HOW INSECTS FLY

The development of wings was a giant step In the evolution of

Insects, giving them the ability to fly. The wings of today's Insects
vary greatly In size, shope, and even In the way they function.
KEY FACTS
- - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
STAYING AIRBORNE
To fly, an insect, like an airplane,
must overcome two forces: grav-
ity and drag. Gravity is the force
that tends to pull a body down.
Drag is the resistance of air to a
body moving through it.
An insect counteracts these
forces by using its wings to cre-
ate an upward force-lift-and
a forward force-thrust. As the
wings move downward, the
greater air pressure below them
produces lift. The amount of lift
varies with the angle at which
an insect's wings meet the wind.
This is known as the angle of
attack. For thrust, or forward
movement, the wings act like
a propeller to pull the insect for-
ward through the air.
Although insects and planes
show many similarities in flight,
DID YOU KNOW?
Not all insects fly. Lice and
fleas, for example, have no
wings. They live in the hair
or feathers of their hosts, and
wings would make it hard to
move around there.
Locusts have been known
to reach altitudes of 3,000
feet and to cross the Atlantic
Above: The
movement of
an insect's wings
can be captured
by using strobe
photography.
Left: The locust
can glide for
long distances.
by gliding on thermals (warm
rising air current s).
Desert locusts may glide as
far as eight feet in still air with-
out moving their wings.
The fastest insects are prob-
ably large dragonfli es, which
can move about 33 feet per
second, or 22 mil es per hour.
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they differ greatly in size. In-
sects are much smaller and
lighter, so the air is compara-
tively much denser for them,
offering more resistance. For
very tiny insects, flight is more
like swimming in water. Their
wings tend to be bristly or
feathery, which helps reduce
the effect of drag.
The wings of the tiny Cera-
topogonid midge vibrate over
1 ,000 b e a ~ per second.
Monarch butterflies may
fly 3,000 miles when migrat-
ing from the u.s. to Mexico.
The great owlet moth can
have a wingspan as wide as
14 inches.
0160200621 PACKET 62
The ability to fly helps insects pursue prey and mates.
Through flight, insects have also been able to spread their
populations throughout the world. While in the air, insects
can glide, hover, bank, and dive, using sophisticated
adaptations to navigate and to control their flight.
~ WING MOVEMENTS
Insects hold their wings out
straight when gliding and beat
them up and down to move
forward. Large insects flap their
wings slowly-butterflies beat
8 to 12 times per second, and
dragonflies 20 to 30 times. In
contrast, bees beat 190 times
a second, houseflies 200 times,
and mosquitoes 600 times.
Some insects, such as dragon-
flies, have muscles directly at-
tached to the wings that cause
them to flap. Other insects, such
as flies and bees, have muscles
Front inset
left: The drag-
onfly's body
seems primitive,
but it is built
for efficient
flight.
Front inset
right: The
plumes on the
plume moth's
wings make
flight easier by
reducing drag.
attached to the thorax (upper
body) that change the shape of
the thorax to pull the wings up
and down. For very fast wing
beats, a "click" mechanism con-
tracts and relaxes the muscles in
quick succession.
As the wing is beating, other
muscles act on its base to twist
it and control its angle. The
wing's angle is reversed on the
upstroke and the downstroke.
The effect is like that of a rotat-
ing propeller, pulling the insect
through the air.
left: To hover
in the air, an
insect reduces
the breadth of
its wing move-
ments but con-
tinues to exert
about the same
degree of mus-
cular effort.
~ FLIGHT CONTROL
Insects have several features
that enable them to control
their flight when taking off,
changing speed and direction,
and landing.
Legs are important in takeoff.
Many insects use them to cata-
pult their bodies into the air.
The legs also act as brakes and
shock absorbers on landing. A
fly lands upside down on a ceil-
ing by flying upward at a steep
angle and extending all three
pairs of legs. When its front feet
touch the ceiling, it stops fly-
ing, but momentum carries it
on. The fly pivots on its forelegs,
grips the ceiling with its other
legs, and lands perfectly.
Insects can control their flight
left: The housefly is an expert at
using its leg muscles for takeoff as
well as landing.
left: The scales
on the swal-
lowtail butter-
fly's wings are
not just color-
ful. They reduce
drag on the
wings, making
flight easier.
speed by changing the angle
and beating rate of their wings.
An insect can angle its wings
independently to change direc-
tion and may use its abdomen
and legs as rudders. With its
eyes and antennae, it checks
the air in all directions and
alters its course accordingly.
A fly has modified hind wings
called halteres to help control
its flight. The haltere has a knob
on its end that vibrates to help
maintain balance.
Some insects navigate by the
sun. Even on cloudy days, they
recognize patterns of sunlight,
which they use to locate the
position of the sun and deter-
mine their own direction.
Right: The yellow jacket couples its
hind wings and forewings when
flying so they beat together.
~ WING STRUCTURE
Only adult insects have fully de-
veloped wings. Each wing is a
thin flap of cuticle (hard tissue)
that is supported by a network
of veins. Insects usually have
two pairs of wings, but there
are many variations. Dragon-
flies and termites have four
wings that are about the same
size and shape. The hind wings
of bees, wasps, and ants are
smaller than the forewings. In
grasshoppers they are much
larger. Hind wings may have
tail-like extensions, as in swal-
lowtail butterflies.
Grasshoppers and earwigs
use their hind wings to fly, but
their forewings play only a pro-
tective role. Beetles' forewings
have hardened into wing cases
Left: The swallowtail butterfly's
hind wings and forewings differ
in shape and size.
called elytra, and their hind
wings fold under them when
not in use. An earwig closes its
hind wings like a fan, folding
them over twice and storing
them under its elytra.
In many insects, the two
wings on each side are con-
nected, so they beat in unison.
In moths, this coupling is often
a set of strong interlocking bris-
tles called the frenulum. Bees
and wasps have tiny hooks on
the hind wing, which interlock
with a fold on the back of the
forewing. The insect h ~ k s its
wings together before takeoff
and unhooks them on landing.
The wing surface may be
smooth, partly scaled (as in
mosquitoes), or totally scaled
(as in butterflies). The scales
contribute to the wing's aero-
dynamic properties.
Left: The lady-
bug unfolds
its long wings
from their ely-
tra (wing cases)
when it takes to
the air. When it
lands, it tucks
its wings away
again.
EVOLUTION OF REPTILES
Reptiles were the first animals with backbones to become fully
adapted to life on land. For more than 150 million years,
they were the most successful creatures on earth.
KEY FACTS
THE IMPORTANCE OF EGGS WITH SHELLS
Eggs with shells constituted the
evolutionary breakthrough that
enabled the first reptiles to live
on land. By developing in eggs,
reptiles could stay in dry habi-
tats-unlike amphibians, which
required water for their larval
stage. Being inside a shell let a
young reptile take longer to de-
velop, giving it a better chance
Left: Like all
reptiles, the
Nile crocodile
does notgo
through an
aquatic larval
stage, as young
amphibians do.
Instead, it de-
velops in an
egg for about
three months.
COLD-BLOODED CREATURES
One feature that modern rep-
tiles share with their most an-
cient ancestors is that they are
cold-blooded. However, many
experts now believe that some
dinosaurs were warm-blooded.
Others contend that it would be
odd for "warm-blooded" dino-
saurs to become extinct while
cold-blooded reptiles survived.
Cold-blooded creatures do
have some evolutionary advan-
tages. Being cold-blooded limits
adaptability to cold climates, but
it can be an advantage in a hot
climate. Another advantage is
that a cold-blooded creature
DID YOU KNOW?
The dinosaurs, the mightiest
of all reptiles, were the largest
animals that have ever walked
on earth.
Crocodiles do not have sali-
vary glands. These glands are
unnecessary because croco-
does not need to spend energy
keeping its body temperature
constant, so it can survive for
diles usually feed underwater.
Only 4 orders of reptiles exist
today, but there were once 16.
The name reptile comes from
the Latin word repere, meaning
"to creep."
Dinosaurs were the most suc-
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of survival when it emerged.
Inside the leathery shell of a
typical reptile egg today, the
embryo is linked by blood ves-
sels in its gut to the yolk, a rich
food source. It absorbs oxygen
through the permeable shell
and its inner membrane, the
chorion. Waste products are
stored in a membranous sac
called the allantoic cavity.
Although there are four mod-
ern reptile groups, the eggs of
all living species have a similar
structure, suggesting that they
all evolved from one ancestor.
Left: The com-
mon iguana
has a primitive
appearance. It
lives in tropical
climates, where
it basks in the
sun for hours
to raise its body
temperature. Its
skin prevents its
body from dry-
ingout.
long periods on a single meal.
Many reptile species thrive in
habitats where food is scarce.
cessful of all reptiles, rul ing the
air, land, and sea during the
entire Mesozoic era (248-65
million years ago).
Tortoises have the shortest
backbones of any vertebrate,
with the exception of frogs.
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Modern reptiles are divided into four orders: turtles,
tuataras, crocodilians, and squamates, which include
lizards, snakes, and worm lizards. In comparison to
mammals and birds, all four groups have a relatively
primitive appearance, and turtles are actually very old
creatures. They are almost 300 million years old-nearly
as ancient as the very first reptiles to appear on earth.
WHAT IS A REPTILE? SQUAMATES
The class Reptilia contains over
5,000 species. Over 90 percent
are lizards and snakes. All rep-
tiles are cold-blooded animals
with backbones. Reptiles differ
from amphibians in having a
scaly, waterproof skin and true
lungs, which they fill and empty
by moving their rib cages. Un-
like amphibians, reptiles do not
have to pass through a larval
stage in water.
The earliest recognized reptile
is Hylonomus, which lived about
300 million years ago. From this
lizardlike creature different kinds
of reptile evolved, including di-
nosaurs and the ancestors of
birds and mammals.
Lizards, snakes, and the legless
worm lizards called amphisbae-
nians are all members of the or-
der Squamata. Their ancestors
were probably reptiles like the
gliding Kuehneosaurus of 250
million years ago.
Squamates have adapted to

Tuataras are members of the or-
der Rhynchocephalia, which first
appeared over 200 million years
ago at the beginning of the Age
of Reptiles. These reptiles, classi-
fied as beak-headed, were once
. numerous, inhabiting Eurasia,
Africa, and South America. The
largest was about six feet long.
Today, probably because of
most kinds of habitat, with spe-
cies living on every continent
except Antarctica. Lizards are
more ancient than snakes. They
first appeared in Africa over 250
million years ago. Geckos and
skinks appeared 144 million
years ago.
competition from the more re-
cent lizards, only two tuatara
species exist. Both live on is-
lands off New Zealand.
These primitive reptiles have
not changed much from species
that lived over 200 million years
ago, such as Planocephalosaurus.
Their skull structure is like that of
dinosaurs and crocodilians.
Modern snakes appeared only
20 million years ago, but some
reptiles with elongated, limbless
bodies and flexible jaws similar
to those of modern snakes ap-
peared about 80 million years
ago. The evolution of snakes,
however, is a matter of debate.
Planocephalosaurus
Front cover: Snakes such as tree
boas probably evolved from a long-
legged lizard.
Front insets: The terrapin (left)
and frilled lizard (right) share a
common ancestor.
Hylonomus
- ,
.......
Proganochelys
Ornithosuchus
TRI ASSIC CRETACEOUS
248 million years ago loU mlliion yeotS ogo
CROCODILIANS
Crocodilians are living relatives
of dinosaurs. They may have
evolved 248 million years ago
from a two-legged, flesh-eating
dinosaur such as Ornithosuchus.
Flying reptiles such as Pterodac-
tylus also probably evolved from
this dinosaur.
True crocodilians did not ap-
pear until less than 100 million

Chelonia, the oldest living order
of reptiles, has more than 200
species of turtle, tortoise, and
terrapin. These turtles' ancestors
probably first appeared nearly
300 million years ago.
A turtle is distinguished from
other reptiles by its carapace,
Pristichampsus
TERTIARY
SO million years ago
years ago, when the huge Dei-
nosuchus evolved. Pristichamp-
sus, a long-legged crocodilian,
lived on land about 55 million
years ago and fed on mammals.
Today only the crocodile and
alligator families and one species
of gavial remain. Unlike their dis-
tant relatives, all modern croc-
odilians have an aquatic lifestyle.
the protective shell covering its
body. This shell has been found
on fossilized turtles, such as Pro-
ganochelys, from over 200 mil-
lion years ago. Its usefulness as a
defense against predators is evi-
denced by the fact that it is near-
ly the same in modern species.
HOLOCENE
Today
Squamates
Turtles
Crocodilians
EGG-LAVING MAMMALS
The most primitive group of mammals includes the duck-billed
platypus, with its beak and webbed feet, and two species of
echidna. Unlike other mammals, these three animals lay eggs.
KEY FACTS
~ ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - -
THE MONOTREMES
The word mammal comes from
the Latin mamma, which means
"breast." Unlike birds, reptiles,
and other animals, all mammals
possess mammary (milk) glands
and hair. The duck-billed platy-
pus and the echidnas are con-
sidered mammals because they
have these features. But they
do not have nipples. Instead,
the milk oozes through their
skin when the young suck.
Mammals are divided into
three groups according to how
they both produce and rear their
young: placentals, marsupials,
and monotremes. The mono-
tremes-the platypus and the
echidnas-all lay eggs.
The monotremes are the most
primitive mammals, with many
similarities to reptiles and birds.
One similarity is the cloaca, an
opening through which eggs,
urine, and feces pass. All other
DID YOU KNOW?
In order to avoid predators,
an echidna rolls into a spiny
ball, wedges itself into a crev-
I
ice, or burrows underground.
Instead of burrowing headfirst,
it digs quickly with all four feet
mammals have two openings.
Indeed, the name monotreme
means "with one opening."
The duck-billed platypus lives
in freshwater streams, rivers,
and lakes in eastern Australia
and Tasmania. Echidnas live on
land. Because of their spines
and diet, they are sometimes
called spiny anteaters, but they
are not related to anteaters or
Left: The long-
nosed echidna
can live for 30
years.
Right: After it
leaves its moth-
er's pouch, the
echidna begins
to grow spines.
so that it sinks straight down.
Because it is unable to regu-
late its body temperature by
panting or sweating, an echid-
na keeps cool by burying itself
underground.
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Left: The duck-
billed platypus
uses its large,
flattened bill to
pick up food
from the river
bottom. It
gathers food,
sand, and
gravel in its
cheek pouches
and then sifts
through the
edible contents.
to hedgehogs or porcupines.
There are two species of echid-
na: short-nosed and long-nosed.
The short-nosed echidna lives in
Australia, New Guinea, and Tas-
mania, but the Tasmanian echid-
na may be a separate species.
The long-nosed echidna lives in
warm mountain forests in New
Guinea. Its three races may be
separate species.
Monotremes have lower
body temperatures than pla-
cental or marsupial mammals.
The body temperature of an
echidna averages 86 F com-
pared with 98.6 F in humans.
US P 6001 12069 PACKET 69
The egg-laying mammals, called monotremes,
interest many scientists because they provide clues to
the way mammals evolved from their reptilian ancestors.
These animals have several unusual features, including
an extraordinary ability to locate their prey by detecting
tiny electric fields. This ability was discovered only recently
and is still not completely understood by scientists.
~ RELATIONSHIP TO REPTILES AND BIRDS
Like other mammals, mono-
tremes evolved from reptilian
ancestors, but fossils suggest
that monotremes started to
develop differently from other
mammals approximately 200
million years ago. They have
existed in their present form
for at least 15 million years.
In 1798, a platypus skin was
first brought to London, but
scientists considered it a hoax.
They thought that a duck's bill
had been sewn onto a mam-
mal's body. But a duck's bill is
hard, while a platypus's bill is
flexible and leathery.
Like all birds and most reptiles,
monotremes lay eggs. The off-
spring has an egg tooth to help
it break its shell, but then this
tooth disappears. Unlike most
~ THE PLATYPUS &: ITS YOUNG
Duck-billed platypuses live in
pairs, digging burrows up to 40
feet long in riverbanks. The fe-
male carries damp vegetation in
under her tail to form a nest.
Between August and Novem-
ber, two weeks after mating,
she lays one to three tiny, soft-
shelled white eggs. She blocks
the burrow with earth to main-
mammals, adult monotremes
have no teeth. Although the
young platypus has three teeth,
they are soon replaced by horny
plates. An echidna has horny
ridges for grinding food.
A monotreme's legs project
from its sides in a reptilian man-
ner. Other skeletal features and
the eggs' soft shells link mono-
tremes closely with reptiles.
tain humidity and keep the eggs
from drying out.
Using her tail, the female holds
the eggs against her belly. While
incubating, she does not leave
the nest. When the young hatch
in 7 to 14 days, they are blind
and hairless. The female suckles
them for four months until they
can leave the burrow and swim.
AN ECHIDNA'S NOSE
An echidna is able to detect electric
fields with receptors at the end of its
snout. Its nose is always runny, and
this dampness may help the flow of
electricity. When prey such as ants and
termites move underground, an echid-
na may detect tiny electric currents.
Some scientists believe that the nose
of an echidna is coated with chemicals
that react to methane gas, producing
a small electric current when methane
is present. In this wayan echidna may
sense the methane given off by termites
in their underground nest.
A SIXTH SENSE
At dusk and at night, the platypus dives
for shrimp, crayfish, larvae, worms,
and other aquatic animals. Until recent-
ly scientists did not know how it could
locate prey with its eyes and ear flaps
tightly shut. Then they discovered that
on its bill the platypus has very small
rosebud-shaped receptors that are
sensitive to electric fields such as the
one produced by the movement of a
shrimp's tail.
~ ECHIDNAS &: THEIR YOUNG
A female echidna may lay two
or three eggs, but she normal-
ly lays one. She transfers it to a
pouch on her belly, which exists
only in the breeding season. The
embryo feeds on the egg yolk
and hatches in about 1 0 days.
The naked newborn stays in
its mother's pouch for six to
eight weeks until its spines start
to develop. The mother leaves it
in a sheltered spot and returns
to suckle it every day for three
months until it is weaned.
Left: A female
echidna lays
a single egg,
which falls into
herabdomi
nal pouch and
hatches in
seven to ten
days. The off-
spring is initial-
ly only about a
half-inch long,
but grows to
four inches in
the two months
that it spends
in the pouch.
Vultures are the most successful scavengers of the bird world.
They perform a vital service in nature by feeding on animal
carcasses, although some vultures eat other types of food as well.
KEY FACTS
ORIGINS & DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
Both Old and New World vul-
tures are relatively ancient. The
fossil remains of Old World vul-
tures date back over 20 million
years. The New World group
dates back to the middle Eo-
cene epoch, about 45 million
years ago.
Old World vultures share a
common ancestry with eagles,
hawks, and other members of
the big family Accipitridae. New
World vultures share their an-
cestry with the storks.
The two unrelated groups of
vultures share many adapta-
tions to a similar lifestyle, but
DID YOU KNOW?
The Andean condor is the
heaviest bird of prey. With the
single exception of the mara-
bou stork, it is also the land
bird with the greatest wing-
span-over 10 feet. It can thus
withstand the winds that howl
Left: With both
striking plum-
age and elabo-
rate patterns
on its bare skin,
the king vulture
stands out as
one of the most
colorful birds of
prey. Its power-
ful bill enables
it to tackle car-
rion and even
stranded fish,
which it tracks
down with its
keen sense of
smell.
on the highest Andean peaks.
There are many myths about
vultures. In southern Africa, it is
said that a vulture can dream
about the location of a carcass.
As a result, it is thought that eat-
ing a vulture's brains enables a
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Left: The black
vulture of the
New World is
a widespread,
highlyadapt-
able scavenger
that is common
in manyCen-
tral and South
American cities.
Although it is
not able to soar
as easily as the
turkey vulture,
its short wings
allow it to ma-
neuvermore
easily in nar-
row streets.
they do have features that set
them apart. Most noticeable is
that New World vultures have
perforated nostrils, like storks.
They also defecate on their legs
to cool off, just as storks do. In
addition, the offspring of New
World vultures and storks have
down and feathers that are very
similar in structure.
When competing for food or
at their breeding colonies, Old
World vultures utter squealing,
chattering, and whistling calls.
But New World vultures pro-
duce only low hisses or grunts
since they lack voice boxes.
person to foretell the future.
In Tibet, Buddhists use vul-
tures to dispose of the corpses
of humans. In India the same
practice is followed by Parsis,
members of the ancient Zoro-
astrian religious faith.
0160200831 PACKET 83
There are two completely unrelated groups of vultures.
One group is found only in the Old World-Europe,
Africa, and Asia. The other is restricted to the New
World-North, South, and Central America. The birds
in both groups resemble one another closely because
they have developed adaptations to similar lifestyles.
~ NEW WORLD VULTURES
The New World vultures consist
of seven species. The largest is
the Andean condor. This bird
forages widely and gathers in
large numbers to eat carrion, or
dead animal flesh-feeding on
the softer parts of carcasses of
animals such as guanacos and
llamas. The California condor
had a similar lifestyle before be-
coming extinct in the wild.
The medium-size king vulture
ranges from Mexico to Argen-
tina. It drives off intruders while
feeding in small numbers on the
skin, tendons, and other tough
tissues of animal carcasses.
The smaller New World spe-
cies include the turkey vulture
and the black vulture. Both feed
on rotting fruit and vegetables
as well as carrion. The turkey
vulture uses its keen sense of
Front inset left: The turkey vulture
is the most widespread of the New
World vultures.
Front inset right: The
palm-nut vulture
thrives in areas
where oil palms
grow.
smell to find carcasses, sniffing
out even ones that have been
pulled up into trees. Black and
king vultures often follow turkey
vultures, waiting for the latter to
lead them to a carcass. Because
the black vulture is also an ex-
pert at exploiting the rich food
supplies in garbage dumps, it is
now more abundant than the
turkey vulture.
Two relatives of the turkey vul -
ture are restricted to the tropics.
The greater yellow-headed vul-
ture is confined to isolated areas
of South America. The yellow-
headed vulture can be found
from Mexico to northern parts
of South America.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
All vultures feed on carrion. The
birds are very efficient scaven-
gers, mainly because they are
masters of energy-saving, soar-
ing flight. By taking off late in
the morning, after the ground
has warmed up, vultures can
soar high in the sky with the
help of thermal (warm) air cur-
rents. Searching for food over a
huge area, they descend to a
carcass faster than a distant
scavenger could run to it.
Many vultures feed commu-
nally. Within minutes, a vulture
can eat enough meat to sustain
~ OLD WORLD VULTURES
The 15 species of Old World vul-
ture are divided into six groups.
The first group consists of seven
species of griffon vulture, which
feed mainly on the carcasses of
large grazing mammals like ze-
bras and antelope. These birds
possess long, flexible necks for
reaching deep inside carcasses,
sharp bills for cutting flesh, and
serrated tongues for swallowing
slippery food.
The Eurasian black vulture and
the lappet-faced vulture of Afri-
ca form the second group. They
do not fly far in search of food
and rarely share their meals with
more than ~ w o pairs. Feeding
on the tough parts of a carcass,
they tear off the skin and pieces
of tendon with their strong bills.
These big, aggressive birds may
perform threat displays to drive
Egyptian vulture: One of the few ani-
mals that uses tools, this bird will
pick up a stone in its bill and drop it
on an ostrich egg to get at the con-
tents. It feeds mainly on the marrow
in large bones, which it obtains by
dropping bones from a height so that
they shatter on flat rocks.
Griffon vulture: Uses its
long and flexible neck to
reach deep inside the car-
casses of large grazing
animals. Feeds mainl y
on soft muscle tissues
- and internal organs.
griffon vultures from a carcass.
The third group contains the
Indian black vulture and the Af-
rican white-headed vulture. The
relatively timid birds gather in
large, mixed groups only occa-
sionally to feed on parts of a big
carcass. They kill some prey, in-
cluding young or sick mammals.
The fourth group consists of
the Egyptian vulture and the
hooded vulture of Africa, two
fairly small, unrelated species.
These adaptable feeders gather
in large numbers at carcasses to
eat scraps of meat left by larger
vultures. They also prey on small
reptiles, nestlings, and insects;
eat the dung of carnivores; and
scavenge scraps of food from
garbage dumps.
There is just one species in the
fifth group-the lammergeier of
itself for over one week, until it
finds the next carcass. The bird
can consume great amounts of
food because its stomach has
very elastic walls. Large vultures
may eat so much that they can-
not take off until they have di-
gested part of their meal.
Europe, Asia, and Africa. This
bird feeds on marrow, which
it extracts from bones with its
grooved tongue.
The palm-nut vulture
of Africa forms the sixth
group. It feeds mainly
on the fruit of the oil
palm but also eats
carrion and
stranded fish.
~ BREEDING
Old World vultures build sturdy
nests of sticks in caves, trees, or
on cliff ledges. These nests can
be huge. The structure built by
the lappet-faced vulture is 10
feet wide and 3 feet deep.
New World vultures do not
build nests. They lay their eggs
among boulders or vegetation
or in caves or hollow trees.
lammergeier:
Carries bones into the
air with its talons, then
drops them onto flat
rocks. This shatters the
bones and exposes the
marrow inside.
Most vulture species nest in
solitary pairs. However, the Old
World griffons and sometimes
the New World black vultures
breed in large colonies.
The larger species of Old and
New World vultures lay a single
egg; smaller species usually lay
two. The chicks stay in the nest
for at least 10 weeks.
HOW ANIMALS ADAPT TO
LIFE IN THE OCEAN DEPTHS
Animals have developed astonishing adaptations that allow them
to survive in the cold, sunless depths of the oceans. The pressure of
the water is so great at these depths that it would crush a human.
KEY FACTS
CONDITIONS IN THE OCEAN DEPTHS
There are many dramatically dif-
ferent environments on earth.
One of the most marked con-
trasts is between the ocean's
surface and its depths, which go
down to 35,840 feet in the Pa-
cific Ocean's Marianas Trench.
Within the ocean, there are
many different habitats. The
greatest diversity of species oc-
curs in the upper waters, which
are pierced by sunlight. Warm
tropical waters have more spe-
cies than cold polar waters.
The number of species de-
clines with depth, as light and
warmth decrease and pressure
increases. About 1,000 fish spe-
cies live between 650 and 3,000
feet-an area called the twilight
zone, where light penetrates
only dimly. Further down, be-
DID YOU KNOW?
A half-foot-Iong brotulid was
caught at 27,000 feet in the
Atlantic-the deepest point at
which a fish has been caught.
Most invertebrates in mid-
water are red, and most fish
in the deep sea are brown or
black. These colors provide
good camouflage because
tween 3,000 and 13,000 feet,
there are only about 150 spe-
cies of fish.
Below 3,000 feet the ocean is
pitch-black and currents flow
very slowly. The water pressure
is more than 1,000 times the
pressure of the atmosphere at
sea level. In salty, polar waters
the temperature may drop be-
Left: The lar-
va of the black
dragon fish has
eyes on long
stalks.
Right: With its
domed eyes,
Benthalbella
can see in two
directions at
the same time.
they absorb, rather than reflect,
blue-green luminescence.
The Histioteuthis, a deep-sea
squid, has one eye that is much
larger than the other. It may use
the big eye in the dim depths
and the other in the stronger
light nearer the surface.
Many deep-sea fish have air-
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: The lantern fish, which lives
at middle ocean depths, is dotted
with tiny light organs.
low freezing. Yet, even in such
severe conditions, there is life.
Small creatures inhabit the ooze
of the seabed, flat fish lie on the
seafloor, and above them swim
bottom-living sharks, squid, and
other animals.
filled swim bladders. How the
fish cope with the phenome-
nal water pressure is unclear,
since species caught by scien-
tists are dead by the time they
reach the surface.
Attached to a female deep-
sea anglerfish, several small
males can live off her blood.
US P 6001 12 076 PACKET 76
No sunlight penetrates the ocean depths, so it is always
night. Yet the waters flash and glow with the extraordinary
lights of a variety of sea creatures. These lights help animals
stay in contact, avoid predators, or lure victims to their
death. They are a useful adaptation in an environment
where finding a mate and food are major challenges.
~ BIOLUMINESCENCE
In the dark ocean depths, many
creatures emit light, a phenom-
enon known as bioluminescence.
Some make the chemicals luci-
ferin and luciferase, which pro-
duce light when they mix with
oxygen. Others carry luminous
bacteria. To enhance its light,
an animal often has a reflecting
surface behind the light and a
lens covering it.
Bacteria glow on their own, so
their hosts must control them. A
deep-sea anglerfish carries bac-
teria in a bulb on a spine hang-
ing in front of its mouth. When
the fish contracts its blood ves-
sels, it deprives the bacteria of
the oxygen they need to glow.
The flashlight fish has billions
Front cover:
Krill feed near
the surface at
night but sink
to deep water
during the day.
Front inset
left: Sloane's
viperfish at-
tracts its prey
with a light
show.
Front inset
right: The lure
of a deep-sea
anglerfish is
packed with
light-emitting
bacteria.
of light-producing bacteria in a
pouch below each eye. It swiv-
els the pouch to turn off its light.
Bioluminescence is used in di-
verse ways. Blue-green lights on
a midwater fish's belly match
the light from the surface and
hide the fish from predators be-
low it. Yet marine creatures are
attracted to glowing lights. Lu-
minous predators such as the vi-
perfish may lure prey in this way.
Lights differ in position, pat-
tern, color, and intensity, so a
species can spot a mate as well
as a predator. Fish in schools
probably use light to communi-
cate. Certain shrimp and squid
can expel luminous mucus as a
smoke screen for their escape.
left: Some
species of
hatchetfish
have bellies
that are stud-
ded with "light
bulbs. " These
lights proba-
bly lure crusta-
ceans within
the fish's range.
~ FOOD IN THE DEPTHS
No plants live in the deep sea
and little plant matter reaches
the bottom, so deep-sea ani-
mals eat mostly flesh. Sea cu-
cumbers, bivalve shellfish, and
starfish eat the seabed ooze, di-
gesting microorganisms in it.
Octopuses and cuttlefish feed
mainly on shrimp and similar
small crustaceans. Most fish eat
other fish and smaller animals.
Both wolffish and deep-sea rays
left: Sloane's viperfish can unhinge
its long lower jaw to trap prey in its
pointed teeth.
have crushing teeth to grind
up mollusks and crustaceans.
Anglerfish and gulper eels use
luminous lures to attract prey
within range of their jaws.
To take advantage of prey
they encounter, including fish
bigger than themselves, many
deep-sea creatures can open
their jaws very wide. But this
may impede their blood or ox-
ygen flow when they swallow.
Right: Hatchetfish are easy prey
for the black swallower, which
also eats fish larger than itself.
left: The gut of
a young Xeno-
lepidichthis is
at a right angle
to its body. As
a result, preda-
tors expect it to
swim off at 90
degrees to its
true course.
~ FINDING A MATE & BREEDING
To find a mate in the darkness, a
deep-sea animal may use good
eyesight, light, scent, or sound.
Each anglerfish species is distin-
guished by the color or shape of
its light lure. Most male anglers
have keen eyes to help them
locate the appropriate female.
When the male finds the much
larger female, he attaches him-
self to her by his jaws and lives
off her blood supply. When the
female lays her eggs, the male is
there to fertilize them.
A male bristle-mouth fish is
also smaller than its mate but
has a better sense of smell. The
left: A female anglerfish may be
more than 12 times the size of her
parasitic mate.
female probably lays a scent trail
to attract a mate.
Male rattails and brotulids use
their swim bladders to make a
drumming sound that probably
attracts females. Females lack
the sound-producing muscles.
A tripod-fish has male and fe-
male sex organs. If it does not
meet a mate, it may be able to
fertilize its own eggs.
The larvae of some deep-sea
species, such as anglers, feed at
the surface and later migrate to
the depths. In contrast, the eggs
of surface-feeding Antarctic krill
sink to the ocean floor to avoid
being eaten. When the young
hatch, they swim to the surface
from depths of over 6,000 feet.
MAMMALS THAT LIVE
UNDERGROUND
For badgers, foxes, prairie dogs, and other burrowers, life is
warmer and safer underground. Special adaptations allow
these mammals to make their homes beneath the surface.
KEY FACTS
- ~ - - : : ! I I I i I . I 1 - -
LIFE UNDERGROUND
Some animals that live under-
ground are able to find ready-
made homes. But most have
to dig and maintain a home.
Except at mating time, a mole
lives alone in a maze of tunnels
covering about 12,000 square
feet. Molehills mark the location
of air shafts and larger cham-
bers where the mole can rest.
The European badger lives in
family groups. A sett (burrow)
covers about 900 square feet
and has several exits. This bad-
ger prefers woods where the
soil is well drained and easy to
dig, but it has also been found
on moors and even in quarries.
It often uses the trees outside its
Below: The suslik builds a complex
of underground burrows and hi-
bernates there.
DID YOU KNOW?
Foxes have been known on
occasion to move into part
of a badger sett. The scent
of a fox may cause badgers
to move to another sett or
sett to clean mud from its paws
and to sharpen its claws.
European wild rabbits have
powerful forelegs for digging.
They make extensive warrens
(burrows) for their large colo-
nies. American cottontails live in
shallow depressions or in holes
left by animals like woodchucks.
Making rapid scraping move-
ments, a marsupial mole from
Australia uses the pointed claws
to wall off the section that the
foxes are occupying.
A marsupial mole digs short
tunnels and then seals them
behind itself in order to find
left: A mole's
hands, or fore-
feet, are angled
outward, so it
can quickly tun-
nel beneath the
ground. On the
surface, only the
inner edges of its
forefeet touch
the ground.
on its third and fourth fingers to
loosen the sand. It then uses its
head to push away the sand un-
der its body and quickly dives
into the opening. While it digs,
the mole leans on its specially
adapted nasal plate and on its
rump, and it flicks out the loose
sand with its tail.
Below: The American badger has a
flexible, muscular snout that helps
it dig and probe for food.
soil-dwelling invertebrates,
which make up the bulk of
its diet. It then surfaces and
moves on before digging
the next tunnel.
For many mammals, an underground life has distinct
advantages. A network of tunnels provides a home that
is warm in cold weather and cool in hot weather. Hidden
underground, tunnels also offer protection from predators.
In addition, underground quarters serve as a safe nursery,
where the animal's vulnerable young can be reared.
~ BURROWING SPECIES
Many members of the weasel
family-including not only wea-
sels but also badgers, polecats,
skunks, and ermines-make
their homes in underground
burrows. Rodent burrowers
include rats, mice, and voles.
Moles spend the major part of
their time underground. They
come to the surface to collect
nest material and to feed in dry
weather. Most other burrowing
mammals hunt on the surface.
Badgers find a range of food
at night, although they prefer
earthworms. Other burrowing
species, such as South Africa's
meerkat, hunt insects by day.
Animals that live underground
in temperate climates usually do
Right: A prairie dog digs a home
that is deep underground in order
to keep warm.
Front cover:
Fox cubs usual-
ly emerge only
at night.
Front inset
left: A prairie
dog's burrow is
surrounded by
a low small
wall of earth.
Front inset
right: A wom-
bat uses its
long, tough
claws to dig.
so to keep warm. In the desert,
burrowers are able to maintain
a humid environment and thus
reduce water loss. The desert-
dwelling jerboas of Europe, Asia,
and Africa and the American
kangaroo rats hide in the sand
to keep cool during the heat of
the day. They emerge at night
to forage for plants and insects.
~ HIBERNATION
Burrowing mammals spend a
lot of time sleeping under the
ground, but only a few hiber-
nate. Those that do, such as
some ground squirrels, usually
have separate winter quarters.
A ground squirrel seals the
entrance to keep out the cold.
There is a danger that the ani-
mal might die in its sleep from
Left: A female fox may dig her own
hole or enlarge an abandoned part
of a badger burrow.
Left: The Euro-
pean badger
emerges from
its sett (burrow)
at night to for-
age for food.
Although its
sight is poor, its
senses of hear-
ing and smell
are both high-
ly developed.
. ~ .. ~ ~ \ J . - ' :: . ..;:
, ........ .' ~ .
lack of oxygen, but it possesses
an "alarm clock" instinct that
arouses it whenever the oxy-
gen level is too low.
Within its system of tunnels,
the 13-lined ground squirrel
creates a nest chamber that is
cushioned with grass. Like oth-
er ground squirrels, it mates
after hibernation.
Right: Young rabbits are kept safe
from predators deep in their under-
ground nursery.
Left: A badger
has strong fore-
paws with long
claws that are
ideal for dig-
ging an exten-
sive system of
tunnels. It
prefers to dig
loose, well-
drained soil.
~ PHYSICAL ADAPTATIONS
A burrowing mammal usually
has a streamlined body that
slips easily through a tunnel. A
mole also has a tapering snout
and spade-shaped hands that
are ideal for digging. It twists its
cylindrical body to pack the soil
in the tunnel walls, and it uses
its hind legs to scatter the soil
behind it. Because a mole rare-
ly comes to the surface, it does
not need to see and its eyesight
is not developed.
Badgers have stocky bodies
with short legs and thick hair.
Their strong, non retractable
claws are perfect for digging.
A marsupial that is similar to a
badger in shape and habits is
the wombat. Unlike the kanga-
Left: The hairy-nosed wombat is
known for its technique of digging
with only one paw at a time.
roo and most other marsupials,
the female wombat has a pouch
that opens to the rear so that
soil cannot get into the pouch.
The wombat has short, muscu-
lar forelegs and powerful claws.
It is unusual because it digs with
only one paw at a time. It then
uses its rump to push away the
loosened soil.
Mole-rats in Europe, North
Africa, and southwestern Asia
have evolved with very small
eyes and ears. This lets them
tunnel by using their heads.
Some mammals such as otters
and minks have adapted to two
contrasting ways of life. They
dig their homes in riverbanks
and swim to catch their food.
Otters are equipped with non-
retractable claws for digging
and webbed feet for paddling.
THE SQUIRREL FAMILY
The squi"el family includes over 260 species. Tree squi"els and flying
squi"els spend most of their time in the forest foliage, while ground
squi"els make their homes in large underground communities.
KEY FACTS
FLYING SQUIRRELS
Flying squirrels do not really fly.
Instead, they glide by extending
the flap of skin, or gliding mem-
brane, that stretches between
their front and rear limbs.
The northern flying squirrel
lives in southern Canada and
the western United States. To
escape predators, it spreads its
limbs to stretch out its gliding
membrane and glides from tree
to tree.
The red giant flying squirrel of
Asia is four feet long, from nose
to tail. It can glide for 1,475 feet.
Unlike other squirrels, flying
squirrels are active at night. They
also suckle their offspring for a
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THE SQUIRREL FAMILY
Limbs: Squirrels have relatively
short limbs. Tree squirrels have
sharp curving claws that allow
them to grip tree bark secure-
ly. Many ground squirrels have
powerful forelimbs and large
claws that enable them to dig
easily. Some species of squirrel
that are found in deserts have
hair-covered pads on their feet
to protect them when they run
across the hot sand.
Tails: Squirrels-especially tree
squirrels-have bushy tails. If a
squirrel jumps or glides, its tail
acts as a rudder and a stabilizer.
The tail can also be used as a
blanket during cold weather
DID YOU KNOW?
In the early 1900s, a prairie
dog town in Texas had about
400 million inhabitants and
covered an area of 1 00 by
250 miles.
The Indian striped squirrel
feeds on nectar from the flow-
and when the animal is sleeping.
In addition, the tail serves as a
shield from rain and sun.
Coats: Tree squirrels generally
have sleek, thick fur. In contrast,
ground squirrels usually have
ers of the silky oak and pollinates
the flowers as it goes from one
to another.
During hibernation, the 13-
lined squirrel's body tempera-
ture falls to 35F. Its pulse drops
to 5 beats a minute-a sharp
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: The north-
ern flying squir-
rel has a gliding
membrane, or
patagium, be-
tween its arms
and legs. Its
long tail has
no membrane.
longer period of time than other
rodents, perhaps in order to let
them develop fully before they
become independent.
Left: Like all
rodents, mar-
mots possess
chisel-shaped
incisor teeth
that are worn
down by gnaw-
ing but grow
constantly.
They also have
chewing teeth
at the back of
the jaw.
short, coarse fur that is less likely
to become matted with dirt.
Eyes: Most squirrels have large,
highly developed eyes. As a re-
sult, squirrels are very good at
judging distances.
contrast to its normal pulse of
up to 500 beats a minute.
The tail fur of the British red
squirrel turns creamy white in
summer. This phenomenon
has caused it to be described
as a separate subspecies.
US P 6001 12077 PACKET 77
Squirrels are rodents that belong to the family Sciuridae-a
name that means "shade-tailed" and refers to the bushy tail
that characterizes squirrels. Among the most widespread of
all mammals, squirrels are found almost all over the world in
habitats that include mountains, rainforests, and city parks.
~ O R I G I N S
The oldest squirrel fossils come
from the Miocene Period, over
11 million years ago. These ear-
ly squirrels probably evolved in
the tropical or temperate zones
of the Eurasian landmass.
Squirrels migrated from east-
ern Siberia to Alaska when the
two regions were connected
by land, before they were sep-
arated by the stretch of water
known as the Bering Strait. For
millions of years squirrels were
Front cover: The eastern gray squir-
rel is the most abundant and famil-
iar squirrel in the eastern part of
North America.
Front insets: The yel/ow-bellied
marmot (left) lives in rocky areas.
The fox squirrel (right) is hunted in
North America.
confined to Eurasia and North
America, which was separated
by the sea from South America.
As a result of volcanic activity,
the strip of land called the Isth-
mus of Panama gradually rose
above the sea, connecting the
landmasses of North and South
America. This occurred about
two and a half million years ago,
at the end of the Pliocene Peri-
od. After that, squirrels spread
into South America.
Red (European) squirrel,
Sciurus vulgaris: This tree
squirrel is found throughout
Eurasia. Although its color
varies across its range, the
squirrel 's belly is always white.
Hoary marmot, Marmota caligata:
This ground squirrel is found in Alas-
ka and Canada. It builds up its body
fat in summer to prepare for its long
wi nter hibernation.
~ TREE SQUIRRELS
Tree squirrels are well suited to
forest life. Although all squirrels
have bushy tails, they are most
pronounced in tree squirrels.
The tails help the animals bal-
ance and steer while leaping
from branch to branch.
Most tree squirrels are active
by day. These agile animals may
chase potential mates through
the trees during courtship. The
females give birth approximate-
ly six weeks after mating.
Tree squirrels do not truly hi-
bernate. But in a cool climate
they may undergo a false hiber-
nation, or dormancy, in the cold-
est months. During this period
~ GROUND SQUIRRELS
they become very sluggish and
sleep for several days at a time
in their dreys (nests). They wake
periodically to eat some of their
buried nuts and seeds.
Chipmunks, prairie dogs, and Prairie dog towns are found on
marmots are all ground squir- plains from southern Canada to
rels. They have large eyes, but northern Mexico.
their ears and tails tend to be Many ground squirrels hiber-
smaller than those of tree squir- nate and live off their body fat
Tree squirrels vary a great deal
in size. The tiny African pygmy
squirrel weighs only a quarter of
an ounce. In contrast, the black
giant squirrel, Malabar squirrel,
and cream giant squirrel, which
all live in Southeast Asia, weigh
about seven pounds each.
rels. Most ground squirrels give during their winter sleep. When
birth three to four weeks after not sleeping, they live on stored
mating, but marmots carry their
young for about five weeks.
Some American tree squirrels
are the fox squirrel, Douglas'
squirrel, the tassel-eared squir-
rel, and the American red squir-
rel. The red squirrel was the only
tree squirrel in Europe until the
19th century, when the eastern
gray squirrel of North America
was introduced.
Ground squirrels often live in
colonies in complex burrows.
The black-tailed prairie dog lives
in an extended family group, or
coterie. Adjoining coteries make
up a prairie dog "town" with
thousands of residents. I n each
underground town, tunnels link
chambers that serve as sleeping
quarters, nurseries, and latrines.
At ground level the entrance is
surrounded by a mound that
serves as a lookout.
Flying squirrel, Pteromys vo/ans:
This rare flying squirrel is found
in Finland and east through
Siberia to Japan. Soon
after sunset it sets out
to forage for food
until dawn.
Malayan giant squirrel,
Ratuta bic%r: This shy
tree squirrel is found in
tropical and temperate
forests from Nepal
through Southeast
Asia, as far south as
Java. It is most active
in the early morning
and in the evening.
food. The Siberian chipmunk
places different foods such as
buds, fungi, and grains in sepa-
rate parts of its den. Like all chip-
munks, it has cheek pouches for
transporting food.
Ground squirrels are extreme-
ly adaptable. North America's
eastern chipmunks thrive near
human settlements. In addition
to feeding on seeds, nuts,
and berries, they scav-
enge scraps from
gardens.
Siberian chipmunk, Tamias
sibiricus: This small ground
squirrel is found
throughout
Siberia and
into Japan
and China.
There are many strange partnerships in the animal kingdom. In
one kind of symbiosis-two different
animal species work together to help each other.
KEY FACTS
SYMBIOSIS IN INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates exhibit some
unusual symbiotic relation-
ships. A hermit crab lives in a
discarded mollusk shell. A sea
anemone may attach itself to
this shell to receive free trans-
port and food. In return, the
anemone catches prey for the
crab with its stinging cells. Sev-
ONE-SIDED RELATIONSHIPS
Not all animal relationships are
mutually beneficial. In parasit-
ism one partner (the parasite)
lives on and actually harms its
host. In associations called com-
mensalism, one animal gains
something, but the other nei-
ther benefits nor suffers.
The cattle egret rides on the
back of an elephant, buffalo, or
eral hermit crab species can-
not survive without anemones.
Ants herd aphids, directing
them to new plant leaves. The
aphids obtain sap and excrete
excess sap sugar as honeydew,
which the ants eat. The ants in
turn protect the aphids from
predatory animals.
Left: When
a hermit crab
moves from one
shell to anoth-
er, it may trans-
fer its anemone
partner.
Right: Red
worker ants
herd aphids
to fresh leaf
sap and then
"milk" them
for honeydew.
Right: The carmine bee-eater rides
on the kori bustard's back but gives
nothing in return.
other large mammal. When it
moves, the mammal disturbs
insects, which the egret snaps
up in its bill. Similarly, the car-
mine bee-eater rides on the kori
bustard's back and flies down to
eat insects thrown up by the big
Left: Remoras
are sometimes
called shark
suckers. They
hitch rides on
large fish, such
as sharks, which
seem oblivious
to their presence.
Red ants take caterpillars
from one butterfly family into
their nests. The ants feed the
caterpillars and keep them safe
from predators. From a sub-
stance that the caterpillars se-
crete, the ants make formic
acid-a toxin that they use
to protect themselves.
bird's movements. The bustard
receives nothing in return.
A small fish called a remora
uses its dorsal sucker to attach
itself to a large fish such as a
shark. In this way the remora
ventilates its gills without pump-
ing air through them, but the
host does not seem to benefit.
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The term symbiosis comes from the Greek word for
"living together, " and it usually denotes a mutually
beneficial relationship. Symbiotic lifestyles have been
adopted by many species, ranging from large mammals
such as buffalo to tiny ants. Often vitally important for
the survival of one or both partners, symbiosis can
even override normal predator-prey relationships.
~ A COOPERATIVE LIFESTYLE
In symbiosis two animals live
together, with each providing
something the other cannot
provide for itself. This lifestyle
may guarantee a constant food
supply, provide protection from
predators, or eliminate harmful
parasites. Sometimes one or
even both species cannot sur-
vive without a symbiotic partner.
Front cover:
The anemone
fish, a type of
clownfish, rare-
ly leaves its host.
Front insets:
Cattle egrets
(left) sit on the
backs of sam-
bar deer to spot
food. C10wnfish
(right) swim
safely among
the tentacles of
the Portuguese
man-of- war.
More than two species may
be involved in a symbiotic rela-
tionship. Birds such as thrushes,
finches, and chickadees may
form large mixed-species flocks
in the winter. All the birds bene-
fit from finding good feeding
grounds, and they have the
security of many eyes on the
lookout for predators.
Left: Tiny yel-
low pilot fish
dart around a
huge manta
ray, picking off
remnants of its
meal. They
may even take
refuge in the
ray's mouth.
~ FISH ASSOCIATES
In coral reefs tiny cleaner fish live
symbiotically with other fish, in-
cluding predators such as the
moray eel. The cleaner fish nib-
ble parasites, bacteria, and dead
skin from larger fish. They gain
a food supply while protecting
the other fish from disease.
A cleaner advertises its services
by its bright coloring. A "cus-
tomer" spreads its fins or raises
its gill covers to allow the clean-
er underneath. Fish may even
line up to be cleaned. There are
about 45 species of cleaner fish,
servicing sea turtles and lizards
as well as fish.
In its symbiotic relationship
with a large sea anemone, a
clownfish can swim among the
anemone's tentacles, which
Left: The baffish raises its gill cov-
ers to let cleaning wrasse fish nib-
ble underneath.
have stinging cells that kill most
fish. Even when the anemone
retracts its tentacles, a clownfish
may remain inside. A clownfish
may be protected by mucus on
its skin, which lacks the protein
that usually triggers the anemo-
ne's sting. In return for shelter
from predators, a clownfish re-
moves parasites from the anem-
one and lures other fish species
to their death.
Some species of fish have a
similar relationship with the Por-
tuguese man-of-war, a large,
floating polyp colony with ven-
omous tentacles that trail in the
water. The fish hide in the man-
<;>f-war's tentacles for protection,
while luring potential food to
their protector.
Right: The buffalo allows oxpeckers
to climb across its face, picking up
ticks along the way.
~ BIRD PARTNERSHIPS
There are many examples of
symbiosis between birds and
other animals. One well-known
association is between the Afri-
can honeyguide and the ratel,
or honey badger. The honey-
guide is a thrushlike bird that
likes beeswax but has difficul-
ty opening a beehive. The ratel,
however, has a dense, bee-proof
coat and sharp claws to help it
open hives. It is thought that
when the honeyguide finds a
hive, it calls to attract a ratel.
Once the ratel has finished eat-
ing, the honeyguide eats the
remaining honeycomb.
The oxpecker, an African bird
that has brown plumage and a
red and yellow bill, rides on the
Left: The ratel easily opens bees'
nests. It may be led to the nest by
a bird-the honeyguide.
backs of animals such as the
buffalo, rhinoceros, and zebra.
Using its tail for balance, the
bird runs over the mammal's
skin with its sharp claws. It helps
its host by feeding on the ticks
and other parasites that infest
the mammal's skin. If startled by
danger, the bird alerts its host
with its flapping and calling.
The Egyptian plover, also
known as the crocodile bird,
runs along the back of a croco-
dile and picks ticks off its tough
skin. It is even thought that the
crocodile may lie with its mouth
open and allow the bird to peck
bloodsucking parasites such as
leeches and scraps of food from
around its teeth. Remarkably,
the bird is not eaten by the croc-
odile-its cleaning activities are
too important.
","CARD 70
THE HORSE FAMIL V
When we think of horses, we generally think of domestic horses.
But the horse family includes other animals as well-three
species of zebras and two species of asses.
KEY FACTS
HOW HORSES MOVE
Speed is the main defense of all
horse species. Some domestic
horses gallop 35 miles per hour
in short bursts. Most horses have
at least three different paces.
1. Walk: A slow, four-time pace.
Each leg moves independently.
2. Trot: A faster, two-time pace.
Diagonal forelegs and hind legs
move together.
3. The canter: A three-time gait.
A hind leg pushes off, followed
by other hind leg and diagonal-
ly opposite foreleg, then final
foreleg. A gallop is a fast canter.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE HORSE FAMILY
Ears and mouth: These reveal
mood. Ears strained forward
usually indicates fear. Alert and
upright, with the mouth slightly
open, is a friendly greeting.
Pressed back, possibly with
the mouth open, is a threat
gesture. A horse shows
submission by holding
down its ears while
making nibbling
movements with
its mouth.
Eyes: Set high and far back on elongated head to
give a wide range of vision. They allow the animal
to see the grass clearly while grazing and to watch
for danger on the horizon at the same time. The
ranges of the two eyes do not overlap, so
horses do not have binocular vision.
Coat: Varies in length according
to breed and climate. The sandy
brown coat of wild asses merges
with their surroundings. It was
once thought that the zebra's
stripes were meant to confuse
predators when a herd of zebras
Calls: Vary from a soft nickering of recognition
to a loud whinny alerting a herd to danger.
Stallions may snort and squeal as they fight.
gathered. It now seems that the
stripes help members of herds
or families identify one another.
DID YOU KNOW?
The three zebra species are
no more closely related to
one another than they are to
domestic horses and asses.
The Romans called the
zebra hippo tigris, meaning
"horse tiger." They often
used the animal in circuses.
The kiang, a subspecies of
the Asiatic ass, is found only at
elevations of 13,000 to 18,000
feet. Its dung is gathered by
local people for use as fuel.
The mountain zebra and
Przewalski's horse will dig for
water in dry riverbeds.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
The plains zebra makes at
least six different sounds to
express moods or to commu-
nicate with others.
Horses engage in mutual
grooming. They stand beside
one another and nibble at the
neck or the base of the tail.
0160200581 PACKET 58
In addition to zebras and asses, the horse family includes
more than 200 breeds of domestic horse. The different
breeds of domestic horse vary greatly in appearance. But
they are all believed to be descended from Przewalski's
horse-the only truly wild horse in the world today.
EVOLUTION
The separate species of the horse
family, Equidae, originated 65
million years ago with an animal
the size of a fox. It took another
50 million years for today's spe-
cies to emerge.
The earliest horse was Hyraco-
therium. It had splayed toes that
kept it from sinking into mud. Its
teeth were adapted for eating
tender leaves. Over many mil-
lions of years, members of the
horse family evolved into ani-
mals with longer necks and legs.
One functional toe in each foot
carried the body weight. The
teeth were adapted for grinding.
The horse family's ancestors
evolved in North America and
did not appear in Africa and Eur-
asia until two million years ago.
The ancestors of the domestic
horse became extinct in North
America 8,000 years ago, but
the animal was reintroduced by
the Spanish conquistadors.

All horse species are herd ani-
mals. Most herds consist of one
stallion and a few mares, plus
the offspring from one or two
years. The mares and foals stay
together even if another stal-
lion takes over the herd.
FOOD & FEEDING
All members of the horse fami-
ly feed on plant matter. They
usually graze on grass rather
than leaves. Individual species
may also eat herbs, buds, fruit,
bulbs, and roots.
Since they depend on grass,
horse species are rarely found
in heavily forested areas. Some
live in semidesert, surviving
on sparse grass. These animals
need to drink only every three
or four days. Those that live in
1. Asiatic ass, Equus hemionus:
Height: 4 to feet. Very rare. Sev-
eral subspecies occur in isolated sites
across Asia, each occupying widely
varying habitats.
2. Mountain zebra, Equus zebra:
Height: About 4 feet. Has a dewlap
(skin flap) on the neck not found on
other zebras. The two subspecies,
Cape and Hartmann's, are thinly
spread over the southern tip of
Africa. Both are very rare.
3. Plains zebra,
Equus burchelli:
Height: 4 to feet.
Southern plains zebras
have a yellowish coat
under the black stripes.
Widespread over sa-
vanna in eastern and
southwestern Africa.
Front cover: przewalski's horse has
been successfully bred in captivity.
Front insets: The Somali wild ass
(left) and Cape's mountain zebra
(right) are two of the world's rarer
horse species.
5
Daily life centers around find-
ing a place to graze. It is often
the senior mare who leads the
search for food, with the stal-
lion guarding the flank or the
rear. He usually feeds first and
then protects the herd.
areas with lusher grass seem to
need water every 36 hours.
Members of the horse family
forage for 60 to 80 percent
of the day, grazing mainly at
dawn and dusk. They gather
food with their large mobile
lips. Unlike cows and sheep,
which also eat plants, horses
do not chew the cud. Instead,
their intestines have special
fermentation chambers for di-
gesting fibrous food.
5. Grevy's zebra, Equus grevyi:
Height: to 5 feet. Narrow stripes.
Distributed across a pocket of eastern
Africa. Very rare, numbering about
7,000 individuals in highly varied and
complex social groups. Travels widely
in search of water.

Members of the horse family
breed in the spring, when the
mares become sexually recep-
tive. The mares are receptive at
monthly intervals until the end
of summer unless they mate
successfully. In most species,
courtship is unaggressive. The
stallion follows a mare and may
groom her before mating. It is
only among asses that courting
is violent. A stallion must bite,
kick, and chase a mare to stim-
ulate her to mate.
Gestation varies among spe-
cies from 11 to 1 3 months. Only
rarely is there more than one
young. The well-developed foal
is soon on its feet because it
must follow the herd. Zebras
may stand within15 minutes
of birth.
4. African ass, Equus asinus: Height:
4 to feet. Sandy coat aids camou-
flage. Very rare. Of the three subspe-
cies, one is extinct. The other two, the
Nubian and Somali wild asses, num-
ber fewer than 4,000.
6. Domestic horse, Equus cabal/us:
Probably descended from Przewalski 's
horse, it was domesticated by man at
least 5,000 years ago. The special rela-
tionship between humans and the do-
mestic horse is worldwide. Modern
breeds vary greatly in appearance.
Mares appear to recognize
their foals by smell. In the first
week after birth, a foal suckles
about four times an hour. It
begins to graze in a few weeks
but continues to suckle for up
to a year.
Young mares often leave the
herd when they first become
sexually receptive-at a little
over a year old. They usually
join another herd but are un-
likely to mate successfully for
at least another year. Young
males one to three years old
usually form bachelor herds
until they become mature
enough to form their own
harem of mares.
Horse species can crossbreed
with one another, but the off-
spring are not usually fertile.
6