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use of TF in control to model system, differential equations system performance in time domain and frequency domain system identification, given system response, open loop closed loop control linear non-linear system Transfer function: represent the input-output relationship for a component; stan dard form -> characteristics of system s-domain: Using Laplace operator, 's', can help in manipulation of LDEs. Using L aplace transforms, LDEs are converted to simple algebric equations where we trea t 's' as a variable and the equation holds, makes life easier compared to dealin g with DEs time domain -> Laplace operator -> s-domain frequency domain? controller design steps: system modeling linear differential equation -> transfer function s-domain ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Time Response how the system (closed loop) behaves to a specific input with respect to time time response first order system inputs: step, ramp, pulse Response final value theorem time response second order system behavior defined by damping ratio and natural frequency zeta = 1 critical damping, no overshoot second order system can represent higher order systems performance criteria: rise time, peak time and amplitude, settling time steady state errors final value theorem, error signal --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Frequency Response system's steady state response to a sinusoidal input Range of frequencies used sinusoidal applied to Linear system output will be sinusoidal output amplitude proportional to input amplitude harmonic input produces harmonic output at same frequency Frequency Response Analysis We can identify system stability in the closed loop by studying the open loop fr equency response plot Determine Frequency Response from Open Loop Transfer Function Euler's theorem for sinusoid -> derivative derivation -> Replace s in Transfer F unction with jw Move from s-domain to frequency domain TF

substitute s=jw multiply by complex conjugate and separate real and imaginary parts with the separate parts we can find Amplitude Ratio and Phase From complex number theory Amplitude of a complex number: AR = (Re^2+Im^2)^0.5 Phase angle of a complex number: phi = arctan(Im/Re) Use AR and PA to generate table of results Use Nyquist Diagram and Bode Plot to represent these results Variation in Amplitude and Phase function of frequency Amplitude Ratio amplitude of output over amplitude of input Phase Phi phase shift angle (in degrees?) if output follows input LAG -> negative System Analysis Bode Plot Representation of amplitude ratio phase two logarithmic plots: Amplitude ratio vs. frequency, Phase angle vs. frequency Amplitude Ratio measured in dB to convert to dB for logarithmic scale: AR(dB)=20log(AR) Constructing Bode plots Sections of TF can be represented as straight lines = asymptotic approximations Break down TF into constituent parts: Gain -> K; Differentiator -> s; Integrator -> 1/s; first order lead/lag -> 1+ts // 1/(1+ts); second order lead/lag -> (s^2)/(wn^2) + (2Z/wn)s + 1 // 1/((s^2)/(wn^2) + (2Z/wn)s + 1) Each part of TF has certain type of frequency response Either do the math of log for AR and arctan for phase angle or simply use tables and charts. Nyquist Representation of amplitude ratio and phase Polar plot on Argand diagram of Open Loop frequency locus System Identification Use Bode plot and Nyquist plot to identify TF fit asymptotic approximations to bode plot clues: slope, change of slope, cross over frequency, gap, approximations must pass through higest and lowest frequency remember to convert from dB to normal units when getting gain K Stability Analysis Bode Plot measure how close OL system gets to '-1' point Gain margin the additional gain required to make the system just unstable Phase margin the additional phase lag required to make the system just unstable Positive values indicate stability, negative values are unstable Nyquist do not use dB here. PM is angle at which intersection of unit circle with Nyquist plot occurs. If (-1,j0) is to the left of Nyquist all is well GM = 1/AR at -180 degrees --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------Modifying Behavior looking at frequency response, we can use OL response to predict CL response and then use OL response to produce appropriate control strategies for CL behavi or modify gain and phase margin by introducing additonal element in either foward o r feedback path introducing a variable gain in forward path allows us to change the margins to g ive a response that more closely meets design requirements controllers in frequency domain, placed in forward path more sophisticated than using gain alone Lead Compensator (1+(s/a))/(1+(s/(alpha)a)) Lag Compensator (1+(s/(beta)b))/(1+(s/b)) Lead/Lag Compensator ((1+(s/a))/(1+(s/(alpha)a))) * ((1+(s/(beta)b))/(1+(s/b))) Lag/Lead Compensator Lead compensator is 1st order lead times 1st order lag, where crossover frequenc y of lead is lower than for lag Lead compensator effect increases amplitude for the range of frequency between a and (alpha)(a) where alpha is larger than 1 then stops the effect after the (alpha)*(a) frequency Phase gets a bump Lag compensator is 1st order lag times 1st order lead, where crossover frequency of lag is lower than for lead Lead compensator effect decreases amplitude for the range of frequency between b and (beta)(b) where beta is larger than 1 then stops the effect after the (beta)*(b) frequency Phase gets a negative bump Looking at time response, if we simply decrease gain to decrease any overshoot, we will slow down response of system improvement in gain and phase margin is a good thing a simple gain will move the amplitude plot up and down --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------s-plane time domain what determines the performance of a system and how is it reflected in the TF first order TF example 1/(1+ts) second order example wn/(wn)(zeta)(s)etc. time constant/natural frequency/zeta/dynamic performance -> t, pole = -1/t pole makes denominator zero if there is a 's' in the numerator, value of 's' that makes numerator zero is ca lled 'zero' pole and zero positions can be portrayed on s-plane. pole positions are related to behavior for second order systems if zeta < 1, there will be complex conjugate pairs, zeta > 1 two distinct roots, when zeta = 1, there will be repeated real roots For a complex pole, the real vaule corresponds to rate of decay, the imaginary p art corresponds to frequency of oscilation wn wd damped frequency, actual frequency of oscillation is imaginary part unless with no damping, the imaginary part is wn When you have more that one pole, the one that is closest to the imaginary axis

is the most dominant ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------root locus how does changing a variable in the transfer function change the pole positions open loop: adding gain does nothing to pole position closed loop: feedback loop will incorporate gain into denominator, and affect po le position Pole position depends on gain value note: standard form, gain multipling usual component, of TF will yield valuable insight into system behavior Root Locus: the paths drawn by the poles on the s-plane as the variable K is alt ered between zero and infinity mark Open Loop poles and Zeros, but Root locus plot is of closed loop pole paths we can impose design requirements and hence establish the value of K to give us the desired performance we can establish which parts of a complex TF are dominant in terms of overall be havior Loci start at Open Loop Poles and all finish either at an Open Loop Zero, or at Infinity Mark Open Loop Poles and Zeros Determine Characteristic equation Evan's Rules 1. Number of Loci is equal to order of characteristic equation 2. Each locus starts at an Open Loop pole and finishes at an Open Loop zero or a t infinity 3. Loci either run along the real axis or occur as complex conjugate pairs 4. A point on the real axis is part of a locus if the number of poles and zeros to the right of that point is ODD. 5. Away from the Open Loop poles and zeros, the loci become asymptotic to lines making angles alpha(n) to the real axis where alpha(n)= (+/-)(n(pi))/(P-Z) where n=1,3,5,7...etc 6. The asymptote intersects the real axis at a point given by S = (sum(poles)-su m(zeros))/(P-Z) 7. The break away (or break in) point between two points on the real axis is the point at which the variable of interest (K) is at a maximum (minimum) along the real axis. This can be found by two methods: graphically, or analytically by differentiation loci break away at 90 degrees 8. 9. The crossing point of the Imaginary axis is given by Routh's Criteriion using characteristic equation Can find K constrained by stability (min max) Auxiliary Equation, solve for s after substituting K What Value of K? for a point on root locus to find K measure the size of vectors from every Open Loop pole to that point, and multip ly togetehr then measure the size of the vector from every Open Loop zero to that point and divide by them. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Controller's: PID control Proportional gain changes speed of response Integrator can get rid of steady state error differential gain affects rates of change however PID introduces zeros, alternatively I-PD controller introduces no zeros Controller's can change pole position Design requirements -> pole position