have hollow, cylindrical
bodies with about six long, thin tentacles at the top.
Most hydra species live only in freshwater habitats, but
their better-known relatives include giant jellyfish that
live in the sea, such as the Portuguese man-of-war.
~ HABITS
Although hydras live in large
groups, they are hard to see
because they are so small and
transparent. A hydra's body is
a single cavity covered by skin
that consists of two layers of
cells with a noncellular jelly-
like material between them.
One end of a hydra is usual-
ly anchored by a sticky disk to
a plant, stick, or stone. At the
other end is an opening that
serves as both a mouth and an
exit for undigested food . It is
fringed by thin tentacles con-
taining capsules made of small
cells, or cnidocytes. Each cap-
sule is a hollow tube that is
coiled in a spiral and can be
rapidly ejected.
There are four types of cap-
sule. Two kinds are used in cap-
turing prey. The first hits the
victim and injects it with poi-
son, while the second entan-
gles prey in a stringy tube. The
third type of capsule serves as
a defensive weapon, while the
fourth acts as a crutch, help-
ing the animal move.
To move, a hydra may slide
on its disk or execute a series
of cartwheels. It can also rise
to the surface on a gas bubble.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Hydras feed on freshwater crea-
tures that are small enough to
swallow, such as worms, water
fleas, insects, fish, and larvae.
A hydra's tentacles float idly in
the water, until a prospective
meal accidentally touches one.
The prey is then showered by
poisonous threads, wrapped
up in the tentacles, and guided
into the hydra's open mouth. A
hydra's mouth can stretch to
swallow relatively large victims.
After it has been swallowed,
Left: The green hydra is one of
several species found in North
America's ponds and streams.
the prey is broken down by the
contractions of the body wall.
Special proteins known as en-
zymes are released in order to
speed up digestion.
Some species of hydra can
change their diets if their usual
animal food sources become
scarce. These hydra species sur-
vive on the by-products of the
algae (single-celled plants) that
live inside their body cells. It is
these algae that determine a
hydra's color.
Right: Even a baby stickleback
may not be too large a prey for
a hydra.
Left: Hydras
are separate
animals, but a
large number
maycongre-
gate in areas
where food is
plentiful. An
individual
hydra may
have several
buds, making
the group look
even bigger.
DID YOU KNOW?
A hydra never grows old,
because each body cell is re-
placed every few weeks. If a
hydra is turned inside out, it
continues to live by moving
its skin cells back to their orig-
inal positions.
Hydras do not have brains.
They function instead through
a network of nerve cells.
~ BREEDING
A hydra can reproduce either
sexually or by budding. In the
budding method, several tiny
buds called polyps grow on a
hydra's side. An opening be-
gins to form at the polyp's free
end and the tentacles develop
around this opening. In about
two days the polyp breaks off
from its parent and is a sepa-
rate individual.
Sexual reproduction is more
frequent during fall and win-
ter. Each hydra produces both
Left: The small polyp growing from
this hydra's side will fall off and
form a separate individual.
Hydras are named after a
nine-headed monster in an-
cient Greek mythology that
grew two heads each time
Hercules struck off one.
Hydras are acrobatic crea-
tures. They are able to glide,
drift upside down, or turn
somersaults at the bottom
of a pond.
male and female sex cells. A
mature egg is fertilized by a
floating sperm from another
hydra. The egg enlarges and
divides many times, breaking
away from the parent and
dropping into the water. A
hard outer shell protects it
from freezing or drying out
during the winter. After a few
weeks, a new hydra hatches
from the shell.
Hydras have a remarkable
ability to survive. Even if a
hydra is carved into tiny slices,
each piece usually develops
into a new hydra.
HEART URCHIN
Echinodermata
CLASS
Echinoidea
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
ORDER
Spatangoida Echinocardium cordatum
The heart urchin spends its adult life buried in the sand of muddy
beaches. It moves very slowly along the low tidemark, eating
sand that is full of tiny organic particles.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: Fully grown adult,
about 2 in.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Breeds in its sec-
ond year.
Spawning season: Midsummer.
Larvae: Planktonic; settle on seabed
in first year.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Burrows in rich wet sand
near low tidemark.
Diet: Small organic particles in
the sand.
RELATED SPECIES
There are several species of heart
urchin, all very similar in form and
habits. They include the tiny, bright
green pea urchin, Echinocyamus
pusillus, which is only inch long,
and the larger purple heart urchin,
Spatangus purpureus, which can be
almost 5 inches long.
FEATURES OF THE
HEART URCHIN
Shell: Heart-shaped. Thickly
covered with weak, sand-colored
spines, which lie mostly in one
direction, following the elon-
gated shape otf .. ftll!
the body. ....
Range of the heart urchin.
DISTRIBUTION
The heart urchin is found on sandy or muddy beaches in many
parts of the world.
CONSERVATION
Although the heart urchin is not directly threatened by hu-
mans, it suffers from oil spills, chemical seepage from polluted
rivers, and other beach pollution that contaminates the sand
it inhabits.
THE HEART URCHIN'S
Burrowing technique: The heart urchin burrows down vertically using the
broad, spadelike spines on its sides. Once it reaches a depth of 2 to 8 inches,
it uses its front spines to scrape away sand and silt, which it passes to its
rear end using the spines along its sides. This forward movement is extreme-
ly slow-the heart urchin covers about 1 inches in 20 minutes.
Tube feet and mouth: As it moves
slowly through the sand, the heart
urchin takes silt into its simple
mouth through its many fluid-filled
tube feet. Some extra-long feet
reach the surface, where they per-
form a respiratory function, draw-
ing in fresh, oxygen-rich water. At
the anal end, one of the feet serves
as a drainage canal for waste prod-
ucts and deoxygenated water.
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To help it burrow into the sand, the heart urchin has
developed a longer, flatter shape than that of other sea
urchins. Its body is covered with spines, but these are not
designed for defense. Instead, the heart urchin uses its
spines to maneuver and bury itself in the sand.
~ HABITS
The heart urchin spends its
adult life buried in wet sand
near the low tidemark on the
beach, out of sight of predato-
ry seabirds. If placed on wet
sand, the heart urchin rapidly
disappears, digging into the
sand by moving the spines on
its sides backward and forward.
It burrows two to eight inches
beneath the surface, where it is
beyond the reach of wading
birds that use their long bills to
probe the sand for food.
The heart urchin prefers mud-
dy beaches that are rich in the
organic matter it eats. But the
many microorganisms on these
beaches use up the oxygen in
the sand. To get the steady
supply of oxygenated water
that it needs to survive, the
heart urchin digs a shaft to the
surface and reinforces the walls
with a lining of hardened mu-
cus. It then uses a set of extra-
long tube feet to keep this
shaft open.
~ STRUCTURE
Spiny sea urchins and starfish,
close relatives of the heart ur-
chin, have radial symmetry-
several essentially identical body
segments radiate from a central
point. The heart urchin's internal
organs show this radial structure,
but its shell is heart-shaped with
a front and back.
On its underside the heart
urchin has many tubelike feet
Left: Most of the spines on the
heart urchin point backward so
that it can move in one direction.
l \ ' I ~ NATUREWATCH
A half-inch-wide star-shaped
depression in wet sand may
indicate where a heart urchin
is buried, but the urchin quick-
ly disappears again if dug up.
DID YOU KNOW?
Fishermen once believed that
heart urchins foretold when a
storm was brewing by burrow-
ing deeper into the sand.
The skeletons of heart urchins
make good fossils. Perfectly
that are connected to its body by
a system of ducts. The fluid-filled
tubes with suckers on their ends
can be extended, retracted, and
moved around by hydraulic
pressure. Starfish and spiny sea
urchins walk on their tube feet,
but the heart urchin uses them
to gather food from the sand or,
using extra-long feet, from the
surface when the tide is in.
Right: The brittle empty shell-or
t est-of the heart urchin is known
as a sea potato.
Along the tide line, you may
find the heart urchin's empty
shell. Its spines may be gone,
but a radiating pattern of small
holes shows where its feet were.
preserved specimens have
been found in gardens.
Heart urchins eat almost any
organic matter. In a laboratory
tank, they have even eaten
peanut butter.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The heart urchin favors muddy
beaches in sheltered bays where
the water is relatively placid. In
these conditions fine particles
suspended in the water tend to
settle out and drift to the bot-
tom to mingle with the sand.
This debris contains the finely
ground remains of dead plants,
which provide the heart urchin
with a nutritious source of food.
Unlike cockles and other beach
residents that filter their food out
of the water before it settles on
the sand, the heart urchin eats
everything-food particles, silt,
~ BREEDING
At midsummer the female and
male heart urchins release their
eggs and sperm into the water,
relying on the currents to bring
the two together. The chances of
fertilization are improved by the
fact that heart urchins tend to
live in loose colonies. But many
of the eggs die unfertilized.
The fertilized eggs develop
into tiny larvae that drift in the
Left: The heart urchin rarely comes
out of its burrow because it is vul-
nerable to predators.
and sand. It relies on its diges-
tive system to separate out the
edible particles, absorbing the
nutrients and ejecting the rest.
The heart urchin moves slow-
ly forward, gathering up sand
with its tube feet and passing
it to its mouth. The processed
sand is dumped in a drainage
canal at the anal end of its body.
Sometimes the heart urchin
extends long tube feet up its
ventilation shaft to pick morsels
off the sand surface, but it usu-
ally just eats its way through
the sand underneath.
plankton, feeding on micro-
scopic plants. Most of the in-
fant urchins are eaten by fish
and other plankton eaters.
The survivors eventually set-
tle on the seabed in the zone
just below the low watermark.
There they change into their
adult shape. Many settle in un-
suitable areas and die, but the
few that end up on a suitable
sandy shore migrate up the
beach, dig themselves in, and
start eating.
CROWN-OF-THORNS STARFISH
PHYLUM
Echinodermata
CLASS
Asteroidea
OUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
... GENUS & SPECIES
~ Acanthaster planci
The crown-of-thorns starfish is a spiny creature that inhabits
tropical coral reefs. This creeping predator feeds on coral,
leaving only a bleached skeleton behind.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Diameter: Average, 16 in. across.
Can grow to 24 in. with 23 arms .
BREEDING
Breeding season: Midsummer.
No. of eggs: Up to 20 million
released into the water.
Larvae: Planktonic, floating in wa-
ter for a few weeks before settling
and changing into the adult form.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Usually feeds at night, alone
or in small groups. Also feeds by
day in large swarms during popula-
tion booms.
Diet: Soft polyps of hard, reef-
building corals.
RELATED SPECIES
The closest relatives are the sea
urchins and sea cucumbers, which
are all members of the phylum
Echinodermata.
Range of the crown-of-thorns starfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Found on coral reefs throughout the tropical western Pacific and
Indian oceans. Especially numerous on the Great Barrier Reef of
eastern Australia.
CONSERVATION
The crown-of-thorns starfish is considered a pest, but attempts
to control it have failed. It will probably survive as long as the
coral reefs survive.
---- -------------------,
THE CROWN-OF-THORNS STARFISH
AND ITS ENEMIES
Feeding: The animal spreads its stom-
ach over the coral colony. Its digestive
juices dissolve the coral polyps, leav-
ing behind a bleached skeleton.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Bearded triggerfish:
Flips the starfish over
to expose the poorly
defended underside.
Then bites into the
soft center.
Giant triton: Flesh-
eating snail that slits
open the starfish's
body and sucks out
the soft tissue.
Grathopyllid
shrimp: Preys
on crown-of-
thorns, but in
small numbers.
0160200661 PACKET 66
The crown-of-thorns starfish is one of the few creatures
that feed exclusively on coral. A single crown-of-thorns
starfish may have relatively little effect on a tropical reef.
But when huge swarms of these starfish attack and devour
the coral polyps, they can cause such devastation
that it may take the reef years to recover.
~ H A B I T S
In the middle 1960s and early
1 980s, there were huge popu-
lation explosions of crown-of-
thorns starfish. These creatures
swarmed over the coral reefs of
the Pacific, devouring all living
tissue. The most recent outbreak
affected more than a quarter of
Australia's Great Barrier Reef,
and the starfish killed over 90
percent of the coral in some
areas. In each case, the plague
died down after a few years,
and starfish populations re-
turned to normal.
It is not known why the pop-
ulation explosions occur. One
theory linked the outbreaks to
the declining population of the
crown-of-thorn's main predator
-the giant triton, which grows
up to 18 inches long. This carni-
vorous sea snail slits open the
starfish's body and then sucks its
juices. When its shell came into
demand for the tourist trade,
the giant triton population was
greatly reduced. However, sci-
entists no longer link the triton's
decline with the starfish's popu-
lation explosions, partly because
tritons seem to have only a rel-
atively slight effect on starfish
numbers. Also, fossils indicate
that the starfish plagues have
been occurring for thousands of
years. They seem to be a natural
part of the coral reef ecology.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The crown-of-thorns starfish
preys only on coral. At dusk it
emerges from its retreat and
creeps across the coral reef in
search of food. It often returns
to the same patch each night to
strip the soft coral polyps out of
the hard limestone structures
that form the reef.
The starfish feeds by turning
its stomach inside out and then
forcing the lining through its
"mouth," covering the living
coral with digestive juices. The
left: The crown-of-thorns starfish
is protected by hundreds of thick,
sharp spines covered in toxic mucus.
DID YOU KNOW?
Xanthid crabs may some-
times defend coral colonies.
The tiny crabs nip the crown-
of-thorns starfish and force it
to move elsewhere.
Large numbers of predatory
tritons were artificially bred and
released on the Great Barrier
starfish remains like this for a
number of hours, gradually re-
ducing the coral polyps to a liq-
uid, which it soaks up through
its stomach lining.
A single starfish can devour 8
inches of coral a night and may
destroy up to 50 square feet of
coral in a year. Normally, this has
little effect on the reef. If it is at-
tacked by enough starfish, how-
ever, the entire coral colony may
be consumed and the life of the
reef destroyed.
Right: The starfish's mouthparts
are on the underside of the body in
the center.
Reef during the starfish plague
of the 1960s. The plague sub-
sided, but it is not known if
the tritons were responsible.
As a starfish feeds, the scent
of the partly digested coral
spreads in the ocean currents,
attracting other starfish.
The body cavity of the crown-
of-thorns starfish is filled by its
digestive system for most of
the year. But as the midsum-
mer breeding season nears, the
animal's sexual organs begin to
swell, filling its body cavity and
arms and displacing its stom-
ach. This swelling is necessary
because the starfish produces
great quantities of eggs and
sperm. The female produces as
many as 20 million eggs every
summer, and the male gener-
ates a correspondingly large
amount of sperm.
left: Each of the tough spines can
be moved by muscles located on
the base of the starfish.
left: Rows of
suckers, or
"tube feet, "
radiate from
the center of
the crown-of-
thorns along
the underside
of its arms. The
suckers let the
animal creep
across the reef.
The reason such large quan-
tities are needed is that the fer-
tilization process is haphazard.
The eggs and sperm are sim-
ply released into the water, and
whether they come together is
a matter of chance.
Even if all 20 million eggs are
fertilized, only a few hundred
larvae will survive. Drifting in
the ocean with plankton, the
tiny creatures are easy prey. The
survivors settle on the seabed
to develop into miniature star-
fish. They are still vulnerable to
predators, however, and less
than a dozen out of the origi-
nal 20 million survive long
enough to breed.
BEADLET ANEMONE
CLASS
Anthozoa
ORDER
Actiniaria
CARD 29
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
GENUS & SPECIES
Actinia equina
The beadlet anemone looks like a blob of jelly when it is exposed
by the receding tide. But when the water returns, it blossoms
into a deadly bouquet of stinging tentacles.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Height: Up to 2 in.
Diameter: Up to 3 in. across
extended tentacles.
BREEDING
Reproduces by cross-fertilization.
The fertilized eggs remain inside
the female, where they hatch and
develop into free-swimming larvae
before they are released.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Attaches to rocks, usually
on tidal shores.
Diet: Any small animals that drift
into contact with its tentacles.
Lifespan: 3 years.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 6,500 members of the
class Anthozoa. Among them are
the sea anemones (including the
bead let anemone), the burrowing
anemones, the corals, the sea fans,
and the sea whips.
Range of the bead let anemone.
DISTRIBUTION
The beadlet anemone is found along the Atlantic coasts of
Europe and western Africa. It also occurs on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea.
CONSERVATION
The bead let anemone is common throughout its range. It is
vulnerable to coastal development and pollution, but it is in
no direct danger from humans.
FEATURES OF THE BEADLET ANEMONE
Oral disk: About 200 moving tentacles
are arranged in 6 rings and are used
to ensnare food. Around the rim
there are 24 spots, or beads, with
poison that can paralyze a trapped
animal.
Body wall: 2 sheets
of cells (the outer
ectoderm and the in-
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Mouth: Located
at the center of
the oral disk, it
opens inward.
It is also the
passage through
which indigestible
food is expelled.
Stomach: Cavity at
center of col umn. It
contains digestive
juices for breaking
down food.
0160200721 PACKET 72
The beadlet anemone is one of the few animals that
can survive the extreme conditions of the changing tides
on the shore. Twice a day, when the tide goes out, it has
to close itself up. During this period, the beadlet anemone
runs the risk of drying up, overheating, or even freezing.
The returning tide brings relief as well as a wealth of food.
~ HABITAT
Many sea anemone species live
entirely under water, but the
beadlet anemone generally in-
habits the tidal shore, where its
environment changes twice a
day when the water recedes.
In contrast to animals that can
move with the changing tide,
the bead let anemone remains
fixed to its rock and must wait
to become submerged again.
To avoid drying out, it with-
draws its tentacles and contracts
into a hard blob of jelly. This ac-
tion seals water inside its body
and reduces its surface area. But
an anemone cannot survive for
Right: The beadlet anemone gets
its name from the ring of poison-
filled beads around its mouth.
long on an exposed surface. If it
is above the tide line, it lives in a
damp crevice or under seaweed.
Red beadlet anemones colo-
nize vertical rock surfaces high
above the low-tide level. Green
ones usually occur farther down
the shore.
Right: Beadlet anemones may be
red, yellow, brown, or green.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Clinging to its rocky home, the
bead let anemone waits for prey
to drift within range of its ten-
tacles. The stinging cells on its
tentacles resemble miniature
poisonous harpoons on tiny
springs. If a small fish or shrimp
brushes against them, a barb
shoots out to pierce its skin and
inject a powerful venom. The
poison rapidly paralyzes the vic-
tim and allows the anemone
Left: There seems to be no reason
for the variations in color of the
beadlet anemone.
DID YOU KNOW?
Anemones belong to the
class Anthozoa, a name that
comes from two Greek words
meaning "flower" (anthos)
and "animals" (zoia).
The tentacles of the bead let
anemone act as gills, absorb-
ing oxygen from the water.
to drag its prey into its mouth.
The bead let anemone's mouth
opens inward, forming a trap
from which there is no escape.
Once the victim is inside, the
mouth closes and the digestive
juices begin to work. After the
edible parts are digested, the
remains are ejected through the
mouth. Then the bead let anem-
one spreads its tentacles to en-
snare another victim.
Right: After it has trapped its prey,
the beadlet anemone tastes it to
make sure it is edible.
The remains of one bead let
anemone were found fossil-
ized in rocks more than 600
million years old.
Some bead let anemones
have been found living entire-
ly under water, at depths of
over 60 feet.
I: 11(,;1 NATUREWATCH
Beadlet anemones are found
on rocky shores in western
Europe and Africa. They live
in dark crevices, beneath sea-
weed, or on rock overhangs
near the tide line. When ex-
I posed at l o ~ e , the anem-
~ STRUCTURE
The bead let anemone's body
is structured like that of the re-
lated jellyfish. In both animals
sheets of cells surround a layer
of jelly. The jellyfish's body is
saucer-shaped, but the anem-
one's body is a hollow column
that acts as a stomach. The jelly
layer contains fibers that help
~ BREEDING
Anemones reproduce in several
ways, with many simply divid-
ing in half. The bead let anem-
one is unusual because it uses
cross-fertilization. It is thought
that the male ejects sperm into
the water and that the female
draws the sperm in to fertilize
eggs inside her body.
ones look like blobs of jelly.
A bead let anemone living in
a tide pool often has its tenta-
cles extended. When it traps
a meal, it enfolds its prey and
paralyzes it before gradually
pushing it into its mouth.
contract and expand the body.
The anemone's lower end is
closed off by a suctionlike part
that helps the animal cling to a
rock. At the top end a central
mouth is surrounded by about
200 moving tentacles arranged
in six rings. Each of these tenta-
cles is armed with stinging cells.
The fertilized eggs hatch into
tiny swimming larvae inside the
female. At first they live in her
"stomach," but they are not af-
fected by the digestive process.
Eventually they are released into
the water and drift with the cur-
rents before settling on rocks to
begin their adult lives.
BANDED CORAL SHRIMP
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
'---------------------------------------------
CLASS
Crustacea
ORDER
Oecapoda
... FAMILY
Stenopodidae
... GENUS &: SPECIES
Stenopus hispidus
The banded coral shrimp lives in warm, shallow waters around
coral reefs. The male is much smaller than the female and often
rides through the water on the female back.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Body length: 2 in.
Legs: 5 pairs, including claws .
Antennae: Long with 3 branches.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1 year.
Mating: Year-round.
No. of eggs: Female carries several
hundred at a time.
Larval stages: Probably 5.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Adults are usually found in
pairs. Young are solitary.
Diet: Small marine animals, mucus,
parasites on host fish.
Lifespan: Not known.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 2,000 shrimp and prawn
species, including other "cleaner"
shrimp such as the red-backed
shrimp, Lysmata amboinensis,
and the grass shrimp, Leandrites
cyrtorhynchus.
Range of the banded coral shrimp.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in the shallow waters around coral reefs throughout the
world. Large populations occur on the Great Barrier Reef in
Australia.
CONSERVATION
The main threats to the continuing survival of the banded coral
shrimp come from ocean pollution and destruction of its natu-
ral habitat.
I HOW THE BANDED CLEANS RSH
-- r \, ..
. ,.
Antennae: Long and threadlike. The< .
shrimp waves them to attract fish.
Feeding: The shrimp uses its
mouthparts and claws to nibble
allover the skin of the fish, eat-
ing both parasites and a slimy pro-
tective mucus that is secreted by
the fish. Shrimp often work in pairs.
Cleaning station: A site on the reef
that is often partially hidden under a
coral ledge for protection from
prod'I" \
l ..
\
rc;:: MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Claws: Very large with colorful
coral and white bands to attract
fish to its cleaning services. The
shrimp runs its claws over the
fish, removing parasites and
mucus to its mouthparts.
0160200571 PACKET 57
The banded coral shrimp is named
for the broad, coral-colored bands that alternate
with stripes of white on its head, tail, abdomen, and
claws. This bright coloring catches the attention of fish.
The shrimp also waves its long, threadlike antennae
to attract fish. It then helps clean the fish,
removing parasites from their skin.
~ HABITS
The banded coral shrimp is one
of the best known of the "clean-
er" shrimp that live on coral
reefs. Cleaner shrimp have
what is called a symbiotic rela-
tionship with fish living on the
reef-a relationship that is mu-
tually beneficial, enabling the
two different animals to live
together in a small area. Speci-
fically, the banded coral shrimp
removes parasites from the skin
of certain fish. The fish in turn
do not prey on the shrimp.
The banded coral shrimp has
a hard outer covering. This ex-
ternal skeleton, called an exo-
skeleton, encloses and protects
the shrimp's muscles and inter-
nal organs. It also acts as a sup-
port for its body.
As the shrimp grows, its exo-
skeleton becomes too small, so
it periodically sheds this cover-
ing. First it forms a new, soft
covering underneath the old
one. The old covering then
splits, and the soft-bodied
~ BREEDING
Little is known about how
the banded coral shrimp
mates, but the female lays
several hundred eggs. While
they develop, the eggs are
attached under her abdomen
and tail. They hatch into tiny
larvae, which are released into
Below: The banded coral shrimp's
bold colors help attract fish.
shrimp wriggles free. It hides
in deep crevices in the coral
until its new covering stretches
and hardens.
Despite its hard protective
covering, the banded coral
shrimp is preyed upon by a
variety of sea animals. It ag-
gressively defends its territory
from other shrimp and small
crabs. Sometimes it loses one
of its claws while fighting, but
the claw is replaced the next
time it sheds its outer skin.
the water and move around
freely. Four further stages of
development occur before the
larva molts (sheds its covering)
and changes into a tiny adult
shrimp. It finds a suitable hab-
itat and remains alone until it
is fully grown, at about a year.
Right: The huge claws are a spe-
cially developed pair of legs.
DID YOU KNOW?
The banded coral shrimp
is also known as the boxing
shrimp because it weaves
from side to side, like a box-
er sparring .
The banded coral shrimp
is a relative of commercial
shrimp in the genus Penaeus,
but these shrimp do not
have large claws.
Over 250 different shrimp
species live on Heron Island,
a small reef in Australia's
Great Barrier Reef.
There are over 35,000
known crustacean species,
including crabs, lobsters,
prawns, and shrimp.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The banded coral shrimp eats
tiny sea animals that it picks
out of the coral reef. It also
feeds on small creatures on
the surface of the seabed.
The banded coral shrimp
supplements its diet by "clean-
ing" fish. Recent research has
shown that the shrimp feeds
on a type of mucus that the
fish secrete through their skin.
The shrimp also eats various
parasites that it picks off the
skin of the fish.
~ BANDED CORAL SHRIMP &: MAN
The banded coral shrimp can
be kept in a home aquarium
with certain other invertebrates
and small fish that are not too
aggressive. But it should not be
kept with other shrimp or small
crustaceans, since it will fight
to death defending its territory
against them. This behavior in
captivity contrasts with that of
other cleaner shrimp such as
the red-backed shrimp, Lysma-
to amboinensis.
Below: Off the warm Florida
coast, bright corals set off the
shrimp's white body parts.